PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF
INTRODUCTION knowledge. Rationalism explains self from
Philosophy It will open the door to study
beings or anything about beings. Is often
called the mother of all disciplines simply
because all fields of the study began as
philosophical discourses. Philosophy
employs the inquisitive mind to discover the
ultimate causes, reasons, and principles of
everything. It goes beyond scientific
investigation by exploring all areas of
knowledge such as religion, psychology,
politics, physics, and even medicine. Hence,
the etymological definition of philosophy as
"love of wisdom" could pertain to the desire
for truth by formulating never-ending
questions to provide answers to every inquiry
about the nature of human existence. The
nature of the self is a topic of interest among
philosophers. Different philosophers
introduced specific characteristics and
meanings of the self, which, overtime,
transformed from pure abstractions to
explanations that hold scientific proofs. This
module presents an overview of the
philosophical perspective of the self to give a
wider viewpoint in understanding the self.
The different views of prominent
philosophers regarding the nature of the self
will be discussed.
Lesson 1: Empiricism and
Rationalism
The philosophy of the self has been
defined through two distinct approaches:
Empiricism and Rationalism. In
Empiricism, there is no such thing as innate
knowledge; instead, knowledge is derived
from experience ― either perceived with the
five sensory processed with the brain. One
knows things because he or she has
experienced it through sensory and bodily
experiences. On the other hand, rationalism
argues that there is innate knowledge;
however, there are different sources of innate
the standpoint of what is “ideal” and “true”,
and not rooted in what is felt by the senses or
body. Conclusions are derived through logic
and reasoning. Some philosophers applied
empirical views of the self; others used the
rational approach.
Lesson 2: The Philosophical
perspective of understanding the self
Prominent philosophers have different
views regarding the nature of the self. The
ancient philosophers explained the self from
their conceptual understanding of the world
since scientific evidence was hard to obtain
due to lack of measures. Meanwhile,
contemporary philosophers have
incorporated science to their theories in the
light of the technological advancements they
have been exposed to.
• SOCRATES
One’s true self is not identical with what
we own, with one social status, one
reputation, or even with our body. But our
true self is our soul.
SOCRATES was a Greek philosopher
who believed that philosophy had a very
important role to play in the lives of
the people. One of his most quoted
phrases is, “The unexamined life is not
worth living”. According to Socrates, self-
knowledge or the examination of one’s self,
as well as the question about how one ought
to live one’s life, are very important concerns
because only by knowing your self can you
hope to improve your life. Socrates suggested
that the self consists of two dichotomous
realms: physical and ideal realms. The
physical (body) realm is changeable,
transient, and imperfect. The ideal (soul)
realm is unchanging, eternal, and immortal.
The physical world in which we live belongs
to the physical realm. For Socrates, our body
belongs to the physical realm while the soul
belongs to the ideal realm. Socrates explains
that the essence of the self ― the soul ― is
the immortal entity. The soul strives for
wisdom and perfection, and reason is the
soul’s tool to achieve this dignified state.
Socrates suggests that man must live an
examined life and a life of purpose and value.
The individual person can have a meaningful
and happy life only if he becomes virtuous
and knows the value of himself that can be
achieved through incessant soul-searching.
Self-knowledge is the ultimate virtue.
• PLATO
The true self of human being is the reason
or the intellect that constitutes their soul and
that is separable from their body.
PLATO was the student of Socrates who
also believed that the self is synonymous with
the soul. Plato elaborated the concept of the
soul; specifically, he introduced the idea of a
three-part soul: reason, physical appetite and
spirit or passion. Plato supported the idea that
man is composed of a body and a soul.
SOUL – World of forms – is the true self, the
permanents and unchanging reality.
BODY – World of forms – Keeps on
changing. It is what we see around and this is
where we live – It is just a replica of the real
world found in the world of forms (means is
not the real self but only a replica of true self).
o Reason is the divine essence that enables
us to think deeply, make wise choice sand
achieve a true understanding of eternal
truths. (RATIONAL SOUL)
o Physical appetite includes our basic
biological needs such as hunger, thirst
and sexual desires. (APPETITIVE
SOUL).
o Spirit or passion includes basic emotions
such as love, anger, empathy. (SPIRITED
SOUL).
These three elements are in a dynamic
relationship with one another, sometimes in
conflict. When conflict occurs, Plato believes
it is the responsibility of our reason to sort
things out and exert control, restoring
harmonious relationships among the
three elements. Further, Plato believed that
genuine happiness can only be achieved by
people who consistently make sure that their
Reason is in control of their Spirit and
Appetite. (If the 3 components of the soul
attained it ideal state, The HUMAN
PERSON becomes JUST and VIRTOUS).
• ST. AUGUSTINE
AUGUSTINE agreed that man is divided
(BIFURCATED) nature.
BODY – Is bound to die on earth
SOUL – Is to anticipate living eternally in a
realm of spirited bliss in communion with
God.
African philosopher AUGUSTINE is
regarded as a saint in the Catholic Church. As
religious philosopher, he contemplated on the
nature of man with an emphasis on the soul
as an important element of man. He believed
that the soul is what governs and defines the
human person. Augustine described that
humankind is created in the image and
likeness of God, everything created by God
who is all good is good. Therefore, the human
person being a creation of God is always
geared towards the good. Augustine was
convinced that the self is known only through
knowing God. For Augustine, “knowledge
can only come by seeing the truth that dwells
within us.” The truth that which Augustine
spoke refers to the truth of knowing God.
God is transcendent and that the self seeks to
be united with God through faith and reason.
Our real world is found in the world where
there is permanence and infinity – that’s the
world where God is.
Our world (world of materials) is not our
final home but just a temporary home where
we are just passing through.
• REŃE DESCARTES
French philosopher DESCARTES is the
Father of Modern Philosophy. He brought
an entirely new perspective to philosophy
and the self. The Latin phrase “Cogito ergo
sum” “I think therefore I am” is the
keystone of Descartes’ concept of self. For
him, the act of thinking about the self ― of
being self-conscious ― is in itself proof that
there is a self. It was then that he developed
his theory of knowledge because he is
confident that no rational person will doubt
his or her own existence as a conscious,
thinking entity -while we are aware of
thinking about ourselves. For DESCARTES,
this is the essence of the human self- a
thinking entity that doubts, understands,
analyzes, questions, and reasons.
The self is defined as a subject that thinks.
The self that has full competence in the
powers of human reason.
The self can only find it’s truth and
authenticity capacity to think.
• JOHN LOCKE
For LOCKE, the human mind at birth is
tabula rasa or blank slate. The self or personal
identity is constructed primarily from sense
experience ― specifically, what people see,
hear, smell, taste, and feel. These experiences
shape and mold the self throughout a person’s
life. For LOCKE, conscious awareness and
memory of previous experiences are the keys
to understanding the self.
Personal Identity is a matter of
psychological continuity.
Personal Identity is founded
consciousness.
Posits an empty mind, a tabula rasa which
is shaped by experiences, and sensation.
Our concept of personal identity must
derive from inner experience.
• IMMANUEL KANT
For German philosopher KANT, it is the
self that makes experiencing an
understandable world possible because it is
the self that is actively organizing all our
thoughts and perceptions. In other words, the
self-constructs its own reality, actively
creating a world that is familiar, predictable,
and most significantly, mine. The self is the
product of reason, a regulative principle,
because the self regulates experience by
making unified experiences possible. The self
transcends experience because the mind can
grasp aspects of reality which is not limited
to the senses.
We all have an inner and outer self which
together forms our consciousness.
• GILBERT RYLE
British philosopher RYLE, believed that
the self is best understood as a pattern of
behavior, the tendency for a person to behave
in a certain way in certain circumstances.
RYLE’S concept of the human self thus
provided the philosophical principle, “I act
therefore I am”. Ryle considers the mind and
body intrinsically linked in complex and
intimate ways. In short, the self is the same as
bodily behavior. Ryle is convinced that the
mind expresses the entire system of thoughts,
emotions, and actions that make up the
human self.
SOUL – How we behave.
- The behavior that a person manifests in
his day – to – day life.
• PAUL CHURCHLAND
American philosopher CHURCHLAND
advocated the idea of eliminative materialism
or the idea that the self is inseparable from the
brain and the physiology of the body. All a
person has is the brain and so, if the brain is
gone, there is no self. For Churchland, the
physical brain and not the imaginary mind,
gives people the sense of self. The self is the
brain.
- His view in mind and brain are identical.
• DAVID HUME
A Scottish philosopher, has a very unique
way of looking at man. As an empiricist who
believes that one can know only what comes
from the senses and experiences, HUME
argues that the self is nothing like what his
predecessors thought of it. The self is not an
entity over and beyond the physical body One
can rightly see here the empiricism that runs
through his veins. Empiricism is the school of
thought that espouses the idea that
knowledge can only be possible if it is sensed
and experienced. Men, can only attain
knowledge by experiencing.
HUME, the self is nothing else but a
bundle of impressions. What are
impressions? For HUME, if one tries to
examine his experiences, he finds that they
can all be categorized into two: impressions
and ideas Impressions are, The basic objects
of our experience or sensation. They
therefore form the core of our thoughts.
Impressions therefore are vivid because they
are products of our direct experience with the
world. Ideas, on the other hand, are copies of
impressions. Because of this, they are not as
lively and vivid as our impressions. When
one imagines the feeling of being in love for
the first time, that still is an idea.
What is the self then? Self, according to
HUME, is simply "a bundle or collection of
different perceptions, which succeed each
other with an inconceivable rapidity, and are
in a perpetual flux and movement." Men
simply want to believe that there is a unified,
coherent self, a soul or mind just like what the
previous philosophers thought. In reality,
what one thinks is a unified self is simply a
combination of all experiences with a
particular person.
• MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY
MERLEAU-PONTY is a essence. To Aquinas, just as in Aristotle, the
phenomenologist who asserts that the mind-
body bifurcation that has been going on for a
long time is a futile endeavor and an invalid
problem. Unlike RYLE who simply denies
the "self," MERLEAU-PONTY instead says
that the mind and body are so intertwined that
they cannot be separated from one another.
One cannot find any experience that is not an
embodied experience. All experience is
embodied. One's body is his opening toward
his existence to the world. Because of these
bodies, men are in the world. MERLEAU-
PONTY dismisses the Cartesian Dualism
that has spelled so much devastation in the
history of man. For him, the Cartesian
problem is nothing else but plain
misunderstanding. The living body, his
thoughts, emotions, and experiences are all
one.
He asserted that body is part of the mind
and mind is the part of the body, Therefore,
an embodied subjectivity.
The SELF is embodied subjectivity.
• THOMAS AQUINAS
The most eminent thirteenth century
scholar and stalwart of the medieval
philosophy, appended something to this
Christian view. Adapting some ideas from
Aristotle, Aquinas said that indeed, man is
composed of two parts: matter and form.
Matter, or hyle in Greek, refers to the
"common stuff that makes up everything in
the universe." Man's body is part of this
matter. Form on the other hand, or morphe in
Greek refers to the "essence of a substance
or thing." It is what makes it what it is. In the
case of the human person, the body of the
human person is something that he shares
even with animals. The cells in man's body
are more or less akin to the cells of any other
living, organic being in the world. However,
what makes a human person a human person
and not a dog, or a tiger. is his soul, his
soul is what animates the body; it is what
makes us humans.