1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Infant formula, though it’s usually made from maize and legume blends, and usually costly

are not affordable to the common Nigerians. They are of high technology, involving heavy

duty machines of high cost. The raw materials mainly used; maize, soybean and sweet

potatoes are readily available in Nigeria and could be used to produce low cost infant formula

using a low cost extruder. Also, orange sweet potatoes which is highly rich in beta carotene is

readily available in Nigeria and could be used alongside with the yellow maize and soybean

to produce high nutrient dense infant formula, rich in beta carotene, protein, most vitamins

and minerals. These will benefit the common Nigerians.

Introduction of adequate and appropriate infant foods at six months plays a crucial role in the

child’s physical and cognitive development (Krebs, 2014). These meals are anticipated to be

high in energy density, include all essential nutrients and retain palatability (Abeshu et al.,

2016). Yet, several circumstances, like the high prevalence of malnutrition in newborns and

young children in Nigeria and the exorbitant price of fortified nutritious commercial infant

foods like Cerelac, have prompted advocacy for its production with local staples

(Okwunodulu et al., 2020).

Maize provides carbohydrate, micronutrients and antioxidants. It is poor in lysine and

tryptophan but rich in methionine and cysteine (Revilla et al., 2022). The B-complex

vitamins in maize are good for the heart, brain and proper digestion as well as being believed

to improve the joint motility (Shah et al., 2016). Maize is largely used as raw material for

industrial products (Olaniyan, 2015).

Soybean seeds encompasses considerable number of bioactive compounds like globulin

proteins, antioxidants, isoflavones, phytosterols and phyto-estrogen that are of immense

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benefit to human health (Shahnai et al., 2020). It is a source of high-quality protein and

healthful fat, in addition to possess the potential to play a role in chronic disease prevention

and treatment (Kamble et al., 2021). Because of the high fat content in soybean, it can readily

contribute to meeting requirements for essential fatty acids and calorie (Abdelghany et al.,

2020).

Sweet potato is an extremely versatile and nutritious crop (Parle and Monika. 2015). It is a

food security crop that can serve as a very good vehicle for addressing some healthrelated

problems (Oke and Workneh, 2013). It is a source of carbohydrates, carotenes, thiamine,

riboflavin, niacin, potassium, zinc, calcium, iron, and vitamin C (Oke and Workneh, 2013).

Sweet potato possesses anti-oxidant and immunomodulatory activities (Parle and Monika,

2015).

Extrusion is a high-temperature, short-time process employed for the development of a

variety of food products (Pathak and Kochhar, 2018). It brings about the inactivation of

enzymes, the lowering of microorganisms and deactivation of naturally occurring toxic

substances (Khanna et al., 2019).

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Commercial infant formulas are highly costly and not affordable for common Nigerians.

Most may need complementation from other food ingredients to supply adequate nutrient to

the infants.

Hence the reason for producing infant formula using a low cost extruder from readily

available maize, soybean and sweet potatoes to benefit ordinary Nigerians at low cost.

1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

Given the high cost of commercially available infant foods in developing countries such as

Nigeria, this recipe will combine nutritional differences of maize, soybean and

orange sweet potato to produce high nutrient dense Infant formula at low cost to
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benefit ordinary Nigerians. These foods will offer nutrients to newborns and young

children when breast milk is no longer sufficient to fulfill their nutritional demands.

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main objective of this work is to develop and evaluate infant formulas from powdered

maize, soybean and sweet potato blends using low cost extruder.

The specific objectives are to:

i. produce maize, soybean and sweet potato flours.

ii. formulate infant formula and use them blend

iii. determine functional properties of the infant formula.

iv. determine proximate composition of the infant formula.

v. evaluate vitamins and beta carotene composition of the infant formula.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Infant Formula

Infant formula, baby formula, or simply formula (American English); or baby milk or infant

milk (British English), is a manufactured food designed and marketed for feeding to babies

and infants under 12 months of age, usually prepared for bottle-feeding or cup-feeding from

powder (mixed with water) or liquid (with or without additional water). The U.S. Federal

Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) defines infant formula as "a food which purports to

be or is represented for special dietary use solely as a food for infants by reason of its

simulation of human milk or its suitability as a complete or partial substitute for human

milk".

Manufacturers state that the composition of infant formula is designed to be roughly based on

a human mother's milk at approximately one to three months postpartum; however, there are

significant differences in the nutrient content of these products. The most commonly used

infant formulas contain purified cow's milk whey and casein as a protein source, a blend of

vegetable oils as a fat source, lactose as a carbohydrate source, a vitamin-mineral mix, and

other ingredients depending on the manufacturer. In addition, there are infant formulas using

soybean as a protein source in place of cow's milk (mostly in the United States and Great

Britain) and formulas using protein hydrolysed into its component amino acids for infants

who are allergic to other proteins. An upswing in breastfeeding in many countries has been

accompanied by a deferment in the average age of introduction of baby foods (including

cow's milk), resulting in both increased breastfeeding and increased use of infant formula

between the ages of 3- and 12-months.

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A 2001 World Health Organization (WHO) report found that infant formula prepared in

accordance with applicable Codex Alimentarius standards was a safe complementary food

and a suitable breast milk substitute (Abeshu, Lelisa & Geleta, 2016).

In 2003, the WHO and UNICEF published their Global Strategy for Infant and Young Child

Feeding, which restated that "processed-food products for...young children should, when sold

or otherwise distributed, meet applicable standards recommended by the Codex Alimentarius

Commission", and also warned that "lack of breastfeeding and especially lack of exclusive

breastfeeding during the first half-year of life are important risk factors for infant and

childhood morbidity and mortality".

In particular, the use of infant formula in less economically developed countries is linked to

poorer health outcomes because of the prevalence of unsanitary preparation conditions,

including lack of clean water and lack of sanitizing equipment.

A formula-fed child living in unclean conditions is between 6 and 25 times more likely to die

of diarrhea and four times more likely to die of pneumonia than a breastfed child. Rarely, use

of powdered infant formula (PIF) has been associated with serious illness, and even death,

due to infection with Cronobacter sakazakii and other microorganisms that can be introduced

to PIF during its production. Although C. sakazakii can cause illness in all age groups, infants

are believed to be at greatest risk of infection. Between 1958 and 2006, there have been

several dozen reported cases of C. sakazakii infection worldwide. The WHO believes that

such infections are under-reported (Amagloh & Coad, 2014).

2.2 Nutrition Regulation of Formula

In 1980 Congress passed the Infant Formula Act, which established nutrient requirements for

all infant formulas. Formulas can vary somewhat in the amount and type of a particular

nutrient, but all must meet the basic requirements.

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Standards for infant formulas are developed by the American Academy of Pediatrics

Committee on Nutrition and are used by the Food and Drug Administration to develop infant

formula regulations. According to federal regulations, all WIC contract formulas must

contain at least 10 mg of iron per liter and 20 kilocalories per ounce (Amagloh & Coad,

2014).

2.2.1 Standard Contract Formulas

Federal WIC regulations require that State WIC Programs maintain a contract with a formula

company to provide a specific brand of a standard infant formula. These are called standard

contract formulas and can be milk-based or soy-based. The current milk-based formula

contract for Minnesota WIC is with Mead Johnson and the soy-based formula contract is with

Abbott Nutrition (Amagloh & Coad, 2014).

2.2.2 Alternate Contract Formulas

Under the current WIC formula contract, additional standard contract formulas are available

as well.

The Formula Aisle

Next time you are grocery shopping, take a detour and visit the formula aisle. While there,

imagine you are a new mom, trying to choose the correct WIC formula. Not only does she

need to choose the correct

Standard Infant Formula brand and type of formula, but she will need to choose the correct

size as well. This can be very confusing.

Size Matters

Size of container matters. Remind WIC participants to look at the ounces listed on their WIC

benefits because this is the only size of container that they can get. Formula containers with

“bonus” ounces are not allowed.

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Participants may want to buy the larger container of the formula, because it’s cheaper per

ounce, and they think they will save WIC money. This is not allowed. Sometimes moms will

come from the hospital with prefilled bottles of standard ready-to-feed formula or powder

formula packets. These are also not allowed. Make sure to carefully go over this information

with the participant when formula is issued (Amagloh & Coad, 2014).

Enfamil Variations

Enfamil makes powdered Organic and NeuroPro products that are not allowed. This study

will talk more about these particular formulas later in the module.

Non-Contract Formula

Non-contract formula refers to standard formulas manufactured by other companies for

which Minnesota WIC does not have a contract. Each state contracts with a different formula

manufacturer based on a bidding process. Infants transferring from another state may be

receiving a different formula brand. However, in Minnesota, we are only able to provide the

Enfamil brand of milk-based standard formula manufactured by Mead Johnson and the

Similac soy-based formula, Isomil, manufactured by Abbott Nutrition. There are no

exceptions that allow Minnesota WIC to provide non-contract standard formulas.

Beyond large manufacturers, there are several store brand formulas that are usually less

expensive and are made with the same FDA standards. Minnesota WIC is also not able to

provide these. Store brand formulas can be an alternative for participants when additional

formula must be purchased (Amagloh & Coad, 2014).

This module will give you the basics about the different kinds of standard formula. Infants

with a diagnosed medical condition can receive a medical formula with medical

documentation from their Health Care Provider; you can find more information about this in

the Medical Formula module.

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2.2.3 Transitioning to a New Standard Formula

Most infants grow appropriately with a standard milk-based formula. If a caregiver is

currently giving or requesting a non-contract standard formula, reassure the caregiver that all

standard formulas are nutritionally equivalent. Although all formulas must meet the

requirements of the Infant Formula Act, the composition of both branded and store brand

formulas may differ slightly in both source and quantity of nutrients within allowed ranges.

Most infants can transition from one formula to another without any problem. However,

sometimes older infants may notice the taste difference. Also, parents may be anxious about

changing to a different formula. In these cases, a gradual transition may help with both infant

and parent acceptance.

Instruct caregivers to mix three parts current formula and one part new formula together for

about two days, then mix equal parts of current and new formula for two days or until the

supply of current formula is exhausted, then provide only the new formula. This transition

schedule can be accomplished with less than a can of the current formula.

If the caregiver refuses to accept the contract formulas, encourage them to address any

concerns with the infant’s Health Care Provider. Provide nutrition education and issue infant

foods if appropriate (Amagloh, et. al., 2012).

2.2.4 Macronutrients in Infant Formula

Let’s explore the macronutrients in infant formulas. Understanding the major nutrients in

infant formulas can help WIC staff understand the possible cause of an adverse reaction to a

formula and can guide the decision process in determining a formula that may resolve mild

intolerances.

Although all formulas meet the same nutrition regulations, formulas differ in the type of

carbohydrate, protein, and fat they contain and can vary in composition depending on

whether they are powdered, concentrate, or ready-to-use (Amagloh, et. al., 2012).
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Assessing Infant Spit Up

Again, exploring with parents about feeding is very important if a parent perceives their baby

“spits up all the time.” Asking parents to describe what the spit up is like, including the

amount and frequency, can help determine whether the spit up is normal or not. How is the

formula prepared and stored? Are they holding the baby in a semi-upright position when

feeding and following the Paced Feeding method? How long is the feed? What happens after

the feed? What are their expectations for their baby’s behavior? These questions can all help

with determining whether a formula switch may be helpful or whether adjustments to the

feeding process may resolve some of the perceived problem (Amagloh, et. al., 2012).

Assure parents that things get easier, and fussy or colicky babies usually outgrow their

symptoms as their gastrointestinal tract matures, usually around three months of age.

Soy-Based Formula

The standard contract soy-based formula for Minnesota is Similac Soy Isomil. The

carbohydrate source of soy formula may be corn maltodextrin, corn syrup solids, or sucrose,

making it lactose free. The protein source is soy protein isolate with certain amino acids

added to improve the quality of the protein. Soy formula is free of cow’s milk proteins.

There are additional nutrient requirements for soy-based formulas because they are plant-

based. These nutrients are biotin, choline, and inositol. Soy Isomil is lactose free and is

completely plant-based, making it appropriate for caregivers who do not want to feed their

infants animal products.

Soy formulas have been used since 1929 for infants. The American Academy of Pediatrics

has issued recommendations for the use of soy formulas in full-term infants in the following

situations:

 For infants with galactosemia and hereditary lactase deficiency

 Documented short-term lactose intolerance from acute gastroenteritis

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 And when a vegan diet is preferred.

Soy formulas may be recommended following episodes of diarrhea with symptoms of

significant lactose intolerance. Generally, after symptoms have subsided, the infant can retry

a lactose-containing formula.

The American Academy of Pediatrics contraindicates the use of soy formulas for conditions

that include prematurity and low birth weight (LBW) infants. Soy-based formulas are not

designed or recommended for preterm infants. Data on the effects of current soy formulas on

bone mineralization in preterm infants is scarce, but there is a significant risk of osteopenia in

premature and LBW infants even with calcium and vitamin D supplementation. Therefore,

the use of soy formulas with premature infants should be avoided.

It is also not recommended for infants with a documented cow’s milk protein allergy because

10 to 14 percent of these infants will also have a soy protein allergy. This includes infants

with documented cow’s milk protein-induced enteropathy or enterocolitis. They should be

provided formula with extensively hydrolyzed protein or an elemental formula. More

information about these formulas is in the Medical (Amagloh, et. al., 2012).

Formula training module.

The routine use of soy-based formula has no proven value in the prevention or management

of infant colic or fussiness. It also has no proven value in the prevention of atopic dermatitis

in healthy or highrisk infants. Soy Isoflavones

Participants and physicians may voice concerns about the use of soy formulas because soy

contains isoflavones, which are naturally occurring plant estrogens or phytoestrogens.

In 2008, the American Academy of Pediatrics stated: “there is no conclusive evidence from

animal, adult human, or infant populations that dietary soy isoflavones may adversely affect

human development, reproduction, or endocrine function.”

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In 2013, the National Toxicology Program of the National Institute of Health’s Institute of

Environmental Health Sciences concluded there was “minimal concern for adverse effects on

development in infants who consume soy infant formula” (Amagloh, et. al., 2012).

If parents inquire about using soy formula, encourage them to talk with their Health Care

Provider about appropriate use.

Nutrients

As new research emerges about the composition and qualities of human milk, formula

manufacturers strive to incorporate these ingredients and qualities into their products and

market this to consumers.

The Infant Formula Act of 1980, amended in 1986, established minimum levels of 29

nutrients and the maximum levels of nine nutrients.

Other nutrients not required by the Infant Formula Act have been added by manufacturers to

various formulas since the 1980s. Clinical studies of safety and possible efficacy are

conducted when the ingredient is added to formula, and the new or modified formula is

reported to the FDA. Some examples of these additions include taurine, nucleotides, DHA,

ARA, prebiotics, and probiotics (Amagloh, et. al., 2012).

2.3 Maize/Corn

Maize/Corn always reminds us of our all-time favorite road-side snack ‘bhutta’ or ‘street

style corn on the cob’ during the rainy season. Corn is commonly known as maize in British

English, and its scientific name is Zea mays. Corn was first found in America by a European

explorer, Christopher Columbus, in 1492. Within the next 100 years, it was introduced to the

rest of the world. Corn is one of the staple food sources in the world along with rice and
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wheat since it can be stored easily. A variety of corn are available like white corn, yellow

corn, white sweet corn, and yellow sweet corn. Additionally, it has gained popularity due to

its multiple health benefits like reducing high blood pressure, managing weight, minimizing

iron deficiency etc. Corn was introduced in India by the Portuguese and is widely grown in

Indian states like Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Jammu and

Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.1 Let us look at some health benefits of corn flour (Bariû,

Panjkota, Krbavýiû & Pedisiû, 2012).

2.3.1 Nutritional Value of Corn Flour:

Corn flour may contain several bioactive compounds like carotenoids, xanthophylls, lignins

and many more. Corn flour may also have the following nutritional components:

Table 1: Nutritional Value of Corn Flour

Nutritional Component Value

Energy 370 kcal
Water 11.2 g
Fats 1.75 g
Proteins 7.11 g
Sugars 1.61 g
Fibre 3.9 g
Carbohydrate 79.4 g
Starch 73.3 g
Magnesium 32 mg
Iron 1.1 mg
Calcium 3 mg
Potassium 142 mg
Phosphorus 99 mg
Vitamin B1 0.14 mg
Vitamin B2 0.05 mg
Vitamin B6 0.182 mg

2.3.2 Properties of Corn Flour:

Corn flour may possess the following properties:

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 It may be an antioxidant.

 It may protect the heart.

 It may reduce blood pressure.

 It may help to manage weight.

 It may lower the bad cholesterol levels (LDL- low density lipoprotein).

 It may have anti-diabetic properties.

 It may relieve diarrhoea.1

 It may protect against esophageal cancer due to its antioxidant properties.3

 It may reduce inflammation (swelling).

 It may prevent any abnormal changes in the DNA cells. 3

 It may help to minimize iron deficiency.4

2.3.3 Potential Uses of Corn Flour for Overall Health

Some of the potential uses of corn flour are:

1. Potential use of corn flour for heart health

Several clinical studies suggest that whole grain-derived products like corn flour may be

beneficial to the heart. A study conducted in 2010 by Tighe et al. stated that consumption of

corn flour may reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases by lowering blood

pressure.5 Another study by Mellen et al. in 2008 suggested that dietary fibres present in corn

flour may lower the risk of heart disease. However, you must consult your doctor if you have

any symptoms of heart disease (Dixit, Antony, Sharma, & Tiwari, 2011).

2. Potential use of corn flour to lower cholesterol levels

Due to dietary fiber, corn flour may help reduce bad cholesterol (LDL- low density

lipoproteins) levels. Holloender et al in 2015 conducted a study stating that corn flour might

lower bad and total cholesterol levels. 7 However, you must check your cholesterol levels and
 14

consult your doctor in case of high cholesterol levels (Dixit, Antony, Sharma, & Tiwari,

2011).

3. Potential use of corn flour for diabetes

Several studies have shown that whole grain-derived products like corn flour may help in the

case of type 2 diabetes. A majority of people with type 2 diabetes may not be able to produce

insulin properly. Dietary magnesium, fibre, and vitamin A may regulate the insulin levels in

the body. Behall et al. conducted a long-term study in 1989 that showed that amylose starch

might help to lower blood glucose levels in the body. 8 However, you must consult your

doctor in the case of high sugar levels (Dixit, Antony, Sharma, & Tiwari, 2011).

4. Potential use of corn flour for weight management

Long-term and short-term studies showed that whole grain-derived products like corn flour

may reduce the risk of obesity. Furthermore, 12 years suggested that a diet high in dietary

fibre intake may help with weight management by increasing lipid oxidation after meals,

thereby decreasing fat accumulation in the body.9 However, you must consult your dietician

before making any changes in your diet (Bariû, Panjkota, Krbavýiû & Pedisiû, 2012).

5. Potential use of corn flour for diarrhoea

Study conducted by Murphy et al. in 2008 showed that whole grain-derived products like

corn flour may help in cases of diarrhoea. This is due to the dietary fibres and starch present

in the corn flour, which enhance fermentation, thereby reducing the symptoms of diarrhea.

However, more research is required to check if corn flour can be beneficial in the case of

diarrhoea. However, you must consult your doctor if you have severe diarrhea (Dixit,

Antony, Sharma, & Tiwari, 2011).

6. Potential use of corn flour to improve digestion

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Daily consumption of starch may enhance digestive health. Starch increases the uptake of

minerals. Most of the starch survives in the digestive tract, bringing more bioactive

compounds to the colon. The dietary fibres present in corn flour further stimulate the activity

and growth of the healthy bacteria found in the colon which improves gut health. 11 However,

more large-scale studies are yet to be done to confirm the effects of corn flour on digestive

health (Dixit, Antony, Sharma, & Tiwari, 2011).

7. Potential use of corn flour for constipation

Corn flour may have a laxative effect, which may be beneficial for constipation. Starch

present in corn flour may increase the water content in the stools. Muir et al. conducted

research that suggested that corn flour may increase the fecal output. However, you must

consult your doctor in the case of severe constipation instead of self-medicating (Bariû,

Panjkota, Krbavýiû & Pedisiû, 2012).

8. Potential use of corn flour in minimizing iron deficiency

Corn flour may help to reduce iron deficiency. When corn flour is fortified by iron, it may be

beneficial to combat iron deficiency. Process of fortifying involves strengthening of a

substance. A study conducted by Miglioranza et al. in 2008 showed that there was a possible

increase in levels of haemoglobin, transferrin (protein that transports iron in the blood) and

ferritin (protein that stores iron). Increase in these may help in case of iron deficiency and

anemia.4 However, further studies are yet to be done to check if corn flour may help in case

of iron deficiency. Therefore, you must consult your doctor instead of self-medicating.

Though some studies show the benefits of corn starch in various conditions, these are

insufficient, and there is a need for further studies to establish the true extent of the benefits

of corn starch on human health (Bariû, Panjkota, Krbavýiû & Pedisiû, 2012).

2.3.4 How to Use Corn Flour

Corn flour can be incorporated into a variety of foods like:

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 It can be added to waffle or pancake batter to make a delicious breakfast.

 Corn flour can be baked into bread, cakes, and muffins.

 Corn flour biscuits and halwa (pudding) are some of the sweet dishes made from corn

flour.

 Corn flour is commonly used to make fritters.

You must consult a qualified doctor before taking any herbal supplements. Likewise, do not

discontinue or replace an ongoing modern medical treatment with an ayurvedic/herbal

preparation without consulting a qualified doctor (Dixit, Antony, Sharma, & Tiwari, 2011).

2.3.5 Side Effects of Corn Flour

Side effects of corn flour may be due to allergies induced by exposure to corn pollen. The

symptoms of the allergy may be as follows:

 You may have sneezing.

 It may cause itchy eyes and nose.

 It may cause coughing.

 It may cause rhinorrhoea (runny nose).

 It may cause urticaria (rash and itching on the skin).

 There may be nasal blockage.13

However, if any side effects are noticed with its use, you must seek medical help

immediately.

2.3.6 Precautions when using corn flour:

Adequate precautions should be taken before consuming corn flour, just like any other

medicine. Pregnant women and lactating mothers should be extra cautious. Likewise, before

giving corn flour to the elderly or children, precautions should be taken. Therefore, it is
 17

suggested to kindly consult a doctor before using corn flour for these individuals

particularly.

2.4 Soybean (Glycine max)

Figure 2: Soybean seed

Soybean is a leguminous vegetable of the pea family that grows in tropical, subtropical, and

temperate climates. Soybean was domesticated in the 11th century BC around northeast of

China. It is believed that it might have been introduced to Africa in the 19th century by

Chinese traders along the east cost of Africa.

Soybeans are a high protein plant food that people can prepare and eat in a variety of ways.

They belong to the pea family. Soybeans come in many colors, including:

Green soybeans: Young green soybeans are also called edamame. People can steam them

and eat them out of the pod as an appetizer. Shelled edamame is also available in salads, stir-

fries, and soups.

Yellow soybeans: Producers typically use yellow soybeans to make soy milk, tofu, tempeh,

and tamari. They also play a role in the production of soy flour for baking.

Black soybeans: Several Asian food cultures use simmered or fermented black soybeans in

traditional dishes.
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Soy milk and cheese are also options for those looking to replace dairy in the diet. Soybeans

also provide soy oil, which people can use for cooking or as an ingredient. After removing

the oil from soybeans, people can use the remaining material to make food for farm animals

and pets.

Some manufacturers make protein powder and isoflavone supplements from soy. Isoflavones

are plant compounds that have a similar structure to estrogen.

Less processed organic soy is the most healthful option. Some examples include:

 cooked soybeans

 edamame

 soy milk

 tofu

 tempeh

 soy nuts

2.4.1 Importance of soybean

It consists of more than 36% protein, 30% carbohydrates, and excellent amounts of dietary

fiber, vitamins, and minerals. It also consists of 20% oil, which makes it the most important

crop for producing edible oil.

Malnutrition, particularly protein deficiency, is prevalent in many parts of Africa as animal

protein is too expensive for most populations. Many leguminous crops provide some protein,

but soybean is the only available crop that provides an inexpensive and high quality source of

protein comparable to meat, poultry and eggs.

A by-product from the oil production (soybean cake) is used as a high-protein animal feed in

many countries. Soybean also improves soil fertility by adding nitrogen from the atmosphere.

This is a major benefit in African farming systems, where soils have become exhausted by
 19

the need to produce more food for increasing populations, and where fertilizers are hardly

available and are expensive for farmers.

2.4.2 Health Benefits of Soybean, Uses and Its Side Effects

Coming from a species of legumes, the Soya bean has numerous health benefits to offer. It is

one of the most consumed foods in the world. It is the most important nutrient required in the

body. Besides offering high-quality protein, it is super rich in saturated fats, antioxidants,

Omega-3 fatty acids, fibre, and phytoestrogens. There are various soy-based products

available in the market and they have gained massive popularity due to high demand amongst

the vegan population. According to health experts, the Soya bean is extremely essential in

maintaining a healthy lifestyle.

Other benefits includes;

a) Help in treating sleeping disorder

b) Managing diabetes

c) Improves blood circulation

d) Essential for pregnancy

e) Have anti-cancerous properties

2.4.3 Nutritional value of the soya bean

Soya bean is super high in protein. It also has a decent amount of fat and carbs that help in

the proper functioning of the body. It is known that, 100 grams of boiled soya bean offer: 9

grams of fat, 16.6 grams of protein 9.9 grams of carbohydrates and 173 calories

Nutritional facts per 100 Grams in Soybeans

Constituents Nutritional facts per 100g

Calories 446mg
Total Fat 20g
Sodium 2mg
Potassium 1,797mg
Total Carbohydrate 30g
Protein 36g
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Vitamins and Minerals in Soybeans

Constituents Nutritional fact per 100g
Calcium 0.27%
Vitamin C 10%
Iron 87%
Vitamin B-6 20%
Magnesium 70%

2.4.5 Uses of Soybean

Soybeans clean, natural taste and nearly imperceptible odor support and enhance the natural

flavours of prepared foods. Soybean's neutral flavour lets the real taste of the food product

come through. Adaptable to nearly every fat or application in the food industry, soybean

works well with other ingredients including other fats and oils, making it very suitable for use

in salad dressings, sauces and baked goods.

Soybean is available with AOM (active oxygen method) stability levels ranging from 15 to

over 300 hours, and it is a proven performer in the wide range of applications required by

snack food manufacturers, bakeries, food service providers and more. Liquid soybean is used

in 100% formulations for cooking oil and to create mayonnaise, salad dressings and sauces.

Soybean can turn two ounces of olive oil into a whole pint of flavoured for dressings. The

distinctive olive oil aroma will be evident, even though the bulk of the dressing's component

comes from inexpensive soybean. Compared to other vegetable oils, soybean has a good

emulsifying ability, making it the first choice of the general food industry.

2.4.6 Side-Effects & Allergies of Soybean

Soybean is safe for most adults when taken by mouth in amounts normally found in food and

when applied to the skin as an insect repellent in recommended amounts. Pharmaceutical

quality soybean is also safe when used as a nutritional supplement in intravenous feedings.
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The processed soybean (unsaponifiable fractions of soybean) has been used safely in research

studies for up to 6 months. However, a few side effects of Soybean include allergies in

persons who are hypersensitive to Soybean and other Soy-products, problems like

gynecomastia, changes in the mood, and obesity which is more pronounced in men due to an

increase in estrogen levels.

Soybean and other Soy-products have a number of minerals and components, which can have

various side effects on the human body, but most of these minerals, are prone to lose their

effects when exposed to heat or cooking.

2.5 Sweet Potatoes (Ipomoea batatas)

The sweet potato or sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas) is a dicotyledonous plant that belongs to

the bindweed or morning glory family, Convolvulaceae. Sweet potatoes are a staple food in
 22

many parts of the world. They are a good source of fiber, potassium, vitamins, and other

essential nutrients.

6 Surprising Health Benefits of Sweet Potatoes

 Promotes gut health

 Anti-cancer properties

 Supports vision

 Enhances brain function

 Supports immunity

Sweet potatoes are nutritious, packing a good amount of vitamin A, vitamin C, and

manganese into each serving. They also have anticancer properties and may promote immune

function and offer other health benefits.

Sweet potatoes are sweet, starchy root vegetables that are grown worldwide (1Trusted

Source).

They come in a variety of sizes and colors including orange, white, and purple and are rich in

vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and fiber.

Not to mention, they provide a number of health benefits and are easy to add to your diet.

Here are 6 surprising health benefits of sweet potatoes.

1. Highly nutritious

Sweet potatoes are a great source of fiber, vitamins, and minerals.

One cup, or 200 grams (g), of baked sweet potato with skin provides (2Trusted Source):

Calories: 180

Carbs: 41 g

Protein: 4 g

Fat: 0.3 g

Fiber: 6.6 g
 23

Vitamin A: 213% of the Daily Value (DV)

Vitamin C: 44% of the DV

Manganese: 43% of the DV

Copper: 36% of the DV

Pantothenic acid: 35% of the DV

Vitamin B6: 34% of the DV

Potassium: 20% of the DV

Niacin: 19% of the DV

In addition, sweet potatoes especially the orange and purple varieties are rich in antioxidants

that protect your body from free radicals (3Trusted Source).

Free radicals are unstable molecules that can damage DNA and trigger inflammation.

Free radical damage has been linked to chronic illnesses like cancer, heart disease, and aging.

Therefore, eating antioxidant-rich foods is good for your health (4Trusted Source).

Sweet potatoes are starchy root vegetables that are rich in fiber, vitamins, and minerals.

They’re also high in antioxidants that protect your body from free radical damage and chronic

disease.

2. Promote gut health

The fiber and antioxidants in sweet potatoes can be beneficial for gut health.

Sweet potatoes contain two types of fiber: soluble and insoluble (5Trusted Source).

Your body cannot digest either type. Therefore, fiber stays within your digestive tract and

provides a variety of gut-related health benefits.

Certain types of soluble fiber known as viscous fibers absorb water and soften your stool. On

the other hand, non-viscous, insoluble fibers don’t absorb water and add bulk (6Trusted

Source).
 24

Some soluble and insoluble fibers can also be fermented by the bacteria in your colon,

creating compounds called short-chain fatty acids that fuel the cells of your intestinal lining

and keep them healthy and strong (7Trusted Source).

Fiber-rich diets containing 20–33 g of fiber per day have been linked to a lower risk of colon

cancer and more regular bowel movements (8Trusted Source, 9Trusted Source, 10Trusted

Source).

The antioxidants in sweet potatoes may provide gut benefits as well.

Test-tube studies have found that antioxidants in purple sweet potatoes promote the growth of

healthy gut bacteria, including certain Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus species (11Trusted

Source, 12Trusted Source).

Greater amounts of these types of bacteria within the intestines are associated with better gut

health and a lower risk of conditions like irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and infectious

diarrhea (13Trusted Source, 14Trusted Source, 15Trusted Source).

Sweet potatoes contain fiber and antioxidants that promote the growth of good gut bacteria

and contribute to a healthy gut.

3. May have cancer-fighting properties

Sweet potatoes offer various antioxidants, which may help protect against certain types of

cancers.

Anthocyanins a group of antioxidants found in purple sweet potatoes have been found to slow

the growth of certain types of cancer cells in test-tube studies, including those of the bladder,

colon, stomach, and breast (16Trusted Source, 17Trusted Source).

 25

Similarly, mice fed diets rich in purple sweet potatoes showed lower rates of early-stage

colon cancer suggesting that the anthocyanins in the potatoes may have a protective effect

(18Trusted Source).

Extracts of sweet potato peels have also been found to have anti-cancer properties in test-tube

and animal studies (19Trusted Source, 20Trusted Source).

However, studies have yet to test these effects in humans.

Animal and test-tube research suggests that the anthocyanins and other antioxidants found in

sweet potatoes may protect against certain cancers. However, human studies are needed.

4. Support healthy vision

Sweet potatoes are incredibly rich in beta carotene, the antioxidant responsible for the

vegetable’s bright orange color.

In fact, one cup (200 g) of baked orange sweet potato with skin provides more than double

the amount of beta carotene that the average adult needs per day (2Trusted Source).

Beta carotene is converted to vitamin A in your body and used to form light-detecting

receptors inside your eyes (21Trusted Source).

Severe vitamin A deficiency is a concern in developing countries and can lead to a special

type of blindness known as xerophthalmia. Eating foods rich in beta carotene, such as orange-

fleshed sweet potatoes, may help prevent this condition (22Trusted Source).

Purple sweet potatoes also seem to have vision benefits.

Test-tube studies have found that the anthocyanins they provide can protect eye cells from

damage, which may be significant to overall eye health (23Trusted Source).

Sweet potatoes are rich in beta carotene and anthocyanins, antioxidants that may help prevent

vision loss and improve eye health.

5. May enhance brain function

Consuming purple sweet potatoes may improve brain function.

 26

One animal study found that the anthocyanins in purple sweet potatoes could help protect the

brain by reducing inflammation and preventing free radical damage (24Trusted Source).

Another study found that supplementing with anthocyanin-rich sweet potato extract could

reduce markers of inflammation and improve spatial working memory in mice, possibly due

to its antioxidant properties (25Trusted Source).

No studies have been done to test these effects in humans, but in general, diets rich in fruits,

vegetables, and antioxidants are associated with a 13% lower risk of mental decline and

dementia (26Trusted Source, 27Trusted Source).

Animal studies have shown that sweet potatoes may improve brain health by reducing

inflammation and preventing mental decline. However, it remains unknown whether they

have the same effects in humans.

6. May support immune system

Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes are one of the richest natural sources of beta carotene, a plant-

based compound that is converted to vitamin A in your body (28Trusted Source).

Vitamin A is critical to a healthy immune system, and low blood levels have been linked to

reduced immunity (29Trusted Source).

It’s also key for maintaining healthy mucous membranes, especially in the lining of your gut.

The gut is where your body is exposed to many potential disease-causing pathogens.

Therefore, a healthy gut is an important part of a healthy immune system.

Studies have shown that vitamin A deficiency increases gut inflammation and reduces the

ability of your immune system to respond properly to potential threats (30Trusted Source).

No studies have been conducted to determine whether sweet potatoes, in particular, have an

effect on immunity, but eating them regularly can help prevent vitamin A deficiency

(31Trusted Source).
 27

Sweet potatoes are an excellent source of beta carotene, which can be converted to vitamin A

and help support your immune system and gut health.

CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 SOURCES OF RAW MATERIALS

 28

Soybean seeds, yellow maize grains and orange sweet potatoes will be purchased from Ndoru

Market, Umuahia. Reagents to be used for analyses will be obtained from a certified Chemist

in Umuahia, Abia State.

3.2 SAMPLE PREPARATION

3.2.1 Processing of maize flour

Maize grains

Sorting

Washing (with tap water)

Draining

Soaking (Overnight)

Draining

Oven drying

Milling

Sieving (mm mesh to size)

Maize flour

Packaging

Figure 2.1: Processing of maize flour

3.2.2 Processing of soybean flour

Soybean seeds

Sorting

Washing (with water)

Steeping (overnight)

Draining

Boiling (30 minutes)

Cooling

Dehulling (repeatedly, manually)

Washing

Draining

Oven Drying 60 º

Milling

Sieving (2 mm mesh size)

Soybean flour

Packaging

Figure 2.2: Processing of soybean flour

3.2.3 Processing of sweet potato flour

Orange fleshed Sweet potato

Sorting

Washing (with tap water)

Draining

Peeling with knife

Blanching (in water for 3mins

Oven Drying (55oC for 24hrs)

Milling

Sieving (2 mm mesh size)

Orange fleshed Sweet potato flour

Packaging

Figure 2.3: Processing of sweet potatoes flour

 31

3.2.5 Formulation of composite flour

Maize, soybean and orange fleshed sweet potatoes composite flours will be formulated

as shown in Table 3.1 for infant food production. Infant food processed with 100%

maize flour will serve as the control.

Table 3.2.6: Flour blends formulation (%)

Raw materials 1 2 3
Maize flour 30 35 40
Soybean flour 50 35 20
Orange fleshed Sweet potato flour 0 10 20
Granulated sugar 12.2 12.2 12.2
Vegetable oil (sesame) 6 6 6
Tricalcium phosphate 1.3 1.3 1.3
Sodium chloride(salt) 0.5 0.5 0.5

2.2.5 Production of extruded infant food

The maize, soybean and sweet potatoes composite flours will be used in the production

of extruded infant food as shown in Figure 2.4.

Maize flour Soybean flour Orange fleshed Sweet potato

Mixing (with water and salt, sugar and oil)

Extruding

Extruded infant food

Packaging

Figure 2.4: Production of extruded infant food

 32

3.3 METHODS OF ANALYSES

3.3.1 Determination of proximate composition of the infant formula

The moisture, crude protein, fat, ash, crude fibre and carbohydrate content of the infant

food samples will be determined using the method described by Onwuka (2018).

3.3.2 Determination of mineral contents of the infant formula

The iron, calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium contents of the infant food

samples will be determined using the method described by Onwuka (2018).

3.3.3 Determination of functional properties of the infant formula

The functional Properties (water holding capacity, bulk density and swelling index) are

very important for ensuring appropriateness of the diet.

3.3.4 Determination of nutritional content of the infant formula

The Provitamin A and vitamin Ewill be determined using a method described by

Onwuka, (2018).

3.3.5 Determination of Anti-nutrients of the infant formula

The tanin, phytate and saponin will be determined using a method described by

Onwuka, (2018).

3.3.6 Evaluation of sensory properties of the infant formula

The sensory properties of the infant food samples (appearance, taste, texture, mouth-

feel, and general acceptability) will be assessed by 20 panelists from the College of

Applied

Food Sciences and Tourism, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike using

9-point Hedonic scale (Iwe, 2014).

3.3.7 Experimental design

Completely Randomized Design will be used for this study.

 33

3.3.8 Statistical analysis

All the analyses will be done in duplicate. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) will

be carried out on the data generated using the SPSS version 21.0 software. The data

analysed will be expressed as mean ± SD (standard deviation). The Duncan Multiple

Range Test (DMRT) method will be used to separate the means of experimental data at

95 % confidence level.
 34

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