Snake

Contents hide
• (Top)
• Etymology
•
• Evolution
Toggle Evolution subsection
•
• Distribution
•
• Taxonomy
Toggle Taxonomy subsection
•
• Biology
Toggle Biology subsection
•
• Behavior
Toggle Behavior subsection
•
• Interactions with humans
Toggle Interactions with humans subsection
•
• See also
•
• References
•
• Further reading
•
• External links
Snake
184 languages
• Article
• Talk
• Read
• View source
• View history
Tools
Tools move to sidebar
General
• What links here
• Related changes
• Special pages
• Permanent link
• Page information
• Cite this page
• Get shortened URL
• Wikidata item
• Edit interlanguage links
Print/export
• Download as PDF
• Printable version
In other projects
• Wikimedia Commons
• Wikiquote
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the reptile. For other uses, see Snake (disambiguation).
Snakes
Temporal range:
Late Cretaceous – Present,[1] 94–0 Ma
PreꞒ
Ꞓ
O
S
D
C
P
T
J
K
Pg
N
Scienti c classi cation
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
fi
fi
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Clade: Ophidia
Suborder: Serpentes
Linnaeus, 1758
Infraorders
• Alethinophidia Nopcsa, 1923
• Scolecophidia Cope, 1864
Approximate world distribution of snakes, all species
Snakes are elongated, limbless, carnivorous reptiles of the suborder

Serpentes (/sɜːrˈpɛntiːz/).[2] Like all other squamates, snakes are ectothermic,
amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales. Many species of snakes
have skulls with several more joints than their lizard ancestors, enabling them
to swallow prey much larger than their heads (cranial kinesis). To
accommodate their narrow bodies, snakes' paired organs (such as kidneys)
appear one in front of the other instead of side by side, and most have only
one functional lung. Some species retain a pelvic girdle with a pair of vestigial
claws on either side of the cloaca. Lizards have independently evolved
elongate bodies without limbs or with greatly reduced limbs at least twenty-
ve times via convergent evolution, leading to many lineages of legless
lizards.[3] These resemble snakes, but several common groups of legless
lizards have eyelids and external ears, which snakes lack, although this rule
is not universal (see Amphisbaenia, Dibamidae, and Pygopodidae).
Living snakes are found on every continent except Antarctica, and on most
smaller land masses; exceptions include some large islands, such as Ireland,
Iceland, Greenland, the Hawaiian archipelago, and the islands of New
Zealand, as well as many small islands of the Atlantic and central Paci c
oceans.[4] Additionally, sea snakes are widespread throughout the Indian and
Paci c oceans. Around thirty families are currently recognized, comprising
about 520 genera and about 3,900 species.[5] They range in size from the tiny,
10.4 cm-long (4.1 in) Barbados threadsnake[6] to the reticulated python of 6.95
meters (22.8 ft) in length.[7] The fossil species Titanoboa cerrejonensis was
12.8 meters (42 ft) long.[8] Snakes are thought to have evolved from either
fi
fi
fi
burrowing or aquatic lizards, perhaps during the Jurassic period, with the
earliest known fossils dating to between 143 and 167 Ma ago.[9][10] The
diversity of modern snakes appeared during the Paleocene epoch (c. 66 to
56 Ma ago, after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event). The oldest
preserved descriptions of snakes can be found in the Brooklyn Papyrus.
Most species of snake are nonvenomous and those that have venom use it
primarily to kill and subdue prey rather than for self-defense. Some possess
venom that is potent enough to cause painful injury or death to humans.
Nonvenomous snakes either swallow prey alive or kill by constriction.
Etymology
The English word snake comes from Old English snaca, itself from Proto-
Germanic *snak-an- (cf. Germanic Schnake 'ring snake', Swedish snok 'grass
snake'), from Proto-Indo-European root *(s)nēg-o- 'to crawl to creep', which
also gave sneak as well as Sanskrit nāgá 'snake'.[11] The word ousted adder,
as adder went on to narrow in meaning, though in Old English næddre was
the general word for snake.[12] The other term, serpent, is from French,
ultimately from Indo-European *serp- 'to creep',[13] which also gave Ancient
Greek ἕρπω (hérpō) 'I crawl'.
Evolution
A phylogenetic overview of modern snakes.
Note: the tree only indicates relationships, not evolutionary branching times.[14]
Scolecophidia
Alethinophidia
Leptotyphlopidae
Anomalepididae
Typhlopidae
Amerophidia
Afrophidia
Anilius
Tropidophiidae
Uropeltoidea
Macrostomata
Uropeltidae
Anomochilus
Cylindrophis
Pythonoidea
Caenophidia
Booidea
Pythonidae
Xenopeltis
Loxocemus
Acrochordidae
Xenodermidae
Pareidae
Viperidae
Homalopsidae
Colubridae
Cyclocoridae
Buhoma
Elapidae
Pseudaspididae
Prosymnidae
Psammophiidae
Atractaspididae
Pseudoxyrhophiida
e
Lamprophiidae
Boidae
Erycinae
Calabaria
Ungaliophiinae
Sanzinia
Candoia
The fossil record of snakes is relatively poor because snake skeletons are
typically small and fragile making fossilization uncommon. Fossils readily
identi able as snakes (though often retaining hind limbs) rst appear in the
fossil record during the Cretaceous period.[15] The earliest known true snake
fossils (members of the crown group Serpentes) come from the marine
simoliophiids, the oldest of which is the Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian age)
Haasiophis terrasanctus,[1] dated to between 112 and 94 million years old.[16]
Based on comparative anatomy, there is consensus that snakes descended
from lizards.[17]: 11 [18] Pythons and boas—primitive groups among modern
snakes—have vestigial hind limbs: tiny, clawed digits known as anal spurs,
which are used to grasp during mating.[17]: 11 [19] The families Leptotyphlopidae
and Typhlopidae also possess remnants of the pelvic girdle, appearing as
horny projections when visible.
Front limbs are nonexistent in all known snakes. This is caused by the
evolution of their Hox genes, controlling limb morphogenesis. The axial
skeleton of the snakes' common ancestor, like most other tetrapods, had
regional specializations consisting of cervical (neck), thoracic (chest), lumbar
(lower back), sacral (pelvic), and caudal (tail) vertebrae. Early in snake
evolution, the Hox gene expression in the axial skeleton responsible for the
development of the thorax became dominant. As a result, the vertebrae
anterior to the hindlimb buds (when present) all have the same thoracic-like
identity (except from the atlas, axis, and 1–3 neck vertebrae). In other words,
most of a snake's skeleton is an extremely extended thorax. Ribs are found
exclusively on the thoracic vertebrae. Neck, lumbar and pelvic vertebrae are
very reduced in number (only 2–10 lumbar and pelvic vertebrae are present),
while only a short tail remains of the caudal vertebrae. However, the tail is still
long enough to be of important use in many species, and is modi ed in some
aquatic and tree-dwelling species.
Many modern snake groups originated during the Paleocene, alongside the
adaptive radiation of mammals following the extinction of (non-avian)
dinosaurs. The expansion of grasslands in North America also led to an
explosive radiation among snakes.[20] Previously, snakes were a minor
component of the North American fauna, but during the Miocene, the number
of species and their prevalence increased dramatically with the rst
appearances of vipers and elapids in North America and the signi cant
diversi cation of Colubridae (including the origin of many modern genera
such as Nerodia, Lampropeltis, Pituophis, and Pantherophis).[20]
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
Fossils
There is fossil evidence to suggest that snakes may have evolved from
burrowing lizards,[21] during the Cretaceous Period.[22] An early fossil snake
relative, Najash rionegrina, was a two-legged burrowing animal with a
sacrum, and was fully terrestrial.[23] One extant analog of these putative
ancestors is the earless monitor Lanthanotus of Borneo (though it also is
semiaquatic).[24] Subterranean species evolved bodies streamlined for
burrowing, and eventually lost their limbs.[24] According to this hypothesis,
features such as the transparent, fused eyelids (brille) and loss of external
ears evolved to cope with fossorial dif culties, such as scratched corneas and
dirt in the ears.[22][24] Some primitive snakes are known to have possessed
hindlimbs, but their pelvic bones lacked a direct connection to the vertebrae.
These include fossil species like Haasiophis, Pachyrhachis and Eupodophis,
which are slightly older than Najash.[19]
This hypothesis was strengthened in 2015 by the discovery of a 113-million-
year-old fossil of a four-legged snake in Brazil that has been named
Tetrapodophis amplectus. It has many snake-like features, is adapted for
burrowing and its stomach indicates that it was preying on other animals.[25] It
is currently uncertain if Tetrapodophis is a snake or another species, in the
squamate order, as a snake-like body has independently evolved at least 26
times. Tetrapodophis does not have distinctive snake features in its spine and
skull.[26][27] A study in 2021 places the animal in a group of extinct marine
lizards from the Cretaceous period known as dolichosaurs and not directly
related to snakes.[28]
An alternative hypothesis, based on morphology, suggests the ancestors of
snakes were related to mosasaurs—extinct aquatic reptiles from the
Cretaceous—forming the clade Pythonomorpha.[18] According to this
hypothesis, the fused, transparent eyelids of snakes are thought to have
evolved to combat marine conditions (corneal water loss through osmosis),
and the external ears were lost through disuse in an aquatic environment.
This ultimately led to an animal similar to today's sea snakes. In the Late
Cretaceous, snakes recolonized land, and continued to diversify into today's
snakes. Fossilized snake remains are known from early Late Cretaceous
marine sediments, which is consistent with this hypothesis; particularly so, as
they are older than the terrestrial Najash rionegrina. Similar skull structure,
reduced or absent limbs, and other anatomical features found in both
mosasaurs and snakes lead to a positive cladistical correlation, although
some of these features are shared with varanids.[citation needed]
Genetic studies in recent years have indicated snakes are not as closely
related to monitor lizards as was once believed—and therefore not to
mosasaurs, the proposed ancestor in the aquatic scenario of their evolution.
fi
However, more evidence links mosasaurs to snakes than to varanids.
Fragmented remains found from the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous indicate
deeper fossil records for these groups, which may potentially refute either
hypothesis.[29][30]
•
•
Tetrapodophis
•
Eupodophis descouensi
•
Eupodophis descouensi
•
Eupodophis descouensi hind leg
Genetic basis of snake evolution

Main article: Limb development
Both fossils and phylogenetic studies demonstrate that snakes evolved from
lizards, hence the question became which genetic changes led to limb loss in
the snake ancestor. Limb loss is actually very common in extant reptiles and
has happened dozens of times within skinks, anguids, and other lizards.[31]
In 2016, two studies reported that limb loss in snakes is associated with DNA
mutations in the Zone of Polarizing Activity Regulatory Sequence (ZRS), a
regulatory region of the sonic hedgehog gene which is critically required for
limb development. More advanced snakes have no remnants of limbs, but
basal snakes such as pythons and boas do have traces of highly reduced,
vestigial hind limbs. Python embryos even have fully developed hind limb
buds, but their later development is stopped by the DNA mutations in the
ZRS.[32][33][34][35]
Distribution
Approximate world distribution of snakes

There are about 3,900 species of snakes,[36] ranging as far northward as the
Arctic Circle in Scandinavia and southward through Australia.[18] Snakes can
be found on every continent except Antarctica, as well as in the sea, and as
high as 16,000 feet (4,900 m) in the Himalayan Mountains of Asia.[18][37]: 143
There are numerous islands from which snakes are absent, such as Ireland,
Iceland, and New Zealand[4][37] (although New Zealand's northern waters are
infrequently visited by the yellow-bellied sea snake and the banded sea krait).
[38]
Taxonomy
See also: List of snake genera
All modern snakes are grouped within the suborder Serpentes in Linnean
taxonomy, part of the order Squamata, though their precise placement within
squamates remains controversial.[39]
The two infraorders of Serpentes are: Alethinophidia and Scolecophidia.[39]
This separation is based on morphological characteristics and mitochondrial
DNA sequence similarity. Alethinophidia is sometimes split into Henophidia
and Caenophidia, with the latter consisting of "colubroid" snakes (colubrids,
vipers, elapids, hydrophiids, and atractaspids) and acrochordids, while the
other alethinophidian families comprise Henophidia.[40] While not extant today,
the Madtsoiidae, a family of giant, primitive, python-like snakes, was around
until 50,000 years ago in Australia, represented by genera such as Wonambi.
There are numerous debates in the systematics within the group. For
instance, many sources classify Boidae and Pythonidae as one family, while
some keep the Elapidae and Hydrophiidae (sea snakes) separate for
practical reasons despite their extremely close relation.
Recent molecular studies support the monophyly of the clades of modern
snakes, scolecophidians, typhlopids + anomalepidids, alethinophidians, core
alethinophidians, uropeltids (Cylindrophis, Anomochilus, uropeltines),
macrostomatans, booids, boids, pythonids and caenophidians.[14]
Families
F TGSC
a aep o
m
Ax Bnem
W
13
co a
rA n S rt
F
11
nt a
ili
Ae C lD
13
nu w
o
An a
G 12
72
B
tr
Bü G 14u
61
B
o
B rH o S
22
oo p
lCfO22 liT
o
CpW50 yC
58
ye y
c
CiF 114cA
y
E it
B sE
55
389
lHo
B lH
28
53
oo o
m
Ln F m L
a it a
16
89
mz m
pi p
rL n
C 11 rM
o
Mo D e
T
14
i a w
c
P sR o
320
S
a
Po K n
S
re 116
h
o ll o
s
P yB vP
855
so s
a
PuC 34a
P
s
PoD 22sP
89
so s
P F 840
P
y
T it
B yD
234
rr w
o
Uo a
M 855
S
rV üO 35h
341
V
iX p
C iD
618
eo r
n
XpB a S
12
eo u
n
XnW n S
12
ea p
n ll i
F TGSC
aT
A aep418
o
P
n
Ga V ri
I
ei 218
n
rd d
rL a
S o
13
S
139
e
TtM lT
18 266
y
XeV yR
e i 11
o
nd u
oa n
Legless lizards
Main article: Legless lizard
While snakes are limbless reptiles, evolved from (and grouped with) lizards,
there are many other species of lizards that have lost their limbs
independently but which super cially look similar to snakes. These include
the slowworm and glass snake.
Other serpentine tetrapods that are unrelated to snakes include caecilians
(amphibians), amphisbaenians (near-lizard squamates), and the extinct
aistopods (amphibians).
Biology
fi
An adult Barbados threadsnake, Leptotyphlops carlae, on an American quarter dollar
Size
The now extinct Titanoboa cerrejonensis was 12.8 m (42 ft) in length.[8] By
comparison, the largest extant snakes are the reticulated python, measuring
about 6.95 m (22.8 ft) long,[7] and the green anaconda, which measures about
5.21 m (17.1 ft) long and is considered the heaviest snake on Earth at 97.5 kg
(215 lb).[44]
At the other end of the scale, the smallest extant snake is Leptotyphlops
carlae, with a length of about 10.4 cm (4.1 in).[6] Most snakes are fairly small
animals, approximately 1 m (3.3 ft) in length.[45]
Perception
Thermographic image of a snake eating a mouse

Pit vipers, pythons, and some boas have infrared-sensitive receptors in deep
grooves on the snout, allowing them to "see" the radiated heat of warm-
blooded prey. In pit vipers, the grooves are located between the nostril and
the eye in a large "pit" on each side of the head. Other infrared-sensitive
snakes have multiple, smaller labial pits lining the upper lip, just below the
nostrils.[46]
A snake tracks its prey using smell, collecting airborne particles with its forked
tongue, then passing them to the vomeronasal organ or Jacobson's organ in
the mouth for examination.[46] The fork in the tongue provides a sort of
directional sense of smell and taste simultaneously.[46] The snake's tongue is
constantly in motion, sampling particles from the air, ground, and water,
analyzing the chemicals found, and determining the presence of prey or
predators in the local environment. In water-dwelling snakes, such as the
anaconda, the tongue functions ef ciently underwater.[46]
A line diagram from The Fauna of British India by G. A. Boulenger (1890), illustrating the
terminology of shields on the head of a snake
The underside of a snake is very sensitive to vibration, allowing the snake to
detect approaching animals by sensing faint vibrations in the ground.[46]
Despite the lack of outer ears, they are also able to detect airborne sounds.[47]
Snake vision varies greatly between species. Some have keen eyesight and
others are only able to distinguish light from dark, but the important trend is
that a snake's visual perception is adequate enough to track movements.[48]
Generally, vision is best in tree-dwelling snakes and weakest in burrowing
snakes. Some have binocular vision, where both eyes are capable of
focusing on the same point, an example of this being the Asian vine snake.
Most snakes focus by moving the lens back and forth in relation to the retina.
Diurnal snakes have round pupils and many nocturnal snakes have slit pupils.
Most species possess three visual pigments and are probably able to see two
primary colors in daylight. The annulated sea snake and the genus Helicops
appears to have regained much of their color vision as an adaption to the
marine environment they live in.[49][50] It has been concluded that the last
common ancestors of all snakes had UV-sensitive vision, but most snakes
that depend on their eyesight to hunt in daylight have evolved lenses that act
like sunglasses for ltering out the UV-light, which probably also sharpens
their vision by improving the contrast.[51][52]
Skin
Main article: Snake scale
fi
fi
The skin of a snake is covered in scales. Contrary to the popular notion of
snakes being slimy (because of possible confusion of snakes with worms),
snakeskin has a smooth, dry texture. Most snakes use specialized belly
scales to travel, allowing them to grip surfaces. The body scales may be
smooth, keeled, or granular. The eyelids of a snake are transparent
"spectacle" scales, also known as brille, which remain permanently closed.
The shedding of scales is called ecdysis (or in normal usage, molting or
sloughing). Snakes shed the complete outer layer of skin in one piece.[53]
Snake scales are not discrete, but extensions of the epidermis—hence they
are not shed separately but as a complete outer layer during each molt, akin
to a sock being turned inside out.[54]
Snakes have a wide diversity of skin coloration patterns which are often
related to behavior, such as the tendency to have to ee from predators.
Snakes that are at a high risk of predation tend to be plain, or have
longitudinal stripes, providing few reference points to predators, thus allowing
the snake to escape without being noticed. Plain snakes usually adopt active
hunting strategies, as their pattern allows them to send little information to
prey about motion. Blotched snakes usually use ambush-based strategies,
likely because it helps them blend into an environment with irregularly shaped
objects, like sticks or rocks. Spotted patterning can similarly help snakes to
blend into their environment.[55]
The shape and number of scales on the head, back, and belly are often
characteristic and used for taxonomic purposes. Scales are named mainly
according to their positions on the body. In "advanced" (Caenophidian)
snakes, the broad belly scales and rows of dorsal scales correspond to the
vertebrae, allowing these to be counted without the need for dissection.
Molting
A common watersnake shedding its skin

Molting (or "ecdysis") serves a number of purposes. It allows old, worn skin to
be replaced and it can remove parasites such as mites and ticks that live in
the skin. It has also been observed in snakes that molting can be synced to
fl
mating cycles. Shedding skin can release pheromones and revitalize color
and patterns of the skin to increase attraction of mates.[56] Renewal of the skin
by molting supposedly allows growth in some animals such as insects, but
this has been disputed in the case of snakes.[54][57]
Molting occurs periodically throughout the life of a snake. Before each molt,
the snake stops eating and often hides or moves to a safe place. Just before
shedding, the skin becomes dull and dry looking and the snake's eyes turn
cloudy or blue-colored. The inner surface of the old skin lique es, causing it
to separate from the new skin beneath it. After a few days, the eyes become
clear and the snake "crawls" out of its old skin, which splits close to the
snake's mouth. The snake rubs its body against rough surfaces to aid in the
shedding of its old skin. In many cases, the cast skin peels backward over the
body from head to tail in one piece, like pulling a sock off inside-out, revealing
a new, larger, brighter layer of skin which has formed underneath.[54][58]
A young snake that is still growing may shed its skin up to four times a year,
but an older snake may shed only once or twice a year.[58] The discarded skin
carries a perfect imprint of the scale pattern, so it is usually possible to
identify the snake from the cast skin if it is reasonably intact.[54] This periodic
renewal has led to the snake being a symbol of healing and medicine, as
pictured in the Rod of Asclepius.[59]
Scale counts can sometimes be used to identify the sex of a snake when the
species is not distinctly sexually dimorphic. A probe is fully inserted into the
cloaca, marked at the point where it stops, then removed and measured
against the subcaudal scales.[60] The scalation count determines whether the
snake is a male or female, as the hemipenes of a male will probe to a
different depth (usually longer) than the cloaca of a female.[60][clari cation needed]
Skeleton
The skeletons of snakes are radically different from those of most other reptiles (as
compared with the turtle here, for example), consisting almost entirely of an extended
ribcage.
fi
fi
The skeleton of most snakes consists solely of the skull, hyoid, vertebral
column, and ribs, though henophidian snakes retain vestiges of the pelvis and
rear limbs.
The skull consists of a solid and complete neurocranium, to which many of
the other bones are only loosely attached, particularly the highly mobile jaw
bones, which facilitate manipulation and ingestion of large prey items. The left
and right sides of the lower jaw are joined only by a exible ligament at the
anterior tips, allowing them to separate widely, and the posterior end of the
lower jaw bones articulate with a quadrate bone, allowing further mobility. The
mandible and quadrate bones can pick up ground-borne vibrations;[61]
because the sides of the lower jaw can move independently of one another, a
snake resting its jaw on a surface has sensitive stereo auditory perception,
used for detecting the position of prey. The jaw–quadrate–stapes pathway is
capable of detecting vibrations on the angstrom scale, despite the absence of
an outer ear and the lack of an impedance matching mechanism—provided
by the ossicles in other vertebrates—for receiving vibrations from the air.[62][63]
The hyoid is a small bone located posterior and ventral to the skull, in the
'neck' region, which serves as an attachment for the muscles of the snake's
tongue, as it does in all other tetrapods.
The vertebral column consists of between 200 and 400 vertebrae, or
sometimes more. The body vertebrae each have two ribs articulating with
them. The tail vertebrae are comparatively few in number (often less than
20% of the total) and lack ribs. The vertebrae have projections that allow for
strong muscle attachment, enabling locomotion without limbs.
Caudal autotomy (self-amputation of the tail), a feature found in some lizards,
is absent in most snakes.[64] In the rare cases where it does exist in snakes,
caudal autotomy is intervertebral (meaning the separation of adjacent
vertebrae), unlike that in lizards, which is intravertebral, i.e. the break
happens along a prede ned fracture plane present on a vertebra.[65][66]
In some snakes, most notably boas and pythons, there are vestiges of the
hindlimbs in the form of a pair of pelvic spurs. These small, claw-like
protrusions on each side of the cloaca are the external portion of the vestigial
hindlimb skeleton, which includes the remains of an ilium and femur.
Snakes are polyphyodonts with teeth that are continuously replaced.[67]
Internal organs
fi
fl
Anatomy of a snake. le info
1. esophagus
2. trachea
3. tracheal lungs
4. rudimentary left lung
5. right lung
6. heart
7. liver
8. stomach
9. air sac
10. gallbladder
11. pancreas
12. spleen
13. intestine
14. testicles
15. kidneys
Snakes and other non-archosaur (crocodilians, dinosaurs + birds and allies)
reptiles have a three-chambered heart that controls the circulatory system via
the left and right atrium, and one ventricle.[68] Internally, the ventricle is divided
into three interconnected cavities: the cavum arteriosum, the cavum
pulmonale, and the cavum venosum.[69] The cavum venosum receives
deoxygenated blood from the right atrium and the cavum arteriosum receives
oxygenated blood from the left atrium. Located beneath the cavum venosum
is the cavum pulmonale, which pumps blood to the pulmonary trunk.[70]
The snake's heart is encased in a sac, called the pericardium, located at the
bifurcation of the bronchi. The heart is able to move around, owing to the lack
of a diaphragm; this adjustment protects the heart from potential damage
when large ingested prey is passed through the esophagus. The spleen is
attached to the gall bladder and pancreas and lters the blood. The thymus,
fi
fi
located in fatty tissue above the heart, is responsible for the generation of
immune cells in the blood. The cardiovascular system of snakes is unique for
the presence of a renal portal system in which the blood from the snake's tail
passes through the kidneys before returning to the heart.[71]
The vestigial left lung is often small or sometimes even absent, as snakes'
tubular bodies require all of their organs to be long and thin.[71] In the majority
of species, only one lung is functional. This lung contains a vascularized
anterior portion and a posterior portion that does not function in gas
exchange.[71] This 'saccular lung' is used for hydrostatic purposes to adjust
buoyancy in some aquatic snakes and its function remains unknown in
terrestrial species.[71] Many organs that are paired, such as kidneys or
reproductive organs, are staggered within the body, one located ahead of the
other.[71]
Snakes have no lymph nodes.[71]
Venom
See also: Snake venom, Venomous snake, and § Bite
Innocuous milk snakes are often mistaken for coral snakes whose venom is deadly to
humans.
Cobras, vipers, and closely related species use venom to immobilize, injure,
or kill their prey. The venom is modi ed saliva, delivered through fangs.[17][72]: 243
The fangs of 'advanced' venomous snakes like viperids and elapids are
hollow, allowing venom to be injected more effectively, and the fangs of rear-
fanged snakes such as the boomslang simply have a groove on the posterior
edge to channel venom into the wound. Snake venoms are often prey-
speci c, and their role in self-defense is secondary.[17][72]: 243
Venom, like all salivary secretions, is a predigestant that initiates the
breakdown of food into soluble compounds, facilitating proper digestion. Even
nonvenomous snakebites (like any animal bite) cause tissue damage.[17][72]: 209
Certain birds, mammals, and other snakes (such as kingsnakes) that prey on
venomous snakes have developed resistance and even immunity to certain
fi
fi
venoms.[17]: 243 Venomous snakes include three families of snakes, and do not
constitute a formal taxonomic classi cation group.
The colloquial term "poisonous snake" is generally an incorrect label for
snakes. A poison is inhaled or ingested, whereas venom produced by snakes
is injected into its victim via fangs.[73] There are, however, two exceptions:
Rhabdophis sequesters toxins from the toads it eats, then secretes them from
nuchal glands to ward off predators; and a small unusual population of garter
snakes in the US state of Oregon retains enough toxins in their livers from
ingested newts to be effectively poisonous to small local predators (such as
crows and foxes).[74]
Snake venoms are complex mixtures of proteins,[72] and are stored in venom
glands at the back of the head.[74] In all venomous snakes, these glands open
through ducts into grooved or hollow teeth in the upper jaw.[17]: 243 [73] The
proteins can potentially be a mix of neurotoxins (which attack the nervous
system), hemotoxins (which attack the circulatory system), cytotoxins (which
attack the cells directly), bungarotoxins (related to neurotoxins, but also
directly affect muscle tissue), and many other toxins that affect the body in
different ways.[73][72] Almost all snake venom contains hyaluronidase, an
enzyme that ensures rapid diffusion of the venom.[17]: 243
Venomous snakes that use hemotoxins usually have fangs in the front of their
mouths, making it easier for them to inject the venom into their victims.[72][73]
Some snakes that use neurotoxins (such as the mangrove snake) have fangs
in the back of their mouths, with the fangs curled backwards.[75] This makes it
dif cult both for the snake to use its venom and for scientists to milk them.[73]
Elapids, however, such as cobras and kraits are proteroglyphous—they
possess hollow fangs that cannot be erected toward the front of their mouths,
and cannot "stab" like a viper. They must actually bite the victim.[17]: 242
It has been suggested that all snakes may be venomous to a certain degree,
with harmless snakes having weak venom and no fangs.[76] According to this
theory, most snakes that are labelled "nonvenomous" would be considered
harmless because they either lack a venom delivery method or are incapable
of delivering enough to endanger a human. The theory postulates that snakes
may have evolved from a common lizard ancestor that was venomous, and
also that venomous lizards like the gila monster, beaded lizard, monitor
lizards, and the now-extinct mosasaurs, may have derived from this same
common ancestor. They share this "venom clade" with various other saurian
species.
Venomous snakes are classi ed in two taxonomic families:
• Elapids – cobras including king cobras, kraits, mambas, Australian
copperheads, sea snakes, and coral snakes.[75]
fi
fi
fi
• Viperids – vipers, rattlesnakes, copperheads/cottonmouths, and
bushmasters.[75]
There is a third family containing the opistoglyphous (rear-fanged) snakes (as
well as the majority of other snake species):
• Colubrids – boomslangs, tree snakes, vine snakes, cat snakes,
although not all colubrids are venomous.[17]: 209 [75]
Reproduction
See also: Sexual selection in scaled reptiles
Although a wide range of reproductive modes are used by snakes, all employ
internal fertilization. This is accomplished by means of paired, forked
hemipenes, which are stored, inverted, in the male's tail.[77] The hemipenes
are often grooved, hooked, or spined—designed to grip the walls of the
female's cloaca.[78][77] The clitoris of the female snake consists of two
structures located between the cloaca and the scent glands.[79]
Most species of snakes lay eggs which they abandon shortly after laying.
However, a few species (such as the king cobra) construct nests and stay in
the vicinity of the hatchlings after incubation.[77] Most pythons coil around their
egg-clutches and remain with them until they hatch.[80] A female python will not
leave the eggs, except to occasionally bask in the sun or drink water. She will
even "shiver" to generate heat to incubate the eggs.[80]
Some species of snake are ovoviviparous and retain the eggs within their
bodies until they are almost ready to hatch.[81][82] Several species of snake,
such as the boa constrictor and green anaconda, are fully viviparous,
nourishing their young through a placenta as well as a yolk sac; this is highly
unusual among reptiles, and normally found in requiem sharks or placental
mammals.[81][82] Retention of eggs and live birth are most often associated with
colder environments.[77][82]
The garter snake has been studied for sexual selection.

Sexual selection in snakes is demonstrated by the 3,000 species that each
use different tactics in acquiring mates.[83] Ritual combat between males for
the females they want to mate with includes topping, a behavior exhibited by
most viperids in which one male will twist around the vertically elevated fore
body of its opponent and force it downward. It is common for neck-biting to
occur while the snakes are entwined.[84]
Facultative parthenogenesis
Parthenogenesis is a natural form of reproduction in which growth and
development of embryos occur without fertilization. Agkistrodon contortrix
(copperhead) and Agkistrodon piscivorus (cottonmouth) can reproduce by
facultative parthenogenesis, meaning that they are capable of switching from
a sexual mode of reproduction to an asexual mode.[85] The most likely type of
parthenogenesis to occur is automixis with terminal fusion, a process in which
two terminal products from the same meiosis fuse to form a diploid zygote.
This process leads to genome-wide homozygosity, expression of deleterious
recessive alleles, and often to developmental abnormalities. Both captive-
born and wild-born copperheads and cottonmouths appear to be capable of
this form of parthenogenesis.[85]
Reproduction in squamate reptiles is almost exclusively sexual. Males
ordinarily have a ZZ pair of sex-determining chromosomes, and females a
ZW pair. However, the Colombian Rainbow boa (Epicrates maurus) can also
reproduce by facultative parthenogenesis, resulting in production of WW
female progeny.[86] The WW females are likely produced by terminal
automixis.
Embryonic Development
Mouse embryo 12 day post fertilization side by side with Corn Snake embryo 2 days
post ovo-positioning.[87]
Snake embryonic development initially follows similar steps as any vertebrate
embryo. The snake embryo begins as a zygote, undergoes rapid cell division,
forms a germinal disc, also called a blastodisc, then undergoes gastrulation,
neurulation, and organogenesis.[88] Cell division and proliferation continues
until an early snake embryo develops and the typical body shape of a snake
can be observed.[88] Multiple features differentiate the embryologic
development of snakes from other vertebrates, two signi cant factors being
the elongation of the body and the lack of limb development.
Diagram illustrating differential somite size due to difference in somitogenesis clock

oscillation.[87]
The elongation in snake body is accompanied by a signi cant increase in
vertebra count (mice have 60 vertebrae, whereas snakes may have over
300).[87] This increase in vertebrae is due to an increase in somites during
embryogenesis, leading to an increased number of vertebrae which develop.
[87] Somites are formed at the presomitic mesoderm due to a set of oscillatory
genes that direct the somitogenesis clock. The snake somitogenesis clock
operates at a frequency 4 times that of a mouse (after correction for
developmental time), creating more somites, and therefore creating more
vertebrae.[87] This difference in clock speed is believed to be caused by
differences in Lunatic fringe gene expression, a gene involved in the
somitogenesis clock.[89]
There is ample literature focusing on the limb development/lack of
development in snake embryos and the gene expression associated with the
different stages. In basal snakes, such as the python, embryos in early
development exhibit a hind limb bud that develops with some cartilage and a
cartilaginous pelvic element, however this degenerates before hatching.[90]
This presence of vestigial development suggests that some snakes are still
undergoing hind limb reduction before they are eliminated.[91] There is no
evidence in basal snakes of forelimb rudiments and no examples of snake
forelimb bud initiation in embryo, so little is known regarding the loss of this
trait.[91] Recent studies suggests that hind limb reduction could be due to
mutations in enhancers for the SSH gene,[91] however other studies suggested
that mutations within the Hox Genes or their enhancers could contribute to
snake limblessness.[87] Since multiple studies have found evidence suggesting
different genes played a role in the loss of limbs in snakes, it is likely that
multiple gene mutations had an additive effect leading to limb loss in
snakes[92]
Behavior
Winter dormancy
fi
fi
Snake coiled on a stick in Oklahoma. It was brumating in a large pile of wood chips,
found by this landscaper after he bulldozed the pile in late autumn 2018.
In regions where winters are too cold for snakes to tolerate while remaining
active, local species will enter a period of brumation. Unlike hibernation, in
which the dormant mammals are actually asleep, brumating reptiles are
awake but inactive. Individual snakes may brumate in burrows, under rock
piles, or inside fallen trees, or large numbers of snakes may clump together in
hibernacula.
Feeding and diet
African egg-eating snake eating an egg

All snakes are strictly carnivorous, preying on small animals including lizards,
frogs, other snakes, small mammals, birds, eggs, sh, snails, worms, and
insects.[17]: 81 [18][93] Snakes cannot bite or tear their food to pieces so must
swallow their prey whole. The eating habits of a snake are largely in uenced
by body size; smaller snakes eat smaller prey. Juvenile pythons might start
out feeding on lizards or mice and graduate to small deer or antelope as an
adult, for example.
The snake's jaw is a complex structure. Contrary to the popular belief that
snakes can dislocate their jaws, they have an extremely exible lower jaw, the
two halves of which are not rigidly attached, and numerous other joints in the
fi
fl
fl
skull, which allow the snake to open its mouth wide enough to swallow prey
whole, even if it is larger in diameter than the snake itself.[93] For example, the
African egg-eating snake has exible jaws adapted for eating eggs much
larger than the diameter of its head.[17]: 81 This snake has no teeth, but does
have bony protrusions on the inside edge of its spine, which it uses to break
the shell when eating eggs.[17]: 81
Carpet python constricting and consuming a chicken

The majority of snakes eat a variety of prey animals, but there is some
specialization in certain species. King cobras and the Australian bandy-bandy
consume other snakes. Species of the family Pareidae have more teeth on
the right side of their mouths than on the left, as they mostly prey on snails
and the shells usually spiral clockwise.[17]: 184 [94][95]
Some snakes have a venomous bite, which they use to kill their prey before
eating it.[93][96] Other snakes kill their prey by constriction,[93] while some
swallow their prey when it is still alive.[17]: 81 [93]
Dolichophis jugularis preying on a sheltopusik

fl
After eating, snakes become dormant to allow the process of digestion to take
place;[60] this is an intense activity, especially after consumption of large prey.
In species that feed only sporadically, the entire intestine enters a reduced
state between meals to conserve energy. The digestive system is then 'up-
regulated' to full capacity within 48 hours of prey consumption. Being
ectothermic ("cold-blooded"), the surrounding temperature plays an important
role in the digestion process. The ideal temperature for snakes to digest food
is 30 °C (86 °F). There is a huge amount of metabolic energy involved in a
snake's digestion, for example the surface body temperature of the South
American rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus) increases by as much as 1.2 °C
(2.2 °F) during the digestive process.[97] If a snake is disturbed after having
eaten recently, it will often regurgitate its prey to be able to escape the
perceived threat. When undisturbed, the digestive process is highly ef cient;
the snake's digestive enzymes dissolve and absorb everything but the prey's
hair (or feathers) and claws, which are excreted along with waste.
Hooding and spitting
Hooding (expansion of the neck area) is a visual deterrent, mostly seen in
cobras (elapids), and is primarily controlled by rib muscles.[98] Hooding can be
accompanied by spitting venom towards the threatening object,[99] and
producing a specialized sound; hissing. Studies on captive cobras showed
that 13 to 22% of the body length is raised during hooding.[100]
Locomotion
The lack of limbs does not impede the movement of snakes. They have
developed several different modes of locomotion to deal with particular
environments. Unlike the gaits of limbed animals, which form a continuum,
each mode of snake locomotion is discrete and distinct from the others;
transitions between modes are abrupt.[101][102]
Lateral undulation
Main article: Undulatory locomotion
Crawling prints of a snake

fi
Lateral undulation is the sole mode of aquatic locomotion, and the most
common mode of terrestrial locomotion.[102] In this mode, the body of the
snake alternately exes to the left and right, resulting in a series of rearward-
moving "waves".[101] While this movement appears rapid, snakes have rarely
been documented moving faster than two body-lengths per second, often
much less.[103] This mode of movement has the same net cost of transport
(calories burned per meter moved) as running in lizards of the same mass.[104]
Terrestrial lateral undulation is the most common mode of terrestrial
locomotion for most snake species.[101] In this mode, the posteriorly moving
waves push against contact points in the environment, such as rocks, twigs,
irregularities in the soil, etc.[101] Each of these environmental objects, in turn,
generates a reaction force directed forward and towards the midline of the
snake, resulting in forward thrust while the lateral components cancel out.[105]
The speed of this movement depends upon the density of push-points in the
environment, with a medium density of about 8[clari cation needed] along the snake's
length being ideal.[103] The wave speed is precisely the same as the snake
speed, and as a result, every point on the snake's body follows the path of
the point ahead of it, allowing snakes to move through very dense vegetation
and small openings.[105]
When swimming, the waves become larger as they move down the snake's
body, and the wave travels backwards faster than the snake moves forwards.
[106] Thrust is generated by pushing their body against the water, resulting in
the observed slip. In spite of overall similarities, studies show that the pattern
of muscle activation is different in aquatic versus terrestrial lateral undulation,
which justi es calling them separate modes.[107] All snakes can laterally
undulate forward (with backward-moving waves), but only sea snakes have
been observed reversing the motion (moving backwards with forward-moving
waves).[101]
Sidewinding
Main article: Sidewinding
fi
fi
fl
A neonate sidewinder rattlesnake (Crotalus cerastes) sidewinding
Most often employed by colubroid snakes (colubrids, elapids, and vipers)
when the snake must move in an environment that lacks irregularities to push
against (rendering lateral undulation impossible), such as a slick mud at, or
a sand dune, sidewinding is a modi ed form of lateral undulation in which all
of the body segments oriented in one direction remain in contact with the
ground, while the other segments are lifted up, resulting in a peculiar "rolling"
motion.[108][109] This mode of locomotion overcomes the slippery nature of sand
or mud by pushing off with only static portions on the body, thereby
minimizing slipping.[108] The static nature of the contact points can be shown
from the tracks of a sidewinding snake, which show each belly scale imprint,
without any smearing. This mode of locomotion has very low caloric cost, less
than 1⁄3 of the cost for a lizard to move the same distance.[104] Contrary to
popular belief, there is no evidence that sidewinding is associated with the
sand being hot.[108]
Concertina
Main article: Concertina movement
When push-points are absent, but there is not enough space to use
sidewinding because of lateral constraints, such as in tunnels, snakes rely on
concertina locomotion.[101][109] In this mode, the snake braces the posterior
portion of its body against the tunnel wall while the front of the snake extends
and straightens.[108] The front portion then exes and forms an anchor point,
and the posterior is straightened and pulled forwards. This mode of
locomotion is slow and very demanding, up to seven times the cost of
laterally undulating over the same distance.[104] This high cost is due to the
repeated stops and starts of portions of the body as well as the necessity of
using active muscular effort to brace against the tunnel walls.
fi
fl
fl
Arboreal
Golden tree snake climbing a ower

The movement of snakes in arboreal habitats has only recently been studied.
[110] While on tree branches, snakes use several modes of locomotion
depending on species and bark texture.[110] In general, snakes will use a

modi ed form of concertina locomotion on smooth branches, but will laterally
undulate if contact points are available.[110] Snakes move faster on small
branches and when contact points are present, in contrast to limbed animals,
which do better on large branches with little 'clutter'.[110]
Gliding snakes (Chrysopelea) of Southeast Asia launch themselves from
branch tips, spreading their ribs and laterally undulating as they glide
between trees.[108][111][112] These snakes can perform a controlled glide for
hundreds of feet depending upon launch altitude and can even turn in midair.
[108][111]
Rectilinear
Main article: Rectilinear locomotion
The slowest mode of snake locomotion is rectilinear locomotion, which is also
the only one where the snake does not need to bend its body laterally, though
it may do so when turning.[113] In this mode, the belly scales are lifted and
pulled forward before being placed down and the body pulled over them.
Waves of movement and stasis pass posteriorly, resulting in a series of
ripples in the skin.[113] The ribs of the snake do not move in this mode of
locomotion and this method is most often used by large pythons, boas, and
vipers when stalking prey across open ground as the snake's movements are
subtle and harder to detect by their prey in this manner.[108]
Interactions with humans

fi
fl
Most common symptoms of any kind of snake bite envenomation.[114][115] Furthermore,
there is vast variation in symptoms between bites from different types of snakes.[114]
Bite
Main article: Snakebite
Vipera berus, one fang in glove with a small venom stain, the other still in place
Snakes do not ordinarily prey on humans. Unless startled or injured, most
snakes prefer to avoid contact and will not attack humans. With the exception
of large constrictors, nonvenomous snakes are not a threat to humans. The
bite of a nonvenomous snake is usually harmless; their teeth are not adapted
for tearing or in icting a deep puncture wound, but rather grabbing and
holding. Although the possibility of infection and tissue damage is present in
the bite of a nonvenomous snake, venomous snakes present far greater
hazard to humans.[17]: 209 The World Health Organization (WHO) lists snakebite
under the "other neglected conditions" category.[116]
Documented deaths resulting from snake bites are uncommon. Nonfatal bites
from venomous snakes may result in the need for amputation of a limb or part
thereof. Of the roughly 725 species of venomous snakes worldwide, only 250
are able to kill a human with one bite. Australia averages only one fatal snake
bite per year. In India, 250,000 snakebites are recorded in a single year, with
fl
as many as 50,000 recorded initial deaths.[117] The WHO estimates that on the
order of 100,000 people die each year as a result of snake bites, and around
three times as many amputations and other permanent disabilities are caused
by snakebites annually.[118]
The treatment for a snakebite is as variable as the bite itself. The most
common and effective method is through antivenom (or antivenin), a serum
made from the venom of the snake. Some antivenom is species-speci c
(monovalent) while some is made for use with multiple species in mind
(polyvalent). In the United States for example, all species of venomous
snakes are pit vipers, with the exception of the coral snake. To produce
antivenom, a mixture of the venoms of the different species of rattlesnakes,
copperheads, and cottonmouths is injected into the body of a horse in ever-
increasing dosages until the horse is immunized. Blood is then extracted from
the immunized horse. The serum is separated and further puri ed and freeze-
dried. It is reconstituted with sterile water and becomes antivenom. For this
reason, people who are allergic to horses are more likely to have an allergic
reaction to antivenom.[119] Antivenom for the more dangerous species (such as
mambas, taipans, and cobras) is made in a similar manner in South Africa,
Australia , and India, although these antivenoms are species-speci c.
Snake charmers
Main article: Snake charming
The Indian cobra is the most common subject of snake charmings.

In some parts of the world, especially in India, snake charming is a roadside
show performed by a charmer. In such a show, the snake charmer carries a
basket containing a snake that he seemingly charms by playing tunes with his
utelike musical instrument, to which the snake responds.[120] The snake is in
fact responding to the movement of the ute, not the sound it makes, as
snakes lack external ears (though they do have internal ears).[120]
fl
fl
fi
fi
fi
The Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 in India technically prohibits snake
charming on the grounds of reducing animal cruelty. Other types of snake
charmers use a snake and mongoose show, where the two animals have a
mock ght; however, this is not very common, as the animals may be
seriously injured or killed. Snake charming as a profession is dying out in
India because of competition from modern forms of entertainment and
environment laws proscribing the practice. Many Indians have never seen
snake charming and it is becoming a folktale of the past.[120][121][122][123]
Trapping
The Irulas tribe of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in India have been hunter-
gatherers in the hot, dry plains forests, and have practiced the art of snake
catching for generations. They have a vast knowledge of snakes in the eld.
They generally catch the snakes with the help of a simple stick. Earlier, the
Irulas caught thousands of snakes for the snake-skin industry. After the
complete ban of the snake-skin industry in India and protection of all snakes
under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, they formed the Irula Snake
Catcher's Cooperative and switched to catching snakes for removal of
venom, releasing them in the wild after four extractions. The venom so
collected is used for producing life-saving antivenom, biomedical research
and for other medicinal products.[124] The Irulas are also known to eat some of
the snakes they catch and are very useful in rat extermination in the villages.
Despite the existence of snake charmers, there have also been professional
snake catchers or wranglers. Modern-day snake trapping involves a
herpetologist using a long stick with a V- shaped end. Some television show
hosts, like Bill Haast, Austin Stevens, Steve Irwin, and Jeff Corwin, prefer to
catch them using bare hands.
Consumption
A "海豹蛇" ("sea-leopard snake", supposedly Enhydris bocourti) occupies a place of

honor among the live delicacies on display outside a Guangzhou restaurant.
Although snakes are not commonly thought of as food, their consumption is
acceptable in some cultures and may even be considered a delicacy. Snake
fi
fi
soup is popular in Cantonese cuisine, consumed by locals in the autumn to
warm their bodies. Western cultures document the consumption of snakes
only under extreme circumstances of hunger,[125] with the exception of cooked
rattlesnake meat, which is commonly consumed in Texas[126] and parts of the
Midwestern United States.
Snake meat, in a Taipei restaurant

In Asian countries such as China, Taiwan, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, and
Cambodia, drinking the blood of a snake—particularly the cobra—is believed
to increase sexual virility.[127] When possible, the blood is drained while the
cobra is still alive, and it is usually mixed with some form of liquor to improve
the taste.[127]
The use of snakes in alcohol is accepted in some Asian countries. In such
cases, one or more snakes are left to steep in a jar or container of liquor, as
this is claimed to make the liquor stronger (as well as more expensive). One
example of this is the Habu snake, which is sometimes placed in the
Okinawan liqueur Habushu (ハブ酒), also known as "Habu Sake".[128]
Snake wine (蛇酒) is an alcoholic beverage produced by infusing whole

snakes in rice wine or grain alcohol. First recorded as being consumed in
China during the Western Zhou dynasty, this drink is considered an important
curative and is believed to reinvigorate a person according to traditional
Chinese medicine.[129]
Pets
In the Western world, some snakes are kept as pets, especially docile
species such as the ball python and corn snake. To meet the demand, a
captive breeding industry has developed. Snakes bred in captivity are
considered preferable to specimens caught in the wild and tend to make
better pets.[130] Compared with more traditional types of companion animal,
snakes can be very low-maintenance pets; they require minimal space, as
most common species do not exceed 5 feet (1.5 m) in length, and can be fed
relatively infrequently—usually once every ve to 14 days. Certain snakes
have a lifespan of more than 40 years if given proper care.
fi
Symbolism
Main article: Serpent (symbolism)
The reverse side of the throne of Pharaoh Tutankhamun with four golden uraeus cobra
gures. Gold with lapis lazuli; Valley of the Kings, Thebes (1347–37 BCE).
fi
Snakes composing a bronze kerykeion from the mythical Longanus river in Sicily
Imperial Japan depicted as an evil snake in a WWII propaganda poster
"The Smoking Snake", insignia of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force in WWII
A common adder in the coat of arms of the Kyyjärvi municipality

In ancient Mesopotamia, Nirah, the messenger god of Ištaran, was
represented as a serpent on kudurrus, or boundary stones.[131]
Representations of two intertwined serpents are common in Sumerian art and
Neo-Sumerian artwork[131] and still appear sporadically on cylinder seals and
amulets until as late as the thirteenth century BC.[131] The horned viper
(Cerastes cerastes) appears in Kassite and Neo-Assyrian kudurrus[131] and is
invoked in Assyrian texts as a magical protective entity.[131] A dragon-like
creature with horns, the body and neck of a snake, the forelegs of a lion, and
the hind-legs of a bird appears in Mesopotamian art from the Akkadian Period
until the Hellenistic Period (323 BC–31 BC).[131] This creature, known in
Akkadian as the mušḫuššu, meaning "furious serpent", was used as a symbol
for particular deities and also as a general protective emblem.[131] It seems to
have originally been the attendant of the Underworld god Ninazu,[131] but later
became the attendant to the Hurrian storm-god Tishpak, as well as, later,
Ninazu's son Ningishzida, the Babylonian national god Marduk, the scribal
god Nabu, and the Assyrian national god Ashur.[131]
In Egyptian history, the snake occupies a primary role with the Nile cobra
adorning the crown of the pharaoh in ancient times. It was worshipped as one
of the gods and was also used for sinister purposes: murder of an adversary
and ritual suicide (Cleopatra).[citation needed] The ouroboros was a well-known
ancient Egyptian symbol of a serpent swallowing its own tail.[132] The precursor
to the ouroboros was the "Many-Faced",[132] a serpent with ve heads, who,
according to the Amduat, the oldest surviving Book of the Afterlife, was said to
coil around the corpse of the sun god Ra protectively.[132] The earliest
surviving depiction of a "true" ouroboros comes from the gilded shrines in the
tomb of Tutankhamun.[132] In the early centuries AD, the ouroboros was
adopted as a symbol by Gnostic Christians[132] and chapter 136 of the Pistis
Sophia, an early Gnostic text, describes "a great dragon whose tail is in its
mouth".[132] In medieval alchemy, the ouroboros became a typical western
dragon with wings, legs, and a tail.[132]
In the Bible, King Nahash of Ammon, whose name means "Snake", is
depicted very negatively, as a particularly cruel and despicable enemy of the
ancient Hebrews.
Medusa (1597) by the Italian artist Caravaggio

fi
The ancient Greeks used the Gorgoneion, a depiction of a hideous face with
serpents for hair, as an apotropaic symbol to ward off evil.[133] In a Greek myth
described by Pseudo-Apollodorus in his Bibliotheca, Medusa was a Gorgon
with serpents for hair whose gaze turned all those who looked at her to stone
and was slain by the hero Perseus.[134][135][136] In the Roman poet Ovid's
Metamorphoses, Medusa is said to have once been a beautiful priestess of
Athena, whom Athena turned into a serpent-haired monster after she was
raped by the god Poseidon in Athena's temple.[137] In another myth referenced
by the Boeotian poet Hesiod and described in detail by Pseudo-Apollodorus,
the hero Heracles is said to have slain the Lernaean Hydra,[138][139] a multiple-
headed serpent which dwelt in the swamps of Lerna.[138][139]
The legendary account of the foundation of Thebes mentioned a monster
snake guarding the spring from which the new settlement was to draw its
water. In ghting and killing the snake, the companions of the founder
Cadmus all perished – leading to the term "Cadmean victory" (i.e. a victory
involving one's own ruin).[citation needed]
Rod of Asclepius, in which the snake, through ecdysis, symbolizes healing

Three medical symbols involving snakes that are still used today are Bowl of
Hygieia, symbolizing pharmacy, and the Caduceus and Rod of Asclepius,
which are symbols denoting medicine in general.[59]
One of the etymologies proposed for the common female rst name Linda is
that it might derive from Old German Lindi or Linda, meaning a serpent.
India is often called the land of snakes and is steeped in tradition regarding
snakes.[140] Snakes are worshipped as gods even today with many women
pouring milk on snake pits (despite snakes' aversion for milk).[140] The cobra is
seen on the neck of Shiva and Vishnu is depicted often as sleeping on a
seven-headed snake or within the coils of a serpent.[141] There are also
several temples in India solely for cobras sometimes called Nagraj (King of
Snakes) and it is believed that snakes are symbols of fertility. There is a
fi
fi
Hindu festival called Nag Panchami each year on which day snakes are
venerated and prayed to. See also Nāga.[citation needed]
In India there is another mythology about snakes. Commonly known in Hindi
as "Ichchhadhari" snakes. Such snakes can take the form of any living
creature, but prefer human form. These mythical snakes possess a valuable
gem called "Mani", which is more brilliant than diamond. There are many
stories in India about greedy people trying to possess this gem and ending up
getting killed.[citation needed]
The snake is one of the 12 celestial animals of Chinese zodiac, in the
Chinese calendar.[142]
Many ancient Peruvian cultures worshipped nature.[143] They emphasized
animals and often depicted snakes in their art.[144]
Religion
Main article: Snake worship
Snakes are used in Hinduism as a part of ritual worship.[145] In the annual Nag
Panchami festival, participants worship either live cobras or images of Nāgas.
Lord Shiva is depicted in most images with a snake coiled around his neck.[146]
Puranic literature includes various stories associated with snakes, for
example Shesha is said to hold all the planets of the Universe on his hoods
and to constantly sing the glories of Vishnu from all his mouths. Other notable
snakes in Hinduism are Vasuki, Takshaka, Karkotaka, and Pingala. The term
Nāga is used to refer to entities that take the form of large snakes in
Hinduism and Buddhism.[147]
Snakes have been widely revered in many cultures, such as in ancient
Greece where the serpent was seen as a healer.[148] Asclepius carried a
serpent wound around his wand, a symbol seen today on many ambulances.
[149] In Judaism, the snake of brass is also a symbol of healing, of one's life
being saved from imminent death.[150]

In religious terms, the snake and jaguar were arguably the most important
animals in ancient Mesoamerica.[151] "In states of ecstasy, lords dance a
serpent dance; great descending snakes adorn and support buildings from
Chichen Itza to Tenochtitlan, and the Nahuatl word coatl meaning serpent or
twin, forms part of primary deities such as Mixcoatl, Quetzalcoatl, and
Coatlicue."[152] In the Maya and Aztec calendars, the fth day of the week was
known as Snake Day.
In some parts of Christianity, the redemptive work of Jesus Christ is
compared to saving one's life through beholding the Nehushtan (serpent of
brass).[153] Snake handlers use snakes as an integral part of church worship,
to demonstrate their faith in divine protection. However, more commonly in
fi
Christianity, the serpent has been depicted as a representative of evil and sly
plotting, as seen in the description in Genesis of a snake tempting Eve in the
Garden of Eden.[154] Saint Patrick is purported to have expelled all snakes
from Ireland while converting the country to Christianity in the 5th century,
thus explaining the absence of snakes there.[155]
In Christianity and Judaism, the snake makes its infamous appearance in the
rst book of the Bible when a serpent appears before Adam and Eve and
tempts them with the forbidden fruit from the Tree of Knowledge.[154] The
snake returns in the Book of Exodus when Moses turns his staff into a snake
as a sign of God's power, and later when he makes the Nehushtan, a bronze
snake on a pole that when looked at cured the people of bites from the
snakes that plagued them in the desert. The serpent makes its nal
appearance symbolizing Satan in the Book of Revelation: "And he laid hold
on the dragon the old serpent, which is the devil and Satan, and bound him
for a thousand years."[156]
In Neo-Paganism and Wicca, the snake is seen as a symbol of wisdom and
knowledge.[157] Additionally, snakes are sometimes associated with Hecate,
the Greek goddess of witchcraft.[158]
Ballcourt marker from the Postclassic site of Mixco Viejo in Guatemala. This sculpture
depicts Kukulkan, jaws agape, with the head of a human warrior emerging from his
maw.[159]
Medicine
Several compounds from snake venoms are being researched as potential
treatments or preventatives for pain, cancers, arthritis, stroke, heart disease,
hemophilia, and hypertension, and to control bleeding (e.g. during surgery).
[160][161][162]
See also
fi
fi
• Limbless vertebrates
• List of Serpentes families
• List of snakes
• Ophiology
• Snakebot
• Snake detection theory
• Snake skeleton
• Spinal osteoarthropathy (reptile disease)
• The New Encyclopedia of Snakes
• The Snakes of Europe and Snakes of Europe Wikibooks:Snakes of
Europe, a wikibook
• Venomous snake
Portals:
• Snakes
• Reptiles
• Animals
References
1. Hsiang AY, Field DJ, Webster TH, Behlke AD, Davis MB, Racicot RA, Gauthier
JA (May 2015). "The origin of snakes: revealing the ecology, behavior, and
evolutionary history of early snakes using genomics, phenomics, and the fossil
record". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 15: 87. doi:10.1186/s12862-015-0358-5.
PMC 4438441. PMID 25989795.
2. Reeder TW, Townsend TM, Mulcahy DG, Noonan BP, Wood PL, Sites JW,
Wiens JJ (2015). "Integrated analyses resolve con icts over squamate reptile
phylogeny and reveal unexpected placements for fossil taxa". PLOS ONE. 10
(3): e0118199. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1018199R. doi:10.1371/
journal.pone.0118199. PMC 4372529. PMID 25803280.
3. Wiens JJ, Brandley MC, Reeder TW (January 2006). "Why does a trait evolve
multiple times within a clade? Repeated evolution of snakelike body form in
squamate reptiles" (PDF). Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution.
60 (1): 123–41. doi:10.1554/05-328.1. PMID 16568638. S2CID 17688691.
4. Bauchot, Roland, ed. (1994). Snakes: A Natural History. New York: Sterling
Publishing Co., Inc. p. 220. ISBN 978-1-4027-3181-5.
5. "Search results for Higher taxa: snake". reptile-database.org. Retrieved 7 March
2021.
6. Hedges SB (4 August 2008). "At the lower size limit in snakes: two new species
of threadsnakes (Squamata: Leptotyphlopidae: Leptotyphlops) from the Lesser
Antilles" (PDF). Zootaxa. 1841: 1–30. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.1841.1.1. Archived
(PDF) from the original on 13 August 2008. Retrieved 4 August 2008.
fl
7. Fredriksson, G. M. (2005). "Predation on Sun Bears by Reticulated Python in
East Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo". Raf es Bulletin of Zoology. 53 (1): 165–
168. Archived from the original on 9 July 2014.
8. Head JJ, Bloch JI, Hastings AK, Bourque JR, Cadena EA, Herrera FA, et al.
(February 2009). "Giant boid snake from the Palaeocene neotropics reveals
hotter past equatorial temperatures". Nature. 457 (7230): 715–7.
Bibcode:2009Natur.457..715H. doi:10.1038/nature07671. PMID 19194448.
S2CID 4381423.
9. Perkins S (27 January 2015). "Fossils of oldest known snakes unearthed".
news.sciencemag.org. Archived from the original on 30 January 2015.
Retrieved 29 January 2015.
10. Caldwell MW, Nydam RL, Palci A, Apesteguía S (January 2015). "The oldest
known snakes from the Middle Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous provide insights on
snake evolution". Nature Communications. 6 (5996): 5996.
Bibcode:2015NatCo...6.5996C. doi:10.1038/ncomms6996. PMID 25625704.
11. Proto-IE: *(s)nēg-o-, Meaning: snake, Old Indian: nāgá- m. 'snake', Germanic:
*snēk-a- m., *snak-an- m., *snak-ō f.; *snak-a- vb., Russ. meaning: жаба
(змея), References: WP (Vergleichendes Wörterbuch der indogermanischen
Sprachen) II 697 f.
12. "snake (n.)". etymonline.com. Archived from the original on 19 July 2010.
Retrieved 22 September 2009.
13. "De nition of serpent". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Archived from the
original on 17 October 2007. Retrieved 12 October 2006.
14. Lee MS, Hugall AF, Lawson R, Scanlon JD (2007). "Phylogeny of snakes
(Serpentes): combining morphological and molecular data in likelihood,
Bayesian and parsimony analyses". Systematics and Biodiversity. 5 (4): 371–
389. doi:10.1017/S1477200007002290. hdl:2440/44258. S2CID 85912034.
15. Durand, J.F. (2004). The origin of snakes. Geoscience Africa. Vol. Abstract.
Johannesburg, South Africa: University of the Witwatersrand. p. 187.
16. Vidal, N.; Rage, J.-C.; Couloux, A.; Hedges, S.B. (2009). "Snakes (Serpentes)".
In Hedges, S. B.; Kumar, S. (eds.). The Timetree of Life. Oxford University
Press. pp. 390–397.
17. Mehrtens, J. M. (1987). Living Snakes of the World in Color. New York: Sterling
Publishers. ISBN 0-8069-6460-X.
18. Sanchez A. "Diapsids III: Snakes". Father Sanchez's Web Site of West Indian
Natural History. Archived from the original on 27 November 2007. Retrieved 26
November 2007.
19. "New Fossil Snake With Legs". UNEP WCMC Database. Washington, D.C.:
American Association for the Advancement of Science. Archived from the
original on 25 December 2007. Retrieved 29 November 2007.
20. Holman JA (2000). Fossil Snakes of North America (First ed.). Bloomington, IN:
Indiana University Press. pp. 284–323. ISBN 978-0253337214.
fi
fl
21. Yi, Hongyu; Norell, Mark A. (2015). "The burrowing origin of modern snakes".
Science Advances. 1 (10): e1500743. Bibcode:2015SciA....1E0743Y.
doi:10.1126/sciadv.1500743. PMC 4681343. PMID 26702436. S2CID 8912706.
22. Mc Dowell S (1972). "The Evolution of the Tongue of Snakes, and its Bearing
on Snake Origins". Evolutionary Biology. Vol. 6. pp. 191–273.
doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-9063-3_8. ISBN 978-1-4684-9065-7.
23. Apesteguía S, Zaher H (April 2006). "A Cretaceous terrestrial snake with robust
hindlimbs and a sacrum". Nature. 440 (7087): 1037–40.
Bibcode:2006Natur.440.1037A. doi:10.1038/nature04413. PMID 16625194.
S2CID 4417196. Archived from the original on 18 December 2007.
24. Mertens R (1961). "Lanthanotus: an important lizard in evolution". Sarawak
Museum Journal. 10: 320–322.
25. Jonathan W (24 July 2014). "Four-legged snake ancestor 'dug burrows'". BBC
Science & Environment. Archived from the original on 26 July 2015. Retrieved
24 July 2015.
26. Yong E (23 July 2015). "A Fossil Snake With Four Legs". National Geographic.
Archived from the original on 23 July 2015. Retrieved 24 July 2015.
27. Martill DM, Tischlinger H, Longrich NR (July 2015). "EVOLUTION. A four-legged
snake from the Early Cretaceous of Gondwana". Science. 349 (6246): 416–9.
Bibcode:2015Sci...349..416M. doi:10.1126/science.aaa9208. PMID 26206932.
S2CID 25822461.
28. "Famous Discovery of Four-Legged Snake Fossil Turns Out to Have a Twist in
The Tale". www.msn.com. Retrieved 18 November 2021.
29. Vidal N, Hedges SB (May 2004). "Molecular evidence for a terrestrial origin of
snakes". Proceedings. Biological Sciences. 271 (Suppl 4): S226-9. doi:10.1098/
rsbl.2003.0151. PMC 1810015. PMID 15252991.
30. Caldwell MW, Nydam RL, Palci A, Apesteguía S (January 2015). "The oldest
known snakes from the Middle Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous provide insights on
snake evolution". Nature Communications. 6 (1): 5996.
Bibcode:2015NatCo...6.5996C. doi:10.1038/ncomms6996. PMID 25625704.
31. Bergmann, Philip J.; Morinaga, Gen (March 2019). "The convergent evolution of
snake‐like forms by divergent evolutionary pathways in squamate reptiles*".
Evolution. 73 (3): 481–496. doi:10.1111/evo.13651. ISSN 0014-3820.
PMID 30460998. S2CID 53944173.
32. "What a Legless Mouse Tells Us About Snake Evolution". The Atlantic. Archived
from the original on 24 October 2016. Retrieved 25 October 2016.
33. "Snakes Used to Have Legs and Arms … Until These Mutations Happened".
Live Science. Archived from the original on 22 October 2016. Retrieved 22
October 2016.
34. Leal F, Cohn MJ (November 2016). "Loss and Re-emergence of Legs in Snakes
by Modular Evolution of Sonic hedgehog and HOXD Enhancers". Current
Biology. 26 (21): 2966–2973. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.09.020. PMID 27773569.
35. Kvon EZ, Kamneva OK, Melo US, Barozzi I, Osterwalder M, Mannion BJ, et al.
(October 2016). "Progressive Loss of Function in a Limb Enhancer during
Snake Evolution". Cell. 167 (3): 633–642.e11. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2016.09.028.
PMC 5484524. PMID 27768887.
36. "The Reptile Database". www.reptile-database.org. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
37. Conant R, Collins J (1991). A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/
Central North America. Boston: Houghton Mif in Company.
ISBN 978-0-395-58389-0.
38. Natural History Information Centre; Auckland War Memorial Museum. "Natural
History Questions". Auckland War Memorial Museum | Tamaki Paenga Hira.
Auckland, New Zealand: Auckland War Memorial Museum. Q. Are there any
snakes in New Zealand?. Archived from the original on 12 July 2012. Retrieved
26 April 2012.
39. "Serpentes". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
40. Pough FH (2002) [1992]. Herpetology: Third Edition. Pearson Prentice Hall.
ISBN 978-0-13-100849-6.
41. McDiarmid RW, Campbell JA, Touré T. 1999. Snake Species of the World: A
Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, vol. 1. Herpetologists' League. 511 pp.
ISBN 1-893777-00-6 (series). ISBN 1-893777-01-4 (volume).
42. Spawls, S.; Howell, K.; Drewes, R.; Ashe, J. (2004). A Field Guide To The
Reptiles Of East Africa. London: A & C Black Publishers Ltd.
ISBN 0-7136-6817-2.
43. Elapidae at the Reptarium.cz Reptile Database. Accessed 3 December 2008.
44. Rivas JA (2000). The life history of the green anaconda (Eunectes murinus),
with emphasis on its reproductive Biology (PDF) (Ph.D. thesis). University of
Tennessee. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 12
December 2014.
45. Boback SM, Guyer C (February 2003). "Empirical evidence for an optimal body
size in snakes". Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution. 57 (2):
345–51. doi:10.1554/0014-3820(2003)057[0345:EEFAOB]2.0.CO;2.
PMID 12683530. S2CID 198156987.
46. Cogger & Zweifel 1992, p. 180.
47. Sound garden: How snakes respond to airborne and groundborne sounds
48. "Reptile Senses: Understanding Their World". Petplace.com. 18 May 2015.
Archived from the original on 19 February 2015. Retrieved 9 January 2016.
49. Sea Snakes Regained Color Vision via Rare Genetic Evolution
50. Some sea snakes have re-evolved the ability to see more colours
51. "Snake eyes: New insights into visual adaptations". ScienceDaily. 16 August
2016.
52. Simões, Bruno F.; et al. (October 2016). "Visual Pigments, Ocular Filters and
the Evolution of Snake Vision". Molecular Biology and Evolution. Oxford
University Press. 33 (10): 2483–2495. doi:10.1093/molbev/msw148.
PMID 27535583.
53. Smith, Malcolm A. The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma. Vol
I, Loricata and Testudines. p. 30.
fl
54. "Are Snakes Slimy?". szgdocent.org. Archived from the original on 5 August
2006.
55. Allen WL, Baddeley R, Scott-Samuel NE, Cuthill IC (2013). "The evolution and
function of pattern diversity in snakes". Behavioral Ecology. 24 (5): 1237–1250.
doi:10.1093/beheco/art058. ISSN 1465-7279.
56. Bauwens, Dirk; Van Damme, Raoul; Verheyen, Rudolf F. (1989).
"Synchronization of Spring Molting with the Onset of Mating Behavior in Male
Lizards, Lacerta vivipara". Journal of Herpetology. 23 (1): 89–91.
doi:10.2307/1564326. ISSN 0022-1511. JSTOR 1564326.
57. "ZooPax: A Matter of Scale: Part III". Whozoo.org. Archived from the original on
16 January 2016. Retrieved 9 January 2016.
58. "General Snake Information". sdgfp.info. Archived from the original on 25
November 2007.
59. Wilcox RA, Whitham EM (April 2003). "The symbol of modern medicine: why
one snake is more than two". Annals of Internal Medicine. 138 (8): 673–7.
CiteSeerX 10.1.1.731.8485. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-138-8-200304150-00016.
PMID 12693891. S2CID 19125435.
60. Rosenfeld (1989), p. 11.
61. Hartline PH (April 1971). "Physiological basis for detection of sound and
vibration in snakes" (PDF). The Journal of Experimental Biology. 54 (2): 349–
71. doi:10.1242/jeb.54.2.349. PMID 5553415. Archived (PDF) from the original
on 17 December 2008.
62. Friedel P, Young BA, van Hemmen JL (February 2008). "Auditory localization of
ground-borne vibrations in snakes". Physical Review Letters. 100 (4): 048701.
Bibcode:2008PhRvL.100d8701F. doi:10.1103/physrevlett.100.048701.
PMID 18352341.
63. Zyga L (13 February 2008). "Desert Snake Hears Mouse Footsteps with its
Jaw". Phys.org. Archived from the original on 10 October 2011.
64. Cogger, H 1993 Fauna of Australia. Vol. 2A Amphibia and Reptilia. Australian
Biological Resources Studies, Canberra.
65. Arnold EN (1984). "Evolutionary aspects of tail shedding in lizards and their
relatives". Journal of Natural History. 18 (1): 127–169.
doi:10.1080/00222938400770131.
66. Ananjeva NB, Orlov NL (1994). "Caudal autotomy in Colubrid snake
Xenochrophis piscator from Vietnam". Russian Journal of Herpetology. 1 (2).
67. Gaete M, Tucker AS (2013). "Organized emergence of multiple-generations of
teeth in snakes is dysregulated by activation of Wnt/beta-catenin signalling".
PLOS ONE. 8 (9): e74484. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...874484G. doi:10.1371/
journal.pone.0074484. PMC 3760860. PMID 24019968.
68. Jensen B, Moorman AF, Wang T (May 2014). "Structure and function of the
hearts of lizards and snakes". Biological Reviews of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society. 89 (2): 302–36. doi:10.1111/brv.12056. PMID 23998743.
S2CID 20035062.
69. Burggren WW (1 February 1987). "Form and Function in Reptilian Circulations".
Integrative and Comparative Biology. 27 (1): 5–19. doi:10.1093/icb/27.1.5.
ISSN 1540-7063.
70. Mathur P (1944). "The anatomy of the reptilian heart. Part I. Varanus monitor
(Linn.)". Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. Sect. B 20: 1–29. Retrieved 10 May 2019.
71. Mader D (June 1995). "Reptilian Anatomy". Reptiles. 3 (2): 84–93.
72. Oliveira, Ana L.; Viegas, Matilde F.; da Silva, Saulo L.; Soares, Andreimar M.;
Ramos, Maria J.; Fernandes, Pedro A. (July 2022). "The chemistry of snake
venom and its medicinal potential". Nature Reviews Chemistry. 6 (7): 451–469.
doi:10.1038/s41570-022-00393-7. ISSN 2397-3358. PMC 9185726.
PMID 35702592.
73. Freiberg & Walls 1984, p. 125.
76. Fry BG, Vidal N, Norman JA, Vonk FJ, Scheib H, Ramjan SF, et al. (February
2006). "Early evolution of the venom system in lizards and snakes". Nature. 439
(7076): 584–8. Bibcode:2006Natur.439..584F. doi:10.1038/nature04328.
PMID 16292255. S2CID 4386245.
77. Capula (1989), p. 117.
78. Aldridge RD, Sever DM (19 April 2016). Reproductive Biology and Phylogeny of
Snakes. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4398-5833-2 – via Google Books.
79. Fowell, Megan J.; Sanders, Kate L.; Brennan, Patricia L. R.; Crowe-Riddell,
Jenna M. (21 December 2022). "First evidence of hemiclitores in snakes".
Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 289 (1989). doi:10.1098/rspb.2022.1702.
PMC 9748774. PMID 36515117.
81. Capula (1989), p. 118.
83. Shine R, Langkilde T, Mason RT (2004). "Courtship tactics in garter snakes:
How do a male's morphology and behaviour in uence his mating success?".
Animal Behaviour. 67 (3): 477–83. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.05.007.
S2CID 4830666.
84. Blouin-Demers G, Gibbs HL, Weatherhead PJ (2005). "Genetic evidence for
sexual selection in black ratsnakes, Elaphe obsoleta". Animal Behaviour. 69 (1):
225–34. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2004.03.012. S2CID 3907523.
85. Booth W, Smith CF, Eskridge PH, Hoss SK, Mendelson JR, Schuett GW
(December 2012). "Facultative parthenogenesis discovered in wild vertebrates".
Biology Letters. 8 (6): 983–5. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2012.0666. PMC 3497136.
PMID 22977071.
86. Booth W, Million L, Reynolds RG, Burghardt GM, Vargo EL, Schal C, et al.
(2011). "Consecutive virgin births in the new world boid snake, the Colombian
rainbow Boa, Epicrates maurus". The Journal of Heredity. 102 (6): 759–63.
doi:10.1093/jhered/esr080. PMID 21868391.
fl
87. Woltering, Joost M. (2012). "From Lizard to Snake; Behind the Evolution of an
Extreme Body Plan". Current Genomics. 13 (4): 289–299.
doi:10.2174/138920212800793302. PMC 3394116. PMID 23204918.
88. Zehr, David R. (20 July 1962). "Stages in the Normal Development of the
Common Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis". Copeia. 1962 (2): 322–
329. doi:10.2307/1440898. JSTOR 1440898.
89. Gomez, Céline; Özbudak, Ertuğrul M.; Wunderlich, Joshua; Baumann, Diana;
Lewis, Julian; Pourquié, Olivier (17 July 2008). "Control of segment number in
vertebrate embryos". Nature. 454 (7202): 335–339.
Bibcode:2008Natur.454..335G. doi:10.1038/nature07020. ISSN 0028-0836.
PMID 18563087. S2CID 4373389.
90. Boughner, Julia C.; Buchtová, Marcela; Fu, Katherine; Diewert, Virginia;
Hallgrímsson, Benedikt; Richman, Joy M. (June 2007). "Embryonic
development of Python sebae – I: Staging criteria and macroscopic skeletal
morphogenesis of the head and limbs". Zoology. 110 (3): 212–230. doi:10.1016/
j.zool.2007.01.005. ISSN 0944-2006. PMID 17499493.
91. Leal, Francisca; Cohn, Martin J. (January 2018). "Developmental, genetic, and
genomic insights into the evolutionary loss of limbs in snakes". Genesis. 56 (1):
e23077. doi:10.1002/dvg.23077. PMID 29095557. S2CID 4510082.
92. Kvon, Evgeny Z.; Kamneva, Olga K.; Melo, Uirá S.; Barozzi, Iros; Osterwalder,
Marco; Mannion, Brandon J.; Tissières, Virginie; Pickle, Catherine S.; Plajzer-
Frick, Ingrid; Lee, Elizabeth A.; Kato, Momoe (October 2016). "Progressive Loss
of Function in a Limb Enhancer during Snake Evolution". Cell. 167 (3): 633–
642.e11. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2016.09.028. PMC 5484524. PMID 27768887.
93. Behler & King 1979, p. 581.
94. Hoso M, Asami T, Hori M (April 2007). "Right-handed snakes: convergent
evolution of asymmetry for functional specialization". Biology Letters. 3 (2):
169–72. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0600. PMC 2375934. PMID 17307721.
95. Pyron RA, Burbrink FT, Wiens JJ (April 2013). "A phylogeny and revised
classi cation of Squamata, including 4161 species of lizards and snakes". BMC
Evolutionary Biology. 13: 93. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-13-93. PMC 3682911.
PMID 23627680.
96. Freiberg & Walls 1984, pp. 125–127.
97. Tattersall GJ, Milsom WK, Abe AS, Brito SP, Andrade DV (February 2004). "The
thermogenesis of digestion in rattlesnakes". The Journal of Experimental
Biology. 207 (Pt 4): 579–85. doi:10.1242/jeb.00790. PMID 14718501.
98. Young, B. A. (2010). "The functional morphology of hooding in cobras". Journal
of Experimental Biology. 213 (9): 1521–1528. doi:10.1242/jeb.034447.
PMID 20400637.
99. Young, B. A. (2004). "The buccal buckle: the functional morphology of venom
spitting in cobras". Journal of Experimental Biology. 207 (20): 3483–3494.
doi:10.1242/jeb.01170. PMID 15339944.
fi
100.Nasoori, Alireza; Shahbazzadeh, Delavar; Tsubota, Toshio; Young, Bruce A.
(Winter 2016). "The defensive behaviour of Naja oxiana, with comments on the
visual displays of cobras". The Herpetological Bulletin (138).
101.Cogger & Zweifel 1992, p. 175.
102.Gray J (December 1946). "The mechanism of locomotion in snakes". The
Journal of Experimental Biology. 23 (2): 101–20. doi:10.1242/jeb.23.2.101.
PMID 20281580.
103.Hekrotte C (1967). "Relations of Body Temperature, Size, and Crawling Speed
of the Common Garter Snake, Thamnophis s. sirtalis". Copeia. 23 (4): 759–763.
doi:10.2307/1441886. JSTOR 1441886.
104.Walton M, Jayne BC, Bennet AF (August 1990). "The energetic cost of limbless
locomotion". Science. 249 (4968): 524–7. Bibcode:1990Sci...249..524W.
doi:10.1126/science.249.4968.524. PMID 17735283. S2CID 17065200.
105.Gray J, Lissmann HW (1950). "Kinetics of locomotion of the grass snake".
Journal of Experimental Biology. 26 (4): 354–367. doi:10.1242/jeb.26.4.354.
Archived from the original on 9 July 2008.
106.Gray J (1953). "Undulatory propulsion". Quarterly Journal of Microscopical
Science. 94: 551–578.
107.Jayne BC (August 1988). "Muscular mechanisms of snake locomotion: an
electromyographic study of lateral undulation of the Florida banded water snake
(Nerodia fasciata) and the yellow rat snake (Elaphe obsoleta)". Journal of
Morphology. 197 (2): 159–81. doi:10.1002/jmor.1051970204. PMID 3184194.
S2CID 25729192.
108.Cogger & Zweifel 1992, p. 177.
109.Jayne BC (1986). "Kinematics of terrestrial snake locomotion". Copeia. 1986
(4): 915–927. doi:10.2307/1445288. JSTOR 1445288.
110. Astley HC, Jayne BC (November 2007). "Effects of perch diameter and incline
on the kinematics, performance and modes of arboreal locomotion of corn
snakes (Elaphe guttata)". The Journal of Experimental Biology. 210 (Pt 21):
3862–72. doi:10.1242/jeb.009050. PMID 17951427.
112. Socha JJ (August 2002). "Gliding ight in the paradise tree snake". Nature. 418
(6898): 603–4. Bibcode:2002Natur.418..603S. doi:10.1038/418603a.
PMID 12167849. S2CID 4424131.
114. "Snake bites". MedlinePlus.gov. Archived from the original on 4 December
2010. Retrieved 9 March 2010. from Tintinalli JE, Kelen GD, Stapcynski JS,
eds. Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide. 6th ed. New York,
NY: McGraw Hill; 2004. Update Date: 2/27/2008. Updated by: Stephen C.
Acosta, MD, Department of Emergency Medicine, Portland VA Medical Center,
Portland, OR. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed
by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc.
115. "Snake Bite First Aid – Snakebite". Health-care-clinic.org. Archived from the
original on 16 January 2016. Retrieved 9 January 2016.
fl
116. WHO. "The 17 neglected tropical diseases". WHO. World Health Organization.
Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 24 October 2014.
117. Sinha K (25 July 2006). "No more the land of snake charmers..." The Times of
India. Archived from the original on 11 August 2011.
118. "Snakebite envenoming". World Health Organization. Archived from the original
on 18 April 2017. Retrieved 27 October 2017.
119. Dubinsky I (November 1996). "Rattlesnake bite in a patient with horse allergy
and von Willebrand's disease: case report". Canadian Family Physician. 42:
2207–11. PMC 2146932. PMID 8939322.
120.Bagla P (23 April 2002). "India's Snake Charmers Fade, Blaming Eco-Laws,
TV". National Geographic News. Archived from the original on 18 December
2007. Retrieved 26 November 2007.
121.Harding L (2 April 2002). "Snake tricks lose their charm". The Guardian.
Retrieved 16 April 2020.
122.Chandra S (12 November 2013). "India's snake-charmers sway on the edge of
extinction". India Today. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
123.Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert (2002). "Snake charmer's bluff". International
Wildlife Encyclopedia. Vol. 4 (3rd ed.). Marshall Cavendish. p. 482.
ISBN 9780761472704. Archived from the original on 18 August 2016 – via
Google Books.
124.Whitaker, Romulus; Captain, Ashok (2004). Snakes of India: The Field Guide.
pp. 11–13.
125.Irvine FR (1954). "Snakes as food for man". British Journal of Herpetology. 1
(10): 183–189.
126.Shepherd K (19 March 2020). "John Cornyn criticized Chinese for eating
snakes. He forgot about the rattlesnake roundups back in Texas". The
Washington Post. Retrieved 19 March 2020.
127.Flynn E (23 April 2002). "Flynn of the Orient Meets the Cobra". Fabulous Travel.
Archived from the original on 17 November 2007. Retrieved 26 November
2007.
128.Allen, David (22 July 2001). "Okinawa's potent habu sake packs healthy punch,
poisonous snake". Stars and Stripes. Archived from the original on 28
November 2007. Retrieved 26 November 2007.
129."Shé jiǔ de pào zhì yǔ yào yòng" 蛇酒的泡制与药 [The production and
medicinal qualities of snake wine]. CN939.com (in Chinese). 9 April 2007.
Archived from the original on 6 July 2011.
130.Ernest C, Zug GR, Grif n MD (1996). Snakes in Question: The Smithsonian
Answer Book. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books. p. 203.
ISBN 978-1-56098-648-5.
131.Black J, Green A (1992). Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia:
An Illustrated Dictionary. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. pp. 166–168.
ISBN 978-0714117058.
fi
用
132.Hornung, Erik (2001). The Secret Lore of Egypt: Its Impact on the West. Ithaca,
New York and London, England: Cornell University Press. pp. 13, 44.
ISBN 978-0-8014-3847-9 – via Google Books.
133.Phinney, Edward Jr. (1971). "Perseus' Battle with the Gorgons". Transactions
and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 102: 445–463.
doi:10.2307/2935950. JSTOR 2935950.
134.Kinsley, David (1989). The Goddesses' Mirror: Visions of the Divine from East
and West. Albany, New York: New York State University Press. p. 151.
ISBN 978-0-88706-836-2 – via Google Books.
135.Deacy, Susan (2008). Athena. New York City, New York and London, England:
Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-30066-7 – via Google Books.
136.Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2.37, 38, 39
137.Seelig, Beth J. (August 2002). "The Rape of Medusa in the Temple of Athena:
Aspects of Triangulation in the Girl". The International Journal of
Psychoanalysis. 83 (4): 895–911. doi:10.1516/3NLL-UG13-TP2J-927M.
PMID 12204171. S2CID 28961886.
138.West, Martin Litch eld (2007). Indo-European Poetry and Myth. Oxford,
England: Oxford University Press. p. 258. ISBN 978-0-19-928075-9.
139.Ogden, Daniel (2013). Drakon: Dragon Myth and Serpent Cult in the Ancient
Greek and Roman Worlds. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 28–
29. ISBN 978-0-19-955732-5 – via Google Books.
140.Deane 1833, p. 61.
141.Deane 1833, pp. 62–64.
142."The Chinese Calendar". timeanddate.com. Archived from the original on 15
August 2017. Retrieved 1 June 2017.
143.Benson, Elizabeth (1972). The Mochica: A Culture of Peru. London: Thames &
Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-72001-1.
144.Berrin K, Larco Museum (1997). The Spirit of Ancient Peru: Treasures from the
Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames & Hudson.
ISBN 978-0-500-01802-6.
145.Kerkar, Rajendra P. (4 August 2011). "Hindus unite to worship the snake god
today". The Times of India. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
146.Iyer, Gayathri (22 August 2019). "What is the signi cance of the snake around
Lord Shiva's neck?". TimesNowNews.com. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
147."naga | Hindu mythology | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 1 July
2022.
148.Tsoucalas, Gregory; Androutsos, George (2019). "Chapter 17 – Asclepius and
the Snake as Toxicological Symbols in Ancient Greece and Rome". In Wexler,
Philip (ed.). History of Toxicology and Environmental Health Series: Toxicology
in Antiquity (Second ed.). Elsevier Inc. pp. 257–265. ISBN 978-0-12-815339-0.
Retrieved 3 March 2021 – via ScienceDirect.
149."The Origin of the Medical Emergency Symbol". Mediband.com. 26 February
2019. Retrieved 26 February 2021.
150.Numbers 21:6–21:9
fi
fi
151.Vickery, Kirby (1 August 2019). "The Mesoamerican Serpent". Manzanillo Sun.
Retrieved 3 March 2021.
152.Miller, Mary (1993). The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya.
London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-27928-1.
153.John 3:14
154.Genesis 3:1
155.Drew, April (24 February 2019). "Did St. Patrick really banish all the snakes
from Ireland?". IrishCentral.com. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
156.Revelation 20:2
157."DISCUSSION ON WITCHCRAFT, WICCA NEO-PAGANISM AND AFRICAN
TRADITIONS". people.ucalgary.ca. Retrieved 1 July 2022.
158.Seyffert, Oskar (1901). A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities: Mythology,
Religion, Literature and Art (6 ed.). Swan Sonnenschein and Co. p. 271.
Retrieved 2 January 2022.
159.Sharer RJ, Traxler LP (2006). The Ancient Maya (6th (fully revised) ed.).
Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 619.
ISBN 978-0-8047-4817-9. OCLC 57577446.
160.Vyas VK, Brahmbhatt K, Bhatt H, Parmar U (February 2013). "Therapeutic
potential of snake venom in cancer therapy: current perspectives". Asian Paci c
Journal of Tropical Biomedicine. 3 (2): 156–62. doi:10.1016/
S2221-1691(13)60042-8. PMC 3627178. PMID 23593597.
161.Holland JS (February 2013). "The Bite That Heals". National Geographic.
162.Wilcox C (2016). Venomous. Scienti c American. ISBN 978-0374283377.
Further reading
• Behler JL, King FW (1979). The Audubon Society Field Guide to Reptiles and
Amphibians of North America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 581.
ISBN 978-0-394-50824-5.
• Bull nch T (2000). Bull nch's Complete Mythology. London: Chancellor Press.
p. 679. ISBN 978-0-7537-0381-6. Archived from the original on 9 February
2009.
• Capula M, Behler JL (1989). Simon & Schuster's Guide to Reptiles and
Amphibians of the World. New York: Simon & Schuster.
ISBN 978-0-671-69098-4.
• Coborn J (1991). The Atlas of Snakes of the World. New Jersey: TFH
Publications. ISBN 978-0-86622-749-0.
• Cogger H, Zweifel R (1992). Reptiles & Amphibians. Sydney: Weldon Owen.
ISBN 978-0-8317-2786-4.
• Conant R, Collins J (1991). A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/
Central North America. Boston: Houghton Mif in Company.
ISBN 978-0-395-58389-0.
• Deane, John (1833). The Worship of the Serpent. White sh, Montana:
Kessinger Publishing. p. 412. ISBN 978-1-56459-898-1.
fi
fi
fi
fl
fi
fi
• Ditmars, Raymond L (1906). Poisonous Snakes of the United States: How to
Distinguish Them. New York: E. R. Sanborn. p. 11.
• Ditmars, Raymond L (1931). Snakes of the World. New York: Macmillan. p. 11.
ISBN 978-0-02-531730-7.
• Ditmars RL (1933). Reptiles of the World: The Crocodilians, Lizards, Snakes,
Turtles and Tortoises of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. New York:
Macmillan. p. 321.
• Ditmars RL, Bridges W (1935). Snake-Hunters' Holiday. New York: D. Appleton
and Company. p. 309.

Snake

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Snake

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Contents hide

Toggle Evolution subsection

Toggle Taxonomy subsection

Toggle Biology subsection

Toggle Behavior subsection

Toggle Interactions with humans subsection

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Scienti c classi cation

Approximate world distribution of snakes, all species

Snakes are elongated, limbless, carnivorous reptiles of the suborder

Genetic basis of snake evolution

Approximate world distribution of snakes

Thermographic image of a snake eating a mouse

A common watersnake shedding its skin

The garter snake has been studied for sexual selection.

Diagram illustrating differential somite size due to difference in somitogenesis clock

African egg-eating snake eating an egg

Carpet python constricting and consuming a chicken

Dolichophis jugularis preying on a sheltopusik

Crawling prints of a snake

Golden tree snake climbing a ower

depending on species and bark texture.[110] In general, snakes will use a

Interactions with humans

The Indian cobra is the most common subject of snake charmings.

A "海豹蛇" ("sea-leopard snake", supposedly Enhydris bocourti) occupies a place of

Snake meat, in a Taipei restaurant

Snake wine (蛇酒) is an alcoholic beverage produced by infusing whole

"The Smoking Snake", insignia of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force in WWII

A common adder in the coat of arms of the Kyyjärvi municipality

Medusa (1597) by the Italian artist Caravaggio

Rod of Asclepius, in which the snake, through ecdysis, symbolizes healing

being saved from imminent death.[150]

You might also like