Technological Institute of the Philippines - Quezon City

College of Engineering and Architecture

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Cascaded-Amplifiers
Assignment research no.1

By:
Alejo Aljiven R.

Subj & Sec: ECE 010 / ECE22S1

Date: August 19, 2023

Engr. Richard Garcia

Industry Lecturer / Professor
What is a Cascaded Amplifier?

When some designers hear the word “amplifier,” they probably think of op-
amps. These components are packaged in individual ICs and have the
familiar triangular symbol in a circuit diagram or schematic. Real amplifiers
for specialized applications don’t always contain a single amplifier circuit.
Instead, they are cascaded amplifiers. A cascaded amplifier simply means
multiple amplifiers lumped together into a single device. The output of one
amplifier stage is connected to the input amplifier stage. It is not uncommon
to see four amplifier stages in specialized amplifier ICs. Some examples
include laser pulse driver amplifiers, and power amplifiers for RF designs.

Placing the amplifier stages in series in this way allows more gain to be
applied to an input signal. The gain provided by each stage of the amplifier is
additive or multiplicative, as long as each stage of the amplifier is not
running in the saturation regime. An example of a 2-stage common emitter
amplifier circuit is shown in the circuit diagram below.
 2

-stage common emitter amplifier

In the above schematic, the common emitter configuration for an NPN

transistor has been used for the amplifier stages, but you could also use the
common collector configuration. Other configurations use MOSFET
amplifier stages, particularly power amplifiers. The configuration of resistors
(and capacitors/inductors) will determine the gain of an individual amplifier
stage. However, the total cascaded amplifier gain will depend on the gains
from the individual amplifiers.
Cascaded Amplifier Gain and Noise Figure

The gain of an amplifier section is just the output signal divided by the input.
Since the output voltage from one stage is the input to the next stage, the total
gain is the product of gains from each amplifier stage:

Note that gain could also be calculated in terms of input and output current.
In dB terms, the total gain is just the sum of dB gains from each amplifier
stage:

Any noise that is present on the input signal will also be amplified. The total
noise produced at the output of the amplifier is shown in the equation below.
Note that this signal is a standard noise figure and is expressed as a voltage in
dB. Each Gi and Ni value is expressed in dB, and n0 is the input noise level
in dB.
Note that these equations assume the amplifier is operating in the linear
regime. If the input signal in an amplifier stage is too large and the amplifier
saturates, the output signal from that stage will stop increasing. However, the
noise level will be low enough that the noise will still continue acquiring gain
and increasing. In order to prevent noise from increasing faster than the
signal level, each amplifier stage must run in the linear regime.

Discrete Multistage Amplifiers

If you’re innovating a new component architecture for a specific application,

and an SoC or ideal IC is not available, you can build your own multistage
amplifiers from separate single-stage amplifier ICs. This is a good way to
experiment with new cascaded amplifier chains before designing an SoM,
SoC, or multistage amplifier IC.

The key point to consider when designing a custom cascaded amplifier chain
is to determine the saturation point for each of the amplifier stages. The gain
provided by an amplifier stage can only be realized when the amplifier runs
in the linear regime. If one amplifier stage is running near saturation, all
subsequent stages can saturate, leading to strong clipping and harmonic
generation in the output signal.

Just like an individual transistor, the linear regime for a particular amplifier
stage can be determined from a load line simulation. This essentially involves
performing a series of DC sweeps for the amplifier input voltage. The output
from one stage becomes the input to the next stage; depending on the values
of the resistors connected to each stage (see resistors R1 and R3 above), the
load line for a subsequent stage may lie in the saturation region. This should
be checked during design.

Load line for a cascaded amplifier.

Cascade Amplifier Theory
Cascading amplification is mostly preferred in the situations of long-distance,
electronic controlling, radar, television, and in many calculating instruments.
To cascade amplifiers, there exist multiple types of schemes and it is based
on the signal behavior in the amplification procedure. When compared with
vacuum tubes amplification, solid-state of microelectronics holds more
benefits for directly coupling multiple amplifiers. Even transformers are also
implemented for cascade amplification, but they have heavy constructional
design and expensive too.

In correspondence to the input signal, an electronic amplifier delivers an

amplified output signal and this is termed to be linear kind of amplification.
When there happens any modification in the shape of the signal, in the
process of amplification, then amplitude distortion takes place. Or else when all
the frequency ranges are not equally amplified by the amplifier, it is termed as
frequency distortion.

Based on the type of connection of amplifier phases, there are various kinds
of cascading amplifiers and those are as below:

 RC cascaded amplifier (Resistor – Capacitor)

 LC cascaded amplifier (Inductor – Capacitance)
 RL cascaded amplifier (Resistor – Inductor)
 Transformer cascaded
 Direct cascaded
 Optical cascaded

Transformer cascaded amplifiers are probably termed as tuned amplifiers.

Staggered tuning is the one cascaded amplifier where every individual phase
frequency is tuned to a certain range so as to enhance the gain and bandwidth
of the amplifier.

Gain

As there are multiple stages in a cascade amplifier, the gain of the whole
amplifier is known by multiplying the gain of each individual stage.
Gain = G1 * G2 * G3*……..*Gn

Where G1, G2, G3, and Gn are the gains of individual amplifiers. When the
gain of the cascaded amplifier is calculated in decibels, then the overall
amplifier gain is given by

Gain (dB) = G1 + G2 + G3+ ……+Gn

Cascade Amplifier Analysis

To design complicated systems, there are mainly three fundamental
configurations in the cascade design. Through the cascading of amplifiers,
the circuits deliver enhanced performance and greater efficiency. The basic
analysis of the cascade amplifier can be known through the below.

In the two-phase cascading amplifier, the required consideration is what is

the condition when the non-ideal amplifiers are placed in a series position.
From the below figure it is known that both the input and output resistances
comes into operation by minimizing the circuit gain. When the input and
output resistance values are 0 and infinity and the amplifiers have A1 and A2
gains, then the entire gain of the circuit is A1*A2. Let us now analyze that
the gain thinking nothing regarding the input and output resistances of each
individual phase, considering those as voltage dividers in between the two
phases and in between the last stage and the load at the output.
 Basic Two Stage Cascade Amplifier
The voltage between the two stages is

Input V1 = A1 * Input V1 (Input R2/(input R2 + output R1))

While the Vout in between output R and load resistance is

Output V = A2 * Input V2 (RL/( RL + output R2))

So, the entire gain of the circuit is given by

Vout/Vin = A1 * A2 [(Input R2/(input R2 + output R1))] * [(RL/( RL +

output R2))]

With the above overall gain equation, it minimizes to Av = A1* A2 when we

consider the input and output resistance values as zero and infinity. In most
of the cascaded amplifier stages, when the input resistance is either in Mega
or Giga Ohms and output resistance is in the range of 10 -100Ω, then the
circuit gain is the product of A1 and A2.

For instance: when input resistance = 1MΩ and output resistance = 100Ω and
load resistance is 1MΩ, then the gain is

Vout/Vin = A1 * A2 [(1M Ω /(1M Ω + 100 Ω)] * [(1M Ω /(1M Ω + 100 Ω)]

= 0.9998A1*A2 ~ A1*A2
CE/CC Cascading Method
With the cascading method of common emitter which is followed up with a
common collector, the stage delivers a better voltage amplifier. The CE
resistance is correspondingly high whereas the CC (output resistance) is
correspondingly low. The transistor Q2 stage provides no increase in the gain
of the voltage but offers a close minimal resistance output so the gain is
almost not dependent on load resistance values. While the maximized
resistance at the Q1 stage shows that the CE voltage is not dependent on
input source resistance values. Many CE stages might be cascaded with that
of emitter follower phases so that this cascading procedure lessens
attenuation that happens because of interphase loading.

CE Cascade Amplifier Circuit

Advantages

The cascade amplifier advantages are:

 Enhanced performance and efficiency

 Maximum flatness levels
 Minimal noise figure in the range of 1-10GHz
 Increased gain
  Increased bandwidth allows the devices to be widely employed for
high-voltage amplifier purposes
 Hight input and output impedances
 Used for the better amplification of signals

RC COUPLING
This method is probably the
most common type of coupling
in amplifier circuits. The
coupling means connecting the
output of one circuit to the input
of the next. The requirements
are to include all frequencies in
the desired signal while
rejecting undesired components,
Usually, the dc component must
be blocked from the input to ac
amplifiers. The purpose is to
maintain a specific dc level for
the amplifier operation.
In Fig 8.1, the pulsating dc
voltage across input terminals 1
and 2 is applied to the average
charging voltage The steady dc
component is blocked,
therefore, since it cannot
produce voltage
across R. However, the ac
component is developed across
R, between output terminal 3
and 4.
The reason is that the ac voltage
allows C to produce charge and
discharge current through R.
DIRECT COUPLING
Direct Coupling is also used in
cascaded transistor amplifiers.
An advantage of direct
coupling is the savings possible
in components and the
improvement in the frequency
response.
 Direct coupling is possible
using PNP and NPN transistors,
PNP and NPN transistors
exhibit a properly known as
“complementary symmetry”,
that is the polarity of the signal
necessary to increase current in
one type is the opposite of that
necessary to increase current in
the other.
LINEAR OPERATION
Two or any number or
amplifiers operated in cascade
may be considered as a single
amplifier w/a single input and
single output. When two or
more amplifiers are operated in
cascade, the characteristics of
the total unit must confirm to
the requirements of the
application.
For example, if two or more
transistor amplifiers in cascade
constitute an audio amplifier,
the
amplifier must be operated its
linear characteristic for
distortion less reproduction of
sound.
 An oscilloscope may be used
to test linear operation. An
audio sine-wave generator is
used as the signal source. The
output of the amplifier is
monitored with an oscilloscope.
To
determine the range of linear
operation, the input signal level
is increased from zero to just
below
the point of distortion (clipping)
in the output. The maximum
generator signal which does not
introduce distortion is thud
determine and may be
measured.

DARLINGTON PAIR
A very popular connection of
two bipolar junction transistors
for operation as one
“superbeta” transistor is the
Darlington connection. The
main feature of the Darlington
connection is that the composite
transistor acts as a single unit
with a current gain that is the
product of the current gains of
the individual transistors. If the
connection is made using two
separate transistors having
current gains of β1 and β2 the
Darlington connection provides
a
current gain of
If the two transistors are
matched so that β1 – β2 the
Darlington connection provides
a
2
current gain of βD – β
How Cascaded Amplifier Gain Is Essential to

Functionality in Various Applications

 Single amplifier forming a section of the cascaded amplifier circuit.

During the height of car audio, many considered the increasing size of
subwoofers as the next breakthrough in sound output (SPL). But, like nearly
all things in the field of electronics, advancements are staggered due to
current ancillary limitations.

The increase in driver size created the need for an increase in amplifier
power. However, the amplifier technology at the time did not match the pace
of the advancement and subsequent increase in subwoofer size. This
introduced the car audio world to daisy-chaining (cascading) to accommodate
the need for increased amplifier output.
Daisy-chaining (cascading) amplifiers in the field of car audio is no longer
necessary due to the advancement in amplifier technology, i.e., increased
SNR, efficiency, stability down to ½ ohm, and output power. In other areas
within the field of electronics, cascading is still a requirement.

As you may know, a cascade amplifier is a two-port network comprised of a

series of amplifiers in which each amplifier connects (sends) its output to the
input of the next amplifier in the chain. This complicates gain calculations for
these cascaded stages due to the loading between the stages or.

The performance requirement of many applications is unobtainable from a

single-stage amplifier, thus the need for multiple-stage amplification. These
cascaded amplifiers produce increased gains over the gains possible by the
individual amplifiers. In general, the overall gain of a cascade amplifier is the
result of the gains of the individual stages, ignoring the potential loading
effects.

The Purpose for Cascading Amplifiers

The overall reason for cascading amplifiers is the need for an increase in
amplifier output to meet a specific requirement, e.g., to increase the signal
strength in a Television or radio receiver.

Using a cascade, or multistage, amplifier can provide your design with a

higher current gain or voltage gain. Typically, we utilize cascading amplifier
stages to increase our overall amplifier gain, but in other instances, it is for
achieving a necessary input or output impedance.

Below is a simplified view of a cascade amplifier with two stages in series.

Here we have a simplified diagram of the same two-stage cascaded amplifier

in circuit-level view.
Cascaded Amplifier Gain

We briefly referenced that calculating the overall gain of a cascaded amplifier

is more complicated due to the loading between the amplifier stages. Keep in
mind that these are still amplifiers, and therefore, individual output gains will
fall under the purview of amplifier gain characteristics.

Amplifier gain correlates to the relationship between the measure of the input
signal to the ratio of its output signal. There are three types of amplifier gain
in which we can measure: current gain (Ai = Iout/Iin), power gain (Ap = Av * Ai),
and voltage gain (Av = Vout/Vin). This depends on the quantity we measure, but
in any case, A (amplification) is the representation of gain.

Av = Voutput/Vinput

or

Av = (40 volts RMS)/(10 volts RMS)

 or

Av = 4

With this in mind, the gain of a cascade amplifier is the product of the gains
of its individual amplifier stages, aside from possible loading effects.
However, the gain of each stage or amplifier individually relies on its
configuration, i.e., its components. The formula for a cascaded amplifier
gain is as follows:

A (Gain) = A1 * A2 * A3

When the gain of each stage uses the decibel expression (dB), the sum of the
gains of the individual amplifiers is its total gain:

A (Gain in dBs) = A1 + A2 + A3

Benefits and Advantages of Cascaded Amplifiers

When we cascade an amplifier, there is a requirement to utilize a coupling

network amongst the amplifiers. We call this type of coupling interstage
coupling. With cascaded amplifiers, there are three cascaded amplifier types:
direct coupling, transformer coupling, and RC coupling.

 RC coupling: affords the lowest cost for implementation and provides an

acceptable frequency response.
 Transformer coupling: affords enhanced total gain and level matching
impedance. Functionally, it expands its signal across the primary
 transformer winding and performs as a load. However, this method can be
costly if utilizing a wide frequency response transformer.
 Direct coupling: the coupling of the output of one stage of the amplifier to
the input of the next stage. This permits signals with zero frequency (direct
current) to pass from input to output. This is ideal for applications
requiring zero or low-frequency amplification.

There are two primary advantages of cascade amplifiers: increased gain and
input, and output impedance flexibility. The need for the gains provided by
cascade amplifiers is paramount to the functionality of various applications.

Inter-stage coupling
There are a number of choices for the method of coupling the amplifier stages
together. In the direct-coupled amplifier, as the name suggests, the stages are
connected by simple conductors between the output of one stage and the
input of the next This is necessary where the amplifier is required to work at
DC, such as in instrumentation amplifiers, but has several drawbacks. The
direct connection causes the bias circuits of adjacent stages to interact with
each other. This complicates the design and leads to compromises on other
amplifier parameters. DC amplifiers are also subject to drift requiring careful
adjustment and high stability components.
Where DC amplification is not required, a common choice is RC coupling. In
this scheme a capacitor is connected in series between stage outputs and
inputs. Since the capacitor will not pass DC the stage biases cannot interact.
The output of the amplifier will not drift from zero when there is no input.
The capacitance (C) of the capacitor and the input and output resistances of
the stages form an RC circuit. This acts as a crude high-pass filter. The
capacitor value must be made large enough that this filter passes the lowest
frequency of interest. For audio amplifiers, this value can be relatively large,
but at radio frequencies it is a small component of insignificant cost
compared to the overall amplifier.
Transformer coupling is an alternative AC coupling. Like RC coupling, it
isolates DC between stages. However, transformers are bulkier and much
more expensive than capacitors so is used less often. Transformer coupling
comes into its own in tuned amplifiers. The inductance of
the transformer windings serves as the inductor of an LC tuned circuit. If
both sides of the transformer are tuned it is called a double-tuned
amplifier. Staggered tuning is where each stage is tuned to a
different frequency in order to improve bandwidth at the expense of gain.
Optical coupling is achieved using opto-isolators between stages. These have
the advantage of providing complete electrical isolation between stages so
provides DC isolation and avoids interaction between stages. Optical
isolation is sometimes done for electrical safety reasons. It can also be used
to provide a balanced to unbalanced transition.
Reference:
https://www.watelectrical.com/what-is-cascade-amplifier-circuit-its-working/
https://resources.pcb.cadence.com/blog/2020-cascaded-amplifier-gain-noise-
figures-and-distortion
https://resources.pcb.cadence.com/blog/2020-how-cascaded-amplifier-gain-is-
essential-to-functionality-in-various-applications
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multistage_amplifier