Critical Reviews in Biotechnology

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Sustainability of biodegradable plastics: a review

on social, economic, and environmental factors

Taofeeq D. Moshood, Gusman Nawanir & Fatimah Mahmud

To cite this article: Taofeeq D. Moshood, Gusman Nawanir & Fatimah Mahmud (2022)
Sustainability of biodegradable plastics: a review on social, economic, and environmental
factors, Critical Reviews in Biotechnology, 42:6, 892-912, DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2021.1973954

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Published online: 16 Sep 2021.

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CRITICAL REVIEWS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY
2022, VOL. 42, NO. 6, 892–912
https://doi.org/10.1080/07388551.2021.1973954

REVIEW ARTICLE

Sustainability of biodegradable plastics: a review on social, economic, and

environmental factors
Taofeeq D. Moshood , Gusman Nawanir and Fatimah Mahmud
Faculty of Industrial Management, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Gambang, Malaysia

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

In line with the recent economic growth, especially in developing countries, human concern for Received 23 November 2020
the environment has increased over time. This paradigm shift has influenced many developing Revised 28 February 2021
countries to pay more attention to the issues related to the use of synthetic plastics. Both indus- Accepted 25 July 2021
try and consumers are intrigued to discover the: economic characteristics, environmental conse-
KEYWORDS
quences, and social attitudes to the benefits of biodegradable plastics. Biodegradable plastics are Non-biodegradable plastic;
useful in packaging, agriculture, gastronomy, consumer electronics, and the automotive industry. sustainability life cycle; bio-
This paper seeks to explain the prospects of biodegradable plastics regarding social, economic, based plastics; triple
and environmental sustainability and recognizes the latest advances in enzyme-based biodegrad- bottom line (TBL); and
ation of plastics in order to reduce plastics’ negative effects and to make the environment safe. ATLAS.ti 9 software
A multi-disciplinary strategy is a unique approach, with studies carried out across the triple bot-
tom line (TBL) approach on three distinct sustainability concepts (economic characteristics, envir-
onmental consequences, and social attitudes). These three subjects were carefully chosen for
their respective targets. This paper has used ATLAS.ti 9 software tools to thoroughly analyze the
literature to save, identify, and assess this study’s data. Therefore, the research showed that the
environmental component was the most critical factor with the economic second and social
third. We review bio-based and biodegradable polymers and highlight the value of biodegrad-
able end-of-life management.

Introduction 2% end up in a closed-loop system [3]. Indeed, on the

Plastic is the most used element. The most common
use is containers such as bottles and food packaging
[1]. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene terephthalate
(PET), extracellular polymeric substance (EPS), polypro-
pylene (PP), and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) are
the five recyclable plastics that makeup 70 percent of
all plastics used today. It is estimated that 8.3 billion
tons of plastic have been produced since large-scale
plastic manufacturing began in the 1950s [2], and it is
projected to rise twenty-fold again by 2030 [3]. Today,
around the world, 78 million tons of plastic packaging
are manufactured annually. Of the plastic produced,
98% of the actual amount comes from virgin storage,
while 2% comes from closed-loop recycling [4]. When
the life cycle is accomplished, 68 percent of the initial
78 million tons are collected, 32 percent of the plastic is
not collected, and remains in drainage ditches and
streams flowing out in the oceans. 40 percent of the 68
percent of plastic collected goes to landfills, 14 percent
in the form of incineration goes into energy recovery.
Just 14% end up being collected for recycling, but only
planet’s surface, the ubiquity of plastic waste has con-
tributed to the possibility that it may be viewed as a
geological predictor of the Anthropocene era [5,6].
Although plastic materials, with their numerous
make-ups and manufacturing costs, are of high quality,
it is of great concern if this synthetic material can be
sustained [7]. While plastics have become extremely
valued for their long-lasting functional use, many per-
spectives on plastics-related environmental hazards and
energy crises have been raised recently. Plastics are
popular because they provide human beings with a less
pecuniary charge of things they want [8]. Consumers
are, however, now more aware of the harmful environ-
mental effects of plastics. Therefore, because of this
question regarding how it can be sustained and
handled in the global environment, bio-based and bio-
degradable polymeric materials are one of the most
appropriate means that can be implemented [8].
Human responsibility for the environment has risen
over time, in line with recent economic development,
especially in developing countries. There are, however,

CONTACT Taofeeq D. Moshood taofeeqmoshood@gmail.com Faculty of Industrial Management, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Gambang, Malaysia
ß 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

several issues that lift their fears today, which are global
warming and the extinction of the diversity of organ-
isms in the world’s environment and habitat [9]. In
terms of environmental consciousness, plastic waste
has become one of the main global challenges [10].
Plastics are polymers that are sometimes made of car-
bon and hydrogen and often of oxygen, nitrogen,
Sulfur, chlorine, fluorine, phosphorus, or silicon. Plastic
is the non-biodegradable, extremely resilient product
manufactured from petroleum and synthetic resources
[11]. It takes roughly one thousand years to fully and
successfully decompose plastic. At the same time,
owing to the combustion phase [12], it can acquire car-
bon dioxide (CO2) and dioxins and cause climate
change to the planet [13]. Most plastics have been used
mainly for single-use purposes, such as low-value
recycled plastic bags and decomposition sophistication
mechanisms [14]. Besides, conventional plastic poly-
mers such as polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), and
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are low-cost, long-lasting, and
versatile, according to Viera, Marques, Nazareth,
Jimenez, & Castro [6], which are widely used in the
manufacture of several industrial product lines.
One of the essential companies from which the
masses benefit is the plastics industry. The reason is
that there has been a constant increase in the demand
for plastics from China, India, and some other South
East Asia countries [15]. Though plastic materials are of
high quality in their different make-up and production
cost, synthetic material can be sustained and of great
concern. Because of this growing concern for how it
can be maintained and managed globally, one of the
most suitable means to be adopted is applying bio-
based and biodegradable polymeric materials [16].
Many inquiries have been made regarding the envir-
onmental negatives effect of plastics materials
[12–14,17]. The decrease in its mechanical performance
when moisture has been absorbed in a specific humid
level has been reported [18]. On the other hand, the
studies on the component that makeup product sorp-
tion, which is related to biodegradable plastics packag-
ing, are not so currently common. Because
biodegradable plastics are mostly and currently used
for commercial purposes such as packaging of food,
this study intends to primarily concentrate on bio-
degradable plastic properties to proffer solutions that
will help in the sustainability of the packaged product.
The main concern is that it is challenging to deal
with plastic waste that has littered the whole environ-
ment. Plastic waste is less well handled in developing
countries [18]. It is usually stored, burnt, or littered in
open dumps. In the event of uncontrolled combustion,
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY 893
this leads to health problems, and the pollution is
washed into rivers and finally seas as unsecured and lit-
tered products [19]. Investments in biodegradable plas-
tics, better than traditional plastic composition, were
undertaken by a more extensive range of plas-
tic producers.
Therefore, biodegradable plastics are now seriously
considered to be an alternative to non-biodegradable
plastics. Different policymakers have established pro-
grams to ensure the promotion of research and
improvement of bio-based polymers [20]. In this regard,
efforts have been advanced by both the political and
regulatory bodies in North America and Europe [21].
The governments of Malaysia and Germany have shown
considerable interest in biodegradable plastics research
[22]. Therefore, this situation indicates the possibility of
advancements in biodegradable plastics [23].
Governments, companies, and academies are making
great efforts to find a feasible solution to synthetic plas-
tics in the increasing social, economic, and environmen-
tal crisis [24].
Biodegradable plastic can be seen as one of the
alternatives to accomplish this sustainable growth of
the plastic industry and therefore offer a very strong
alternative to petrochemical plastics in the near future
[13]. By redirecting part of large volume plastics to
other waste management methods and littering single-
use plastics that are otherwise difficult to recycle and
simultaneously contributing to the recycling of nonre-
newable materials and environmental protection of bio-
degradable plastics from renewable resources,
biodegradable plastics could serve as a possible solu-
tion for overwhelmed landfills [25]. With adequate
humidity, oxygen, and a suitable quantity of microor-
ganisms, where this condition can be found enough in
natural landfills or manure, biodegradable plastic can
be decayed into carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O)
only within 20–45 days [26] compared to conventional
plastics that their life expectancy is about hundred to
thousand years [26]. The big fear is adoption and how
it can be handled in the global environment. Due to
the cost of biodegradable plastics, most consumers are
stopped from patronizing them [27]. This may seem to
be because most people don’t know enough about bio-
degradable plastics’ utility and protection. As a result,
most plastics firms will not be interested in economic
research to help select biodegradable plastics that are
economically cost-effective [28].
Based on Marimuthu & Hassan’s [29] study, most
people still lacked information on environmental ter-
minology and concepts, regardless of the consumer’s
educational level. Research by Dyehouse et al. [30] also
894 T. D. MOSHOOD ET AL.
clarified that many individuals have only general envir-
onmental knowledge but lack understanding of the
environment’s deeper problems and ideas. Moreover,
according to Dalvi-Esfahani et al. [31], people with less
educated and low income refuse to prioritize environ-
mental issues since they give more significant induce-
ment toward their own family and household. Rezai,
Teng, Shamsudin, Mohamed, & Stanton [32] stated that
lack of understanding and consciousness toward the
advantages of eco-friendly products explains the
decline of a positive attitude toward eco-friendly prod-
ucts [33,34].
The environmental and socio-economic influence of
plastic products has been studied in several ways [35].
The decrease in its mechanical efficiency was recorded
when moisture was absorbed at a particular humid
level [36]. On the other hand, studies of the make-up
product sorption portion, which is correlated with the
packaging of biodegradable plastics, are currently not
as popular. Therefore, since biodegradable plastics are
mainly and presently used for commercial uses such as
food packaging, this research aims to concentrate pri-
marily on the sustainability of biodegradable plastics in
order to provide solutions that will help in the sustain-
ability of the packaged product [37]. Also, there are
restricted studies in the Malaysian biodegradable plastic
industry that specifically explain biodegradable plastic’s
sustainability. It was also noted from the literature
review that most plastic film evaluations considered
only one dimension of biodegradable plastics’ sustain-
ability [38]; few considered two dimensions [39], and
very few considered three dimensions [40]. In recent
years, academic and industrial interest has grown dra-
matically in bio-based and biodegradable plastics’ sus-
tainability. The triple bottom line method in this report
(economic benefit, social responsibility, and environ-
mental protection) was employed to assess biodegrad-
able plastics’ sustainability. In general, biodegradable
plastic film analyses have concentrated on the product
itself and have scarcely contemplated evaluating bio-
degradable plastics’ sustainability from the triple bot-
tom line viewpoint.
It was also noticed from the literature review that
most plastic film evaluations considered only one
dimension of biodegradable plastics’ sustainability [37],
few considered two dimensions [39], and very few con-
sidered three dimensions [40]. In recent years, academic
and industrial interests have grown dramatically in
bio-based and biodegradable plastics’ sustainability.
The triple bottom line method in this report (economic
benefit, social responsibility, and environmental protec-
tion) was employed to assess biodegradable plastics’
sustainability. In general, bio-based and biodegradable
plastic film analyses have concentrated on the product
itself and have scarcely contemplated evaluating bio-
degradable plastics’ sustainability from the triple bot-
tom line viewpoint.
In addition, changing from conventional plastics to
eco-friendly plastics, in particular, is a challenge.
Producers, buyers, and policymakers face various
choices and strategies, where it is impossible to come
up with specific details. This paper will try to bring the
best outlook on issues. Different aspects of biodegrad-
able plastics will be discussed, ranging from socio-eco-
nomic and environmental implications to realistic
biodegradability evaluation approaches, including certi-
fication. Hopefully, this information, descriptions, and
figures will help individuals in the future make better-
informed choices about plastics. Furthermore, this study
seeks to fill the first research gap created by previous
studies on biodegradable plastics toward its sustainabil-
ity, and from the issues mentioned above by identifying
the environmental and socio-economic factors related
to biodegradable plastics toward its sustainability and
the proposed framework for the biodegradable plastics
sustainability life cycle stages.
Methodology
Literature search
To conduct an extensive and systematic review of the
sustainability of bio-based plastics and biodegradable
plastics, this research surveys the received articles’ ana-
lysis pieces that cover their research objectives,
approaches, backgrounds, and outputs. The general
method of systematic analysis recommended by Lu &
Liu [20] is already operationalized. The research ques-
tions should be addressed unambiguously at the outset
of the systematic analysis and stipulated in step 1, fram-
ing the problem or issues for an assessment [41].
Keywords for analysis are to be defined to satisfy the
research criteria. Many patterns of analysis keywords
are desirable to guarantee the research s of the study.
The adoption of data sources, thorough and systematic
review of the relevant journals and databases is needed
in phase 2 [42].
It is also essential to be recognized and selected to
access numerous relevant sources, papers, and the
required area of study are. The study of prior studies
also includes, in step 3, the use of research keywords in
a specific field of names, abstracts, and keywords [43].
These analysis keywords are incorporated and added in
the identified areas and then selected from the paper
or journal sources. The study needs to be specific,

without any language restrictions, and subject to the
choice of moving from the study questions. Ke, Wang,
Chan, & Cheung, [19]; Lu & Liu, [20] proposed that min-
imal parameter analysis be extended at that time to
ensure compatibility.
Besides, phase 4 entails determining the nature of
the analysis to ensure academic accuracy. This indicates
that a set of suitable selection attributes should be lim-
ited to the paper collected for analysis and synthesis
and the conditions for the cleaning of these papers
from the previous search order. The previous search
performed in phase 3 will inevitably generate a wide
variety of problems and a mainstream of papers [44].
A visual analysis of the content of the article is,
therefore, required. Besides, step 5 requires the collec-
tion of proof. To interpret and incorporate the excellent
polished documents, a detailed study will be included
here, reflecting on the papers that are only connected
with topics of attention. This calls for materials to be
excluded, accompanied by the area of analysis, history,
or framework [45]. The data is generally reviewed and
synthesized by research attributes, existence, and
research conclusions [46].
Therefore, literature scanning allowed the authors to
define the analytical structures used to process and
analyze the data. The research sources used for the
search were: Taylor and Francis, Emerald, Springer,
Google Scholar, and Elsevier, while the predominant
keywords were:
Biodegradable plastics or Sustainability.
Biodegradable plastics or the Triple Bottom Line
(TBL) Approach.
Biodegradable plastics or Biosynthetic properties.
Biodegradable plastics or a Sustainability Life cycle.
Biodegradable plastics or Bio-based plastics.
Biodegradable plastics or Socioeconomics.
Biodegradable plastics or Environmental impacts.
The methodological concept developed with input
from scholars and the literature was proposed and vali-
dated by this study. Descriptive analysis is believed to
explain the characteristics of the criteria of concern in
this situation. This study shows what changes could
help achieve sustainable, biodegradable plastics to
boost the standard of service in our community,
increase efficiency, recognize potential technologies,
take economic risks into account, and encourage tech-
nology investment.
Each stage of the evaluation phase is organized
around the sections of processes, findings, and discus-
sion, allowing the reader to further understand how the
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY 895
data are evaluated and follow the process’s implications
and the resulting data. The 332 papers identified have
been screened (identified through the database search-
ing of 341 papers), Screening (Post Removal of
Duplicates, 213 papers remain), Eligibility (Post-Abstract
Review, 128 papers remain), and validated for Included
(Post-Full-Text Review, 120 papers were used).
Duplicates have been excluded as part of this process,
eligibility has been verified from abstracts, and the
complete content of outstanding papers has been veri-
fied in the context of the study issues for the final judg-
ment regarding microalgae, biofuels production, algae
fuel manufacturing areas under examination [47]. As
per the systematic literature review protocol for this
study, the 120 papers were screened and verified as
being valid.
Duplicates have been excluded as part of this pro-
cess, eligibility has been verified from abstracts, and the
complete content of outstanding papers has been
checked in the context of the study issues for the final
judgment regarding microalgae, biofuels production,
algae fuel manufacturing, and sustainability areas under
examination [47]. As per the systematic literature
review protocol for this study, the 120 papers were
screened and verified as being valid. Centered on these
main achievements in the fields of efficiency, global
sustainability, and sustainability management, bio-
degradable plastic, bioplastic, sustainability life cycle,
bio-based plastics, and triple bottom line (TBL)
approach, and collecting state-of-the-art publications,
the quest date for this analysis was set from 2001
to 2021.
A systematic review using ATLAS.ti 9 software
This section maintains the structure of the method-
ology section by addressing each step of the testing
process. The ATLAS.ti 9 software package is perfect for
saving, identifying, and interpreting this study data.
There are five components to the research review:

Purpose: This research aims to provide insight into
the modern production and ultimate potential of
biodegradable plastics.

Concentration: This article discusses biodegradable
plastic research features (i.e. goals, strategies, sus-
tainability, outputs).

Viewpoint: This analysis provides a neutral view on
the study of articles.

Design: This article is ordered by conceptual order
initially, then connected.

Coverage: The literature coverage is extensive [48].
896 T. D. MOSHOOD ET AL.
Figure 1. Word cloud information on biodegradable plastics.
The use of ATLAS.ti 9 tech (quotation, relatives, and
network) jargon would be meaningless to those
unfamiliar with the software. Weisheng Lu & Yuan [23],
on the other hand, used machine terms and illustrated
them so that readers could understand what was going
on. In this overview, the researchers described the
methodological methodology, program, version, and
features used in the study (quotes, codes, and system
hierarchy with memos). The meaning of quotations has
been clarified, as has the association between quota-
tions and codes [49]. The researcher included a short
explanation of how the program was used, which might
be useful to those who are unfamiliar with qualitative
data analysis software. Keywords, themes, relationship
maps, and other research features and convenient
access to quotes were all advantages of using ATLAS.ti
9. Figure 1 in the ATLAS.ti 9 app offers word cloud
information to help novices understand how software
interpretation is possible. Figures 2 and 3 provide a net-
work view in the ATLAS.ti 9 program that shows how
the trends resulting from the plastic properties, full bio-
degradable plastic properties, and non-biodegradable
plastic properties have been drawn into the network
and the data codes are linked to the PLA production
survey’s core life cycle activities. The authors speculated
that the data was created using the ATLAS.ti 9’s net-
work feature in this case.
Word cloud: Newcomers can learn how to display
applications by using the Word cloud by building
ATLAS.ti 9 software knowledge. When displaying text-
ual content, word clouds have become very common,
with the font size of a keyword indicating its frequency
in the text. Term organization can be accomplished in
several ways [49]. Word Cloud is a simple and intuitive
visualization tool that is often used to provide a quick
overview of text documents. The most frequent words
in a text are usually represented as a weighted list of
words in a specific spatial structure (e.g. sequential, cir-
cle, random). For graphical purposes or to visually
encode additional detail, the font sizes of the words sig-
nify their importance or frequency of occurrence.
Color, location, and orientation, on the other hand,
are all different. Term clouds may be used as a starting
point for in-depth text analyses. On the other hand,
open word cloud visualizations are not too useful for
contrasting the words and word frequencies in different
text papers [49]. We used ATLAS.ti 9, an expanded
word cloud visualization that systematically merges and
shows the words from many text texts, to get around
this limitation. It gives the articles a structure and high-
lights the differences and similarities in word use.
Figure 1 depicts the word cloud data.
Open coding: Upon initial analysis of text results, the
researcher will recognize several words, sentences, and
other words of interest related to this article or a field
of interest with the open coding feature of the ATLAS.ti
9 software package. A “quotation” is labeled with Open
Coding and uses the same wording to produce a mes-
sage from the same passage. It is not uncommon to
come to a point where we will have more than a couple
of pages of codes as we begin developing codes with
fresh ideas [24]. At that point, to find the correlations
and classify them into classes based on their common
properties, we may research the codes. We may also
consider the codes’ dimensions that reflect the prop-
erty’s position within a continuum or set. The name of
the category can vary from the codes to help communi-
cate its width, and, if appropriate, we may even create
sub-categories from the codes and then apply them to
the categories [50]. Open coding is usually the initial
 CRITICAL REVIEWS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY 897

Figure 2. Atlas.ti network view on plastics production.

Figure 3. Main life-cycle activities of PLA production.

898 T. D. MOSHOOD ET AL.
stage of qualitative data analysis. We may do gravita-
tional coding and selective coding after finishing open
coding, depending on the technique we use. At the
later stage of the study, such coding enables one to
create models in an inductive process. The required
information for mathematics information is shown in
Figures 2 and 3.
Data Analysis: After developing the coding frame,
the principal investigator had a simple understanding
of the research. The codes used to interpret and re-read
the data many times were optimized. The next step
concerning the study problem was to group codes into
a cohesive pattern. It is about making a plotline where
the theme is made up of a part of the plot. To analyze
the case study results, twenty-nine code groups have
been developed and further summarized into two sub-
ject areas that serve as the first ideas for themes (see
Figures 2 and 3). Figures 2 and 3 demonstrate how the
codes surrounding work-related issues in the theme
development process were further explored. For this,
the ATLAS.ti 9 software network feature was used.
Codes related to the plastic properties, maximum bio-
degradable plastic properties, and non-biodegradable
plastic properties were integrated into the network. The
major life-cycle activities of the manufacture of PLA
were also linked to each other. This is not an automatic
system [50]. The software does not create connections
or label the links. The program only offers room for
conceptual reflection for the researcher. This happens
as the networks group the nodes, conceive of concrete
connections, and name those links.
To sum up, recent developments in plastics that are
biodegradable and compostable plastics have brought
growing concerns about plastic waste [50]. These solu-
tions are meant to reduce plastic waste damage by
removing existing plastics that can deteriorate much
faster and more quickly in the environment. One
example of green products is this biodegradable plastic,
and the use of microorganisms and sunlight will
decompose these biodegradable materials.
Biodegradation of plastics is substantially active under
various soil characteristics, based on plastic characteris-
tics [51]. The microorganisms’ reactions vary from each
other in degradation processes and have their own
ideal soil growth conditions.
Non-biodegradable plastics are synthetic polymers,
the primary plastic composites of petroleum products
manufactured from oil, coal, and natural gas produc-
tion. They are generally categorized into three groups
of thermoplastics (which are flexible when heated and
can be restructured), thermosetting plastics (which are
cross-linked, cannot weaken, and cannot be
restructured), where a broad range of plastics, synthetic
fibers, foams, coatings, adhesives, and sealants are pro-
duced and elastomers (are cross-linked rubbery poly-
mers that can be stretched easily to high extensions
and which rapidly recover their original dimensions
when the applied stress is released) [52]. As a transpar-
ent commodity, plastics are compact, lightweight, low-
priced, robust, and versatile and are ideal for a wide
range of applications, especially in packaging materials.
Overview of biodegradable plastic
The growing concern about plastic pollution has
brought innovations in plastics that are biodegradable
and compostable plastics [53]. These solutions intend
to decrease the harm of plastic pollution by substitut-
ing conventional plastics that will deteriorate in the
atmosphere much sooner and more readily [53]. This
biodegradable plastic is one example of green product
[53]. These biodegradable materials can be decom-
posed with the help of microorganisms and sunlight
[54]. The biodegradation of plastics is significantly
active under different soil characteristics based on fea-
tures of plastic because the reaction of the microorgan-
isms is differed from one and another on degradation
processes and have their own optimum circumstances
of growth in the soil [55,56]. Several biodegradable
plastics only break down under conditions in industrial
waste treatment systems with sustained temperatures
over 50  C or under continued UV rays exposure [57].
Luckachan & Pillai [58] stated that biodegradable poly-
mers could also be found undergoing degradation
under both the aerobic and anaerobic processes.
According to Nonato, Mantelatto, & Rossell [59], one of
the materials that can be used to produce biodegrad-
able plastic is the poly 3-hydroxybutyric acid (PHB),
where it has the same physicochemical and mechanical
characteristics as petroleum-based polymers (polyethyl-
ene and polypropylene) and can be processed into
thermoplastics. Biodegradable plastics are normally
composed of natural-based materials. For example,
starch is a natural polymer commonly found within a
few fruits and mainly contains two types of polysac-
charides: amylase and amylopectin [60], which are
employed for the development of biodegradable plas-
tics [61]. Camann, Dragsbaek, Krol, Sandgren, & Song,
[62] stated that biodegradable polymer can be divided
into three categories which are: starch polyester, poly-
lactic acid (PLA), and polyethylene.
The production of biodegradable plastics is con-
ducted by using polymers (i.e. macromolecules), a sub-
stance that is easily identified by enzymes existing in

nature [63]. It is essential to stress that the production
process’s raw materials do not necessarily determine
the plastics’ biodegradability. Other issues that deter-
mine biodegradability are the chemical composition,
the final product’s make-up, and the expected condi-
tion for the product’s biodegradation [53]. Not all plas-
tics that are bio-based are recyclable and the structure
of the particular polymer determines its biodegradabil-
ity [63]. For this reason, it takes a few weeks for some
polymers to disintegrate while other polymers still exist
for several months before they can disintegrate under
similar conditions [64].
Based on Orenia et al.’s [60] experiment, biodegrad-
able plastics with a suitable amount of starch can be
completely degraded and have high tensile straight.
Besides, the cellulose acetate (CA) from the agricultural
waste has the capability as the biodegradable plastic
element for packaging, salt containers, fiber, and plastic
component manufacture. It potentially substitutes and
reduces the usage of non-biodegradable and petrol-
eum-based materials [65]. An additional example is the
microbial polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) that have been
used to develop biodegradable plastics for many years
already [66]. Davis & Song [67] believed that the aims
of expanding the use of biodegradable plastics and
packaging are to use the recyclable and more sustain-
able resources of basic materials instead of petroleum
and assist the encouragement toward a holistic waste
disposal approach by reducing landfill [68].
The main reason for the initial interest in biodegrad-
able plastics is that an enormous waste disposal prob-
lem is present in non-biodegradable plastic packaging.
In the past 30 years, the production of biodegradable
plastic packaging materials has, therefore, been
enabled a great deal [28]. Different biopolymers,
chemosynthetic polymers, biosynthetic polymers,
blends, and composites for packaging applications
have been investigated [69]. To be acceptable for food
packaging biodegradable plastics, different perform-
ance requirements such as sufficient strength and flexi-
bility, nontoxicity, oxygen permeability, strong moisture
tolerance, storage resistance over a wide range of tem-
peratures, and low costs both for the starting materials
and manufacturing technologies must be met [69].
Many of the recently produced biodegradable plastics
have not been generally adopted due to these rigorous
requirements. The emphasis on the idea of zero-emis-
sions has also changed mostly due to rising greenhouse
gas emissions due to global climatic changes [70]. The
production of biodegradable plastics, which renewable
resources can manufacture, was therefore very strongly
promoted. While many new approaches to bio-based
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY 899
and biodegradable plastics are being explored, it is
essential to consider the strict requirements these
materials must satisfy during their final implementa-
tions [70].
The starting material for PLA and PHA production is
extracted from annually renewable plant materials. This
ensures that all aliphatic polyesters will, in theory, be
processed sustainably [69]. These bio-based plastics
may be restored to CO2 and then be photosynthesized
by plants because they are biodegradable [69]. The
development of PLA and PHA can thus be considered
as carbon-neutral and null pollution processes,
whereby, in the long run, and internationally, the net
amount of carbon is constant in the atmosphere. Bio-
based and biodegradable plastics, including PLA and
PHA, are commonly called eco-friendly and renewable
so that fossil fuels will decrease [69]. There is also a pre-
diction for the expanded use of these products and the
production for regulatory purposes of new levels of
international biodegradability [71].
However, the processing of these bio-based and bio-
degradable plastics does not actually be ecological
friendly [72]. There are also questions. Different data
have been generated to explain some biodegradable
plastics’ environmental friendliness in response to these
issues. However, the sustainability concerns for bio-
based and biodegradable plastics also include the sus-
tainability of raw materials required for bio-based poly-
mers such as PLA and PHA to be made [70]. Lactic acid
(2-hydroxy propionic acid) polymerization produces
PLA. The anaerobic fermentation forms the lactic acid
by enzymes or acid hydrolysis of sugars obtained from
starch. Agricultural raw materials, including maize, sug-
arcane, sugar beet, potato, cassava, rice, wheat, and
sweet potatoes, can be sources of starch and sugars for
lactic acid fermentation [73]. These are all the world’s
greatest starch and sugar plant resources. Lactobacillus
bacteria are widely used due to the high lactic acid
yields, whereby the conversion is generally higher than
95% [69] during the fermentation phase.
It is expected that approximately 10 million tons of
sugar substrates will be required to substitute approxi-
mately 5% (6.8 million tons) of the annual production
of conventional plastics with PLA. 0.7% of the largest
plant resources worldwide [69]. In 2006 alone, maize
production in the United States racked up 10.5 billion
bushels or 588 million tons (National Agricultural
Statistics Service, USDA). The maize starch production
in Europe was approximately 8.4 million tons in 2001
[69]. Based on maize starch production statistics, the
raw materials necessary for large-scale PLA production
appear to be sustainable and excessively sufficient.
900 T. D. MOSHOOD ET AL.

Neither for the increasing global human population nor Bioplastics

animal feed, it should be noted that existing technolo-
Bio-based resources that are normally recyclable and
gies for the processing of PLA draw into useful food
are obtained from renewable resources are bioplastics.
sources. The same raw materials are also used to sub-
Bioplastics have been identified as a possible resolution
stantially manufacture bioethanol [70].
that can prevent fossil-based conventional plastics’
Therefore, the raw materials’ availability to manufac-
negative effect on the environment [76].
ture biodegradable plastics and bioethanol may be
The development in the production of bioplastics is
expected in the immediate future. As a result, a great
associated with:
deal is being undertaken to establish methods for
developing bioethanol, utilizing lignocellulosic biomass

The mixtures of both bio-starch and starch
and wasted crops [69]. In this case, techniques for using

The fermented products of bioplastic products
plant biomass as a feedstock are not economically feas-

Petro-chemically produced bioplastic, etc.
ible in the industrial processing of bioethanol or bio-
degradable plastics [74]. While sugar is the cheapest
A great deal of misconception still abounds concern-
and most effective feedstock used to produce PLAs in
ing the word “bioplastics.” It is erroneously believed
large amounts, vegetable oils tend to be the most effi-
that any product produced from biomass is supposed
cient fermentation substratum to produce PHAs for
to be biodegradable. Nevertheless, using bio-related
bulk purposes. PHAs are desirable feedstocks for the
feedstocks it should not be assumed that the com-
processing of vegetable oils like soybean oil and palm
pleted product must be biodegradable in nature [77].
oil. While sugar-based PHA production has been opti-
Therefore, it is vital to state that bio-based plastics are
mized for high productivity, production costs are still
not constantly recyclable and that recyclable plastics
high, given that sugars lead to low PHA returns [75].
are not constantly bio-based. There is a mixed-up
The production of industrial processes using triacyl-
between biodegradable plastics and plastics that are
glycerol directly intact, such as vegetable oils and ani-
bio-based. Both are considered eco-friendly plastics,
mal fats, benefits and provides higher prices of free
and both are not similar concerning the original con-
fatty acids. An additional saponification stage is neces-
sary [69]. The choice of acceptable raw materials for cept [78]. Biodegradable plastics production is from the
PHA production depends heavily on their ready avail- biodegradability perspective, while biomass is adopted
ability. While palm oil products may be suitable for pro- as the raw material in place of oil in bio-based plastics
ducing PHA in Malaysia or Indonesia as fermentation production [79]. The production of biodegradable plas-
substrates, they are certainly not convenient in Japan tics is conducted by using polymers (i.e. macromole-
or China. Brazil has successfully developed a PHA pro- cules), a substance easily identified by enzymes existing
duction process for integrating into a sugarcane factory in nature [63]. Other things that determine biodegrad-
that uses sugarcane biomass to produce energy and ability are the chemical composition, the final product’s
the raw materials required for PHA [72]. make-up, and the expected condition for the product’s
biodegradation. For this reason, it takes a few weeks for
some polymers to disintegrate while other polymers
still exist for several months before they can

Figure 4. Bioplastics global production capacities in 2017. Source: Adapted from IFBB (2019).

Figure 5. Bioplastics global production capacities in 2022. Source: Adapted from IFBB (2019).
disintegrate under similar conditions [64]. Figures 4 and
5 show the bioplastics’ global production capacity and
the share for each type as in 2017 and 2022.
Consequently, over the past three decades, many
investigations have occurred to develop packaging
materials made from biodegradable plastics. The com-
bination of the different biopolymers, biosynthetic and
chemosynthetic polymers, have been identified as
being used for various packaging purposes [34].
Therefore, the suitability of biodegradable plastics for
the packaging of food requires the following:

Appropriate power and adaptability

Nonpoisonous

Non-absorbable by oxygen

Strong ability to resist moisture

Ability to be constant in a diverse range of temper-
atures in storage

Economical for both the starting of the material
and the technical processing.
These stringent criteria have prevented the newly
developed biodegradable plastics from receiving gen-
eral recognition. Thus, the growing greenhouse gas
emissions caused by global climate change led to the
zero-emission concept, leading to the development of
biodegradable plastics produced from renewable
resources. While the investigation of the numerous
novel methods is being carried out regarding bio-based
and biodegradable plastics production, the stringent
criteria to be met at the last uses of these materials
must not be ignored [11]. Figure 6 shows the bioplas-
tics universal manufacturing capability in 2022.
Bioplastics are products whose disintegration pro-
cess takes place quickly when placed under specific
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY 901
conditions; they also help support the plant’s growth
by improving the quality of the soil [79]. Eco-friendly
bioplastics are made from organic wastes or resources
that are bio-based. The reason is that they have the
capability of reducing environmental pollution brought
about by plastic products. The benefits derived from
encouraging bioplastic production, compared to con-
ventional plastics, are the reduction of gas emissions
from the greenhouse, storage space for waste, aquatic
contamination, and human beings’ health [38]. The
research was conducted regarding bioplastics some
decades ago, and the produced materials have been in
the market for some years [80]. Research regarding bio-
polymer assimilation started in the 1980s, but the larg-
est part of the research’s financial resources was given
to the US and Japan [81]. The viewpoints of experts in
the production of bioplastics are that biodegradable
bioplastic has great prospects. They envisage that its
production by the end of 2022 will be over
US$5million [80].
Processing of biodegradable plastics
There is the similarity between the conventional plastics
production process and the plastics that are bio-based
non-biodegradable, and fossil-based biodegradable
plastics because of the adoption of the same equip-
ment. Also, bio-based biodegradable plastics follow the
same production process, but significant features
should not be ignored because of the source [81].
They are:

Moistness

Abnormal flow (wall slipping)

Current breakdown
902 T. D. MOSHOOD ET AL.

Figure 6. Global production of Bioplastics capacities in 2022. Source: Adapted from IFBB (2019).

Differences in batch-to-batch Sustainability of biodegradable plastics

Sustainable growth is commonly recognized as a key
Because of the bio-based biodegradable plastics’
strategic goal of today’s global policy. The concept’s
hygroscopic nature tends to produce an excessive
most well-known exposition defines sustainable one as
decrease in viscosity, unwanted foaming, and thermal
development which meets present-day needs without
degradation speed-up. For that reason, there is a need
jeopardizing generations to come’ (World Commission
for pre-drying at a mandatory dehydrating period and
on Environment and Development) [83]. This appears
temperature without using any form of additives (e.g.
to be a very straightforward idea, which lies at the core
chemical blowing agents) that can separate water.
of the link between economic growth, preservation of
Excessively dried material may possibly produce diffi-
the environment, and social wellbeing. But operational-
culties (e.g. the thermoplastic starch’s ability to flow).
izing these ties poses a major challenge for a wide var-
Reinforcing polymers with standard fibers could lead to
iety of stakeholders, including Government, NGOs,
abnormal flow because natural fibers can possess
companies, community groups, and individuals [28].
diverse geometries and properties, leading to the slip-
According to Wang, Li, Wu, & Lan [84], sustainability
ping of the wall [78]. There is a need for proper precau-
purposes are entrenched in the following tripartite: eco-
tions to be taken while processing bio-based
nomic prosperity, social fairness, and protection of the
biodegradable plastics because they are susceptible to
environment. Achieving well enhanced and sustained
thermal degradation. Their subjection to very high tem-
results of biodegradable plastics rests on minimizing
peratures should be minimized as much as possible.
the plastics processes. The objective of social econom-
Thus, the production process needs to include plasticiz-
ics and environmental sustainability consideration in
ing the units with brief residence times. Sections having
biodegradable plastics is based on resource manage-
a great shave frequency must be circumvented, and
ment and effective environmental protection [85].
there should be a minimum flow of hesitations in dies
The contribution of the plastic industry to ecosystem
and runners. There should be a form of modification in
degradation, climate change, and several interdepend-
the design process due to the crystallized kinetics’
ent issues calls for a focus on the principles of social,
diversity. An identified problem in the production pro-
economic, and environmental sustainability to address
cess is forming adhesive pellets at the time of drying,
the fundamental ecological loads of biodegradable
thus requiring further crystallization steps. In a few pro-
plastics projects [85]. The Triple Bottom Line, which was
cedures, the stickiness can surface in part. Bio-based
conceptualized (also known as TBL) in 1994, considered
biodegradable plastics, due to their usual source, have
environmental protection, financial performance, and
complex changeability while treating related properties.
social performance in project execution [84]. This prin-
Therefore, part of the potential solutions should be the
ciple submits that sustainability would be attained in
addition of additives that improve features that are pri-
biodegradable plastics to include economic, social, and
marily fossil-based and the optimization of the
environmental performance. Considerations are given
designed part and the processing equipment intended
to the environment and human society without
for healthy procedures to have larger processing win-
dows [82].
 CRITICAL REVIEWS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY 903

Social

Equitable
Bearable
Sustainability

Economic
Viable Environment

Figure 7. Sustainability principles.

jeopardizing the financial gains. Figure 7 shows the sus-

tainability principles.
The principle of sustainability is well-grounded on
the belief that society is expected to adopt an existing
and realizable scale, which the upcoming generations
can also adopt [85]. Therefore, the development that
will be successfully sustained needs the adoption of
rigorous efforts concerning different aspects of society
and the activities of a human being to achieve this
objective [86]. Sustainable development of biodegrad-
able plastics is basically about managing the associ-
ation between human and environmental needs such
that nonrenewable resources that have grave restric-
tions on the environment are not needlessly surpassed
[87]. At the same time, the current ethics of societal fair-
ness and fundamental civil privileges are not prevented.
It could also mean avoiding environmental and societal
failure to ensure the survival of the current society and
upcoming generations [88]. Figure 8. Proposed framework for the biodegradable plastics
The elements required to adopt sustainable, bio- sustainability life cycle stages.
degradable plastics include social, economic, biophys-
ical, and technical qualities and a set of all- rejuvenation, dropping the consumption of four generic
encompassing, process-oriented principles [89]. In their resources, which are materials, power, water, and land;
study, social sustainability was intended to: refine expanding resources reuse or recycling; giving prefer-
human life quality, execute training, and bring fair and ence in place of renewable resources, reducing the pol-
equitable social costs of biodegradable plastics in quest lution of air, land, and water, preserving and
of intergenerational equity that provides cultural diver- refurbishing ecological vitality and diversity, and lessen-
sity during plastic production. The economic aspects of ing damage to sensitive land. Technical sustainability
sustainability pursue affordability to the target groups concerns: durability, reliability, and functionality in bio-
of the bioplastics projects [87]. It also includes boosting degradable plastics [88]. Figure 8 shows the Proposed
employment generations, increasing competitiveness, Framework for the Biodegradable Plastics Sustainability
utilizing environmentally conscious workers, and sus- Life Cycle Stages.
taining biodegradable plastics projects’ required ability Biodegradable plastic products and the bioplastic
to meet future needs. The biophysical features of sus- industry requires contributions from the earth’s assets.
tainable, biodegradable plastics cover extraction of These contributions are the materials for development,
renewable resources beyond their slow rate of including the epitomized energy of utilized materials.
904 T. D. MOSHOOD ET AL.
The bioplastics organizations’ accountability to the con-
structed environment should consider asset manage-
ment, a vital administrative instrument to decrease,
reuse, and recycle non-inexhaustible assets. These
assets assume fundamental job development activ-
ities [90].
There are so many available grades of biodegradable
plastics with various features. Nevertheless, biodegrad-
able plastics are purposely and presently used in mak-
ing packaging for food, food package ware for food,
bags meant for shopping, and agricultural uses [91].
The use of the aforementioned features determines
how biodegradable plastics can be sustained. The best
way or method to which it is used is determined by its
features [92]. Nevertheless, the bio-based plastic prod-
ucts’ appearance is always similar when it is being lik-
ened to the conservative fossil-based plastic products.
This situation is also applicable to biodegradable
against non-biodegradable products. The identification,
composability, and disposing of bio-based plastics
should be indicated on the logos and labels so that
consumers can easily see and read. Some recommenda-
tions, such as biodegradable, are not clearly explained.
Therefore, there is a need to link the logos and labels
to a standardized and certified system. Besides, the fact
that plastic is biodegradable does not suggest that the
materials disintegrate fast in the environs [92].
The manufacturing abilities of bio-based and bio-
degradable plastics in 2018 take almost 2% of plastics’
entire production globally [93]. There is a great expect-
ation that biodegradable plastics will be highly market-
able in the future (Bio-PET, PBS, and PLA) while there
will be great consolidation of other plastics (CA and
Bio-PA). Generally, there has been a high expectation
that the bio-based and biodegradable plastics’ share
will rise to 2.5% of relic plastics manufacturing by 2020
[94]. Numerous dealers have been making many bio-
based and biodegradable plastics available, and they
have been more costly than fossil-based plastics regard-
ing their weight. Nevertheless, precise physical features
can bring about the reduction of costs after it has been
used. Many biodegradable plastic products are now
cost-competitive [92]. Besides, the fluctuations in the
price of oil determine fossil-based plastics prices. In
most situations, the stability of biomass prices deter-
mines biodegradable plastics’ prices. When the produc-
tion economic scale is encouraging, there is an
expectation of a decrease in biodegradable plastic pri-
ces. The biodegradable plastic kinds, the market size,
the use and obtainable set, and infrastructural process-
ing determine how it can be disposed of after use. The
choice of disposing of the biodegradable plastics
hinges on how it has been completely used and the
infrastructure’s availability where the product’s recovery
is to be preferred. Biodegradable plastics have different
features of an extensive range. Biodegradable plastics
are naturally reduced into nontoxic constituents in a
manufacturing composting location and also leads to
unintended consequences of littering [93]. The best
way to dispose of biodegradable plastics is determined
by its use [92].
Biological treatment and traditional methods are two
proven end-of-life methods for biodegradable waste.
Both aerobic (composting) and anaerobic digestion are
used in biotreatment. Biodegradable composting pro-
duces carbon dioxide, water and methanogen, and
some compost that can be used as a fertilizer [95].
Although all three are greenhouse gases, the additional
atmospheric loading of carbon dioxide and water is not
supposed to be carried out by methane [96]. Certain
biodegradables can, as soil pollutants, also contain
harmful by-products. The biodegradables must be
stored at 50–60  C and have recently been recognized
for long-cycle composting. Therefore, for the compos-
ition of biodegradable materials, strict consistency
requirements must be met. The composability check of
biodegradable materials has been based on dedicated
requirements and certification schemes.
On the other hand, aerobic digestion is a mechanism
by which biodegradable material is broken down in a
sealed vessel in the absence of oxygen. The process
contains carbon dioxide, biogas, and digestate-related
solids/liquors that can be used as fertilizers. Anaerobic
digestion can be a concern, though certain biodegrades
in anaerobic environments are considered non-bio-
degradable, another potential PLA problem [97]. The
EU Directive on Landfill recognizes biological treatment
as a means of recycling. The use of traditional
approaches such as incineration and deposition can
also be used to treat biodegradable waste materials.
Biological therapy cannot be an option if incineration is
not available [98]. The combustion of biodegradable
materials in mass burns produces the release of thermal
energy, carbon dioxide, water, and ash. But where nat-
ural fuels are used, carbon dioxide is neutral to thermal
recovery. There is the option of concentrating metals
and recovering them by combustion of composite
structures. Also, biodegradable materials may be sent
to sites where methane, a mighty greenhouse gas, was
produced [96]. As discussed earlier, the EU Directive on
landfills includes a substantial reduction in the number
of biodegradable materials submitted to sites of the
landfill, and even such materials are not legally exempt.

Figure 9. Categorized structure of sustainability performances based on the Triple Bottom Line (TBL) approach.
Sustainability principles identification for
biodegradable plastics
Sustainability principles identification for biodegradable
plastics is one of the key measures for modern manage-
ment emphasis on sustainable development. Triple bot-
tom line (TBL) theory usually differentiates three
dimensions for biodegradable plastics sustainability
assessments: economic performance, social responsibil-
ity, and environmental protection. Inspired by previous
research and expert opinion, the suggested model has
fourteen criteria across the three dimensions, with five
each for the economic and social dimensions and four
for the environmental dimension, as shown in Figure 9.
Social dimension
The global metric used to calculate corporate social
success is social responsibility. It measures the organiza-
tion’s operations’ social impacts on its players [99].
Sustainable operations involve personnel and culture
who are sustainable. It is a socially conscious initiative
to strengthen the community and maintain its worker’s
and consumers’ well-being. We assess this factor in this
paper’s five parameters: safety and health, employment,
social commitment conditions, and customer issues.
The most critical social conditions are jobs (or job for-
mation and wealth) [40]. Companies seek to raise living
conditions by complete and healthy jobs [99]. As social
metrics in this study, the number of biodegradable
plastic products and employee turnover positions
are included.
Health & safety measures the effect of a procedure
or substance on staff and customers’ safety and health
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY 905
[99]. To avoid work injury and guarantee that consum-
ers do not benefit from low-quality goods, the aim is to
encourage and maintain a high level of physical, intel-
lectual, and social well-being for workers and clients.
Employment terms include many aspects of satisfaction
for workers: wages and benefits, times of rest, working
hours, growth of human resources, seasonal celebra-
tions, leave of absence and administrative procedures,
and maternity leave [93]. The company’s corporate con-
tribution applies to the local society’s social obligation
and stakeholders and: cultural, educational, health,
technical, and social investment upgrades [99].
Customer complaints apply to any problems involving
each customer individually. Their emphasis is primarily
on consumer care and safety, customer data security
and privacy, marketing and consumer information pro-
vision and other vital resources [39].
Economic dimension
The economic results will significantly affect the bio-
degradable plastics products as it is an indicator of mar-
ket operations quality. Measurement analysis has
traditionally included five indicators: flexibility, reliabil-
ity, financial efficiency, responsiveness, and quality [94].
Reliability relates to distribution success in the supply
chain of bioplastic films, i.e. placing the right product in
the correct position, suitable condition, proper standard
packaging, and the right customer’s documentation
[40]. The responsiveness relates from the biodegradable
plastic products’ point of view to the quality of content
flows, evidence flows, and monetary flows from source
to customer point. Flexibility is the potential of the
906 T. D. MOSHOOD ET AL.
supply chain for biodegradable plastics to react or
acquire or preserve competitive advantages over mar-
ket shifts toward sustainability [40]. Flexibility ensures
that the film of biodegradable plastics must adapt and
develop continuously with changes in time and condi-
tions. The financial recital is a widespread concept that
includes the cost and management of assets, including
acquisition costs, design costs, cost of procurement,
manufacturing costs, cost of the supply chain, cost of
returning, cost and return on investment costs and
added assets [99], as well as cost variances in normal or
contracts, cost variances. The customer-seller partner-
ship is one crucial feature of quality [99]. The poorer
output influences the financial results and prestige of
the focal company. Quality is measured as customer
satisfaction and service quality in the biodegradable
plastics market [40].
Environmental dimension
Environmental evaluation tests the environmental
awareness of plastics that can be biodegraded [39], but
the social and environmental consequences are not
agreed upon as it depends on the industry and the
area in which the practices occur [100]. Several inter-
national standards, for example, International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) 26000, OECD
guidelines (Organization for Economic Co-operation
and Development) [101], ISO 14001, GRI, SA 8000 [102],
and research study have been recommended by a
range of more or less generic requirements. However,
these standards cover not all sustainability. Four envir-
onmental areas of biodegradable plastics management
are isolated in this article, including Carbon emission,
energy use, environmental management systems, and
waste management systems [40].
Consumption of energy is one of the most com-
monly used environmental factors. Energy usage com-
monly means electricity, energy sources, and natural
gas utilized in the manufacturing and processing stages
in the plastics biodegradable industry. Since climate
change has now become recognized as a grave concern
to contemporary communities, the reduction of carbon
emissions in the last decade to reduce climate change
has become a significant global issue [40]. Concerns
surrounding the greenhouse gas emissions from the
packaging and logistic phases must be minimized
within the biodegradable plastics sector. Waste man-
agement often represents industrial development. The
use of waste disposal of biodegradable plastics typically
includes discontinuation of goods from waste dumps,
recovery of products to raw materials, and the replace-
ment of the product, refunds, or remanufacturing for
future use [40]. A mechanism for promoting decisions
that allow organizations to achieve improved environ-
mental efficiency ensures sustained progress and avoids
adverse environmental effects [39] is the environmental
management framework. The biodegradable plastics
industry’s environmental protection framework involves
concerns like environmental approval, environmental
budgeting, environmental reviews, and environmental
compliance [93].
Discussion
A paramount innovation in this modern day is bioplas-
tics. They are products intended to be used for different
purposes to make life comfortable for the public. Food,
beverages, and edible things are being obtained through
the use of harmless, lightweight, and various packages
produced from plastics. Nevertheless, plastics can consti-
tute a considerable nuisance to the environment, such
as taking up many spaces, thereby causing great diffi-
culty for waste management while handling wastes
[103]. Many landfills can be taken over by lightweight
plastics, thus becoming a jumble of contamination on
land and sea! Though plastics debris may become so
uncontrollable for the next generation, they should be
educated and trained to handle it. The next generation
needs to be educated and qualified in the various means
through which plastic products can be produced and
utilized adequately to prevent them from constituting a
great nuisance to the environment. They can be further
informed that it is possible to create and use products
so that the waste, greenhouse gases, and pollution can
be significantly reduced. Presently, resources such as
corn, soy, sugarcane, potato, and other renewable mate-
rials can be used to produce bioplastics. Producing pet-
roleum plastics from materials that can be recycled can
make their sustainable products. Also, the process of
production can equally be sustained. Biodegradable plas-
tics and bioplastics can restrict materials that are
recycled from lesser power and low carbon impression
[103]. Because sustainable plastic materials can be
recycled after usage, they can comprise bio-based, bio-
degradable, and reprocessed plastics.
Developing biodegradable plastics that can be sus-
tained influences the environment. Such effects include
the usage of raw materials, sources of energy, and eco-
nomic impact. The economic impact has to do with the
creation of trade, employment, and manufacturing
companies in society. The process involved in designing
products and services should integrate ways through
which products can be sustained to prevent the nega-
tive effects of the products on the environment, social

life, and economy [103]. The life Cycle Assessment
(LCA) program should be adopted as a tool that will
ensure sustained products that will totally reduce the
negative impacts on the environment, social life,
and economy.
Economic impacts of biodegradable plastics
sustainability
The first measure to be involved in ascertaining bio-
degradable plastics’ sustainability measures the finan-
cial implications of the use of the product and the
technique adopted in the production of biodegradable
plastics. Provisions of good remunerations and a safe
environment for work are the techniques that can be
used to ensure sustainable manufacturing methods.
To ensure the economic impacts of sustained bio-
degradable plastics, it should be evaluated through
strategies that can preserve: cost-effectiveness, environ-
mental, human, and social capital for a very long time
[53]. The theoretical approach for measuring all shared
resources in various units will be provided by the cap-
ital strategy, which will afford stable, hypothetically
comprehensive, and policy-relevant assessments
among countries [80].
The creations of employments and businesses for
the people are a good measurement of the economic
influence of utilizing biodegradable plastics. When jobs
are created, it becomes very easy to introduce taxable
bases and tangible possessions. Also, the manner in
which sustainable materials are used can reduce
energy, discard waste, and manufacture prices during
operations. This besides will reduce the costs involved
in disposing of waste. Furthermore, while plastics’ pro-
duction prices can be reduced when biodegradable
plastics are utilized, there will be a reduction in the cost
of energy in the process of producing plastics if lesser
energy pumps, vehicles, and illumination fittings are
used [103].
Social impacts of biodegradable plastics
sustainability
The second component of biodegradable plastics sus-
tainability is that it should be able to assess the influen-
ces of goods and techniques on society. The
biodegradable plastics’ social impact, resource usage,
and production system should be assessed through the
populace’s outcomes and the workers’ responsibilities
in society. The past and present narratives explain that
biodegradable plastics are commonly utilized as fol-
lows: packaging of food, meal provider ware, bags for
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY 907
the shop, yarns, and agricultural purposes [92].
Nonetheless, mandatory use of biodegradable plastics
is not the only alternative to pollution. Any type of lit-
tering, whether on land or at sea, should be strongly
disliked and discouraged, including the use of plastics.
Proper awareness should be made by informing the
pupils about the appropriate ways of disposing and
managing waste. The design of environment-friendly
products should be intentionally aimed at.
These materials have been created to decrease litter
caused by discarded plastics, either biodegradable or as
manure substitutes. It has been identified that bio-grad-
able plastics are usually utilized in the packaging of dis-
posables, and it is utilized in agriculture where
biodegradability is being recommended. The recently
better-developed bio-based non-biodegradable plastics
(bio-PE and bio-PET) can be used in food packaging
[92]. Currently, there is a growing awareness about the
societal influence of packaging products made from
“Biodegradable Plastics.” Many people in society are
willing to change to an alternative packaging material
with a lesser carbon impression or produced from
renewable resources. This situation has been the signifi-
cant motivation to improve biodegradable plastics to
decrease plastics waste management in our society.
Environmental impacts of biodegradable plastics
sustainability
Another element involved in the sustainability of bio-
degradable plastics is measuring its influence on the
environment due to using natural resources such as
unrefined materials, energy, and landed property in the
production of biodegradable plastics. The process
involves manufacturing products made of plastics cap-
able of causing Greenhouse Gases (GHGs), severe liquid
waste, contamination of the air, water contamination,
and lethal substances. The measurement of biodegrad-
able plastics sustainability relating to the environment
can be carried out by monitoring depleted resources
and technological pollution during manufacturing the
products or services [92]. While the depletion of resour-
ces comprises usage of the land, usage of energy,
usage of water, the use of fossil fuel, etc., the emission
of the effluence consists of a change of climate, GHGs,
contamination of water, contamination of the air,
release of a lethal substance, poisoning humans, the
release of cancer-causing agents, summer smog cre-
ation, acidification, eutrophication, etc.
Assessment of the environment through strategic
means is critical for creating sustainable products and
services [104]. This strategy will ensure the
908 T. D. MOSHOOD ET AL.
development of policies, procedures, and sensitive and
favorable packages to the environment.
Conclusion
In this era, the accumulation of plastics on the planet is
a serious problem. With the rise of global plastic pro-
duction and consumption, the severity of this issue will
increase exponentially. To reduce the amount of plastic
accumulation and the environmental systems caused
by inevitable accumulation, measures should be taken.
Biodegradable plastics can protect and improve the
environment effectively and enhance environmental
protection growth to a great extent. However, the pro-
duction of biodegradable plastics appears to be much
more comfortable than the treatment of them. The
results of biodegradable plastics are highly debated.
There is no answer as to whether biodegradable plas-
tics might be a promising solution to the problem of
waste disposal and the global pollution of plastics. They
are still in their infancy with many aspects of bio-
degradable plastics. In order to overcome the problem
of plastic contamination of the environment, there is no
single solution. It is essential to determine the effective
mix of solutions. Biodegradable plastics should be part
of the solution, albeit a very small part, for the time
being. There should be no underestimation of the
impact of biodegradable plastics on plastic
accumulation.
In providing for the modern-day needs by sustaining
the biodegradable plastic materials, processes, and
structures, it is essential not to hinder the future gener-
ation from achieving their own desire. Organizations
commonly adopt the “Triple Bottom Line” approach to
analyze and assess how well the biodegradable plastic
companies have performed regarding society, econ-
omy, and environment. The effects of products and
processes on society are the initial aspect that sustain-
ability is intended to measure. This can be identified
based on how easy the employees’ roles are in the pro-
cess of manufacturing the product and the level at
which the population has been making use of the man-
ufactured products. The second aspect has to do with
measuring the influence of the involved technique in
manufacturing the product and the level at which the
population has been using manufactured products on
the economy. The third aspect is to measure the level
of influence that the manufactured product has on the
environment regarding the use of natural assets for raw
materials, energy, and actual land property. An essential
condition for evaluating the sustainability of the use of
developing biodegradable plastic is to identify how
functional the plastics industry is. When this new stand-
ard is upheld, plastics industries can profoundly pre-
serve natural environs and enhance social equity and
the economy.
Future outlook
Bioplastics and, in particular, biodegradable plastics, as
can be seen in the bio-based resources in Figures 4–6,
and they represent only a small amount of overall plas-
tic production. A near-term scenario where biodegrad-
able plastics surpass all current plastic manufacturing is,
therefore, irrational to imagine. It is also debatable that
this is truly advantageous. Biodegradable plastics
should, however, be expected to play a role in the
future plastics systems, and provided that: annual
demand is growing, and they draw public attention,
they provide opportunities for the use of non-fossil
feedstocks. There are many biodegradability-needed
niche applications (particularly in the agricultural and
related industries), and these plastics are capable of
doing the same. First, when describing the scope of
possible analysis, there is an exercise for deciding
“design for deterioration” applications-where biodeg-
radation will provide a benefit as a disposal choice,
solving a problem that does not have a clear alternative
solution. In creating the material properties and the
design of the wider structure required for the applica-
tions produced, time and energy can then be expended
sensibly. By updating the prior literature, would be a
good place to launch this work. In particular, Shen
et al.’s [40] research, looking at the substitution capacity
of bioplastics for the entire plastic system, will be
appropriate to revisit. This time, instead of considering
the replacement potential of all plastics, the focus
would be better positioned to calculate the replace-
ment potential applications that would benefit from
biodegradable plastics. The goal would be to consider
the functional aspects of biodegradable plastics. While
we have carried out a systemic literature review, we
might have missed a variety of contributions. In future
studies, the bibliometric methodology can be used to
define, identify, analyze, and combine all applicable
research outcomes through statistical techniques (e.g.
methods for meta-analysis and co-word analysis) for
future research.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by
the author(s).

Funding
We would like to acknowledge the Ministry of Higher
Education of Malaysia for providing financial support for this
research through the Transdisciplinary Research Grant
Scheme (TRGS) number TRGS/1/2018/ UMP/01/1 (University
reference: RDU191801-5).
ORCID
Taofeeq D. Moshood http://orcid.org/0000-0003-
1918-712X
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