B.

Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solid substances that have a

defined chemical composition and a crystalline structure. They exhibit various
physical properties that can be used to identify and classify them. Some of
the common physical properties of minerals include:

1. Hardness: Hardness refers to the ability of a mineral to resist scratching. The

Mohs scale of hardness, which ranges from 1 (the softest) to 10 (the
hardest), is commonly used to measure the hardness of minerals. For
example, talc has a hardness of 1, while diamond, the hardest mineral, has a
hardness of 10.
2. Color: Color is one of the most noticeable properties of minerals, but it is not
always a reliable characteristic for identification. Some minerals may have a
distinctive color, while others can occur in various colors due to impurities or
other factors.
3. Cleavage and Fracture: Cleavage refers to the way a mineral breaks along
flat surfaces, whereas fracture refers to the way a mineral breaks along
irregular or uneven surfaces. Cleavage is often described in terms of the
number of planes and their angles. For example, mica has perfect basal
cleavage, meaning it breaks along one plane to produce thin, flat sheets.
4. Luster: Luster refers to the way a mineral reflects light. It can be described
as metallic, non-metallic, or sub-metallic. Minerals such
as gold and silver exhibit a metallic luster, while minerals
like quartz and feldspar have a non-metallic luster.
5. Streak: Streak refers to the color of a mineral’s powder when it is scraped
across an unglazed porcelain plate. It may or may not be the same as the
mineral’s external color. For example, hematite, which is commonly red in
color, leaves a red streak, while pyrite, which is often yellow or brassy in
color, leaves a greenish-black streak.
6. Density: Density is the mass per unit volume of a mineral. It can provide
information about the composition and chemical structure of a mineral.
Different minerals can have significantly different densities due to variations
in their chemical composition.
7. Crystal form: Crystal form refers to the external shape of a mineral’s
crystals. Some minerals have distinctive crystal forms that can aid in their
identification. For example, quartz commonly forms hexagonal prisms with
pointed terminations, while halite forms cubic crystals.
8. Magnetism: Some minerals, such as magnetite, exhibit magnetic properties
and are attracted to magnets. This property can be used as a diagnostic test
for identifying certain minerals.
9. Optical properties: Some minerals exhibit optical properties, such as double
refraction or fluorescence, which can be used as diagnostic tests for
identification.
10.Transparency and opacity: Transparency refers to the ability of a mineral
to transmit light, while opacity refers to the inability of a mineral to transmit
light. Minerals can be transparent, translucent, or opaque, and this property
can provide valuable information for identification. For example, quartz is
often transparent, while gypsum is typically translucent.
11.Specific gravity: Specific gravity is a measure of the density of a mineral
relative to the density of water. It is a useful property for identifying minerals
with similar densities. Specific gravity can be determined by comparing the
weight of a mineral to the weight of an equal volume of water.
12.Tenacity: Tenacity refers to a mineral’s resistance to breaking, bending, or
deforming. Minerals can be brittle (break easily), malleable (can be flattened
or bent without breaking), sectile (can be cut into thin shavings with a knife),
ductile (can be drawn into wires), or flexible (can be bent and then return to
their original shape).
13.Magnetism: Some minerals exhibit magnetic properties and can be attracted
to magnets. Magnetite is a common example of a magnetic mineral.
14.Taste and odor: Some minerals have distinct tastes or odors that can aid in
their identification. For example, halite (rock salt) has a characteristic salty
taste, while sulfur has a distinct odor of rotten eggs.
15.Reaction to acid: Some minerals may react with acids, producing
effervescence or fizzing. This can be a useful test for identifying minerals such
as calcite, which reacts with weak acids like hydrochloric acid.
16.Electrical conductivity: Certain minerals can conduct electricity, which can
be a helpful property for identification. For example, graphite, a form of
carbon, is an excellent conductor of electricity.
17.Thermal properties: Minerals may exhibit thermal properties such as
melting point, boiling point, and heat resistance, which can be useful for
identification or characterization.
 18.Radioactivity: Some minerals are radioactive and emit radiation, which can
be detected using specialized equipment. Uraninite and pitchblende are
examples of radioactive minerals.
19.Solubility: Solubility refers to the ability of a mineral to dissolve in a liquid,
such as water or acid. Some minerals, like halite, are highly soluble in water,
while others, like quartz, are insoluble. Solubility can be a useful property for
identifying minerals and can be determined by conducting dissolution tests.
20.Striations: Striations are parallel lines or grooves on the surface of a
mineral, often visible under magnification. They can provide important clues
for identifying minerals such as feldspars, which often exhibit characteristic
striations on their cleavage surfaces.
21.Phosphorescence: Phosphorescence is the ability of a mineral to emit light
after being exposed to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Some minerals, such
as fluorite, can exhibit phosphorescence, which can be used as a diagnostic
property for identification.
22.Piezoelectricity: Piezoelectricity is the ability of a mineral to generate an
electric charge when subjected to mechanical pressure or stress. Certain
minerals, such as quartz and tourmaline, exhibit piezoelectric properties and
can generate electricity under pressure.
23.Tectosilicate structure: Tectosilicate structure refers to the arrangement of
silicon-oxygen tetrahedra in some minerals, such as quartz and feldspars.
This structure can result in unique physical properties, such as high hardness,
high melting point, and lack of cleavage, which can aid in identification.
24.Twinning: Twinning is the phenomenon where two or more individual
crystals of a mineral are intergrown in a symmetrical manner. Twinning can
produce distinctive patterns or shapes in minerals and can be used as an
identifying characteristic.
25.Pseudomorphism: Pseudomorphism is a phenomenon where one mineral
replaces another mineral while retaining the original mineral’s shape or
structure. This can result in unique physical properties and can be used in
identification.

Isotropism
Isotropism is a property exhibited by some minerals, where they show the same
physical properties in all directions. In other words, isotropic minerals have physical
properties that are uniform, regardless of the direction in which they are observed. This
is in contrast to anisotropic minerals, which exhibit different physical properties
depending on the direction in which they are observed.

Isotropism is primarily related to the optical properties of minerals, specifically their

behavior when interacting with light. Isotropic minerals have a single refractive index,
meaning that light travels through them at the same speed in all directions, and they
do not exhibit double refraction. As a result, isotropic minerals appear the same when
viewed from any direction, and their optical properties, such as color and transparency,
are consistent regardless of the orientation of the mineral specimen.

Examples of isotropic minerals include garnet, spinel, and magnetite. These minerals
have a cubic crystal structure, which results in isotropic behavior. Other minerals, such
as quartz and calcite, are anisotropic because they have a different crystal structure
that causes them to exhibit different physical properties in different directions.

The property of isotropism can be determined through various optical tests, such as
polarizing microscopy, which involves the use of polarized light to observe the behavior
of minerals when interacting with light. Isotropism is an important characteristic used in
the identification and classification of minerals, as it can help distinguish isotropic
minerals from anisotropic minerals and aid in mineralogical analysis.

Anisotropic
In a single crystal, the physical and mechanical properties often differ with orientation.
It can be seen from looking at our models of crystalline structure that atoms should be
able to slip over one another or distort in relation to one another easier in some
directions than others. When the properties of a material vary with different
crystallographic orientations, the material is said to be anisotropic.

Isotropic
Alternately, when the properties of a material are the same in all directions, the
material is said to be isotropic. For many polycrystalline materials the grain
orientations are random before any working (deformation) of the material is done.
Therefore, even if the individual grains are anisotropic, the property differences tend to
average out and, overall, the material is isotropic. When a material is formed, the
grains are usually distorted and elongated in one or more directions which makes the
material anisotropic. Material forming will be discussed later but let’s continue
discussing crystalline structure at the atomic level.

Polymorphism
Physical properties of minerals are directly related to their atomic structure,
bonding forces and chemical composition. Bonding forces as electrical forces exist
between the atoms and ions are related to the type of elements, and the distance
between them in the crystalline structure. Thus, minerals having same chemical
composition may show different crystal structure (as a function of changes in P & T or
both). So, being crystallized in different Symmetry Systems they exhibit different
physical properties, this is called polymorphism. These minerals are said to be
polymorphous. They may be Dimorphic, Trimorphic or Polymorphic according to the
number of mineral species present in their group.

Cohesion and Elasticity

Cohesion and elasticity are two related concepts that describe the behavior of materials
in response to external forces.

Cohesion: Cohesion refers to the internal attraction or bonding between particles

within a material, which holds them together. It is the force that allows materials to
resist being pulled apart or separated. Cohesion is responsible for the “stickiness” or
“stick-together” property of materials. In minerals, cohesion is typically due to the
chemical bonds between atoms or ions that make up the mineral’s structure. Minerals
with strong cohesion are more resistant to breaking or crumbling.

Elasticity: Elasticity refers to the ability of a material to deform under an applied force
and then return to its original shape and size once the force is removed. A material that
is elastic can undergo temporary deformation, such as stretching or bending, without
permanent damage or change in its structure. Elasticity is related to the strength and
flexibility of materials. In minerals, elasticity is typically related to the arrangement and
strength of chemical bonds between atoms or ions, as well as the overall structure and
arrangement of mineral grains.

Minerals can exhibit a range of cohesive and elastic behaviors, depending on their
chemical composition, crystal structure, and other factors. Some minerals may have
strong cohesion and high elasticity, making them resistant to breakage and able to
deform under stress without permanent damage. Other minerals may have weak
cohesion and low elasticity, making them more prone to fracture or deformation. The
cohesive and elastic properties of minerals can also be influenced by external factors
such as temperature, pressure, and humidity.
 C. Rocks are composed of minerals. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance which
is usually solid, crystalline, stable at room temperature and inorganic.

There are almost 5000 known mineral species, yet the vast majority of rocks are formed from
combinations of a few common minerals, referred to as “rock-forming minerals”. The rock-
forming minerals are: feldspars, quartz, amphiboles, micas, olivine, garnet, calcite, pyroxenes.

Minerals occurring within a rock in small quantities are referred to as “accessory minerals”.
Although accessory minerals are present in only small amounts, they may provide valuable
insight into the geological history of a rock, and are often used to ascertain the age of a rock.
Common accessory minerals are: zircon, monazite, apatite, titanite, tourmaline, pyrite and other
opaques.

The abundance and diversity of minerals depend on the abundance in the Earth’s crust of the
elements of which they are composed. Eight elements make up 98% of the Earth’s crust: oxygen,
silicon, aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium and potassium. The composition of
minerals formed by igneous processes is directly controlled by the chemistry of the parent body.
For example, a magma rich in iron and magnesium will form minerals such as olivine and
pyroxene (as found in basalt). Magma richer in silicon will form more silica-rich minerals such
as feldspar and quartz (as found in granite). It is unlikely that a mineral will be found in a rock
with dissimilar bulk chemistry unlike its own; thus it is unlikely that andalusite (A l2SiO5) would
be found in an aluminium-poor rock such as a quartzite.

Physical properties of minerals

Some minerals are easily identifiable; others can only be recognized only by the use of a
petrographic microscope or by complex analytical techniques. The following criteria are used to
differentiate minerals in hand sample. Most minerals cannot be identified from one particular
property, and so it is advisable to use several of the diagnostic criteria outlined below. A hand
lens will assist you greatly.

Colour
Colour is one of the most obvious characteristic of a mineral, but generally not the most useful
diagnostic feature. Depending on impurities, individual mineral types may come in a vast variety
of colours. For example, ruby and sapphire are differently coloured types of the mineral
corundum (Al2O3). The red colour of ruby is due to the presence of the element chromium.
Sapphires may come is a vast variety of colours; blue is the most familiar colour, but yellow,
orange, green, pink, orange and brown varieties are also known. Garnets may also come in a
large range of colours, depending on their composition. They can be found with virtually any
colour, although blue garnets are exceptionally rare. It is therefore advisable not to rely on colour
alone to identify a mineral.

Crystal habit
Crystal habit refers to the characteristic shape of a mineral unit (either an individual crystal or an
aggregate of crystals). Crystals with well-developed faces are referred to as “euhedral”; for
example garnet crystals are often euhedral. Minerals may also occur as aggregates of crystals; for
example, asbestos is usually found as an aggregate of very fine fibres. The following list gives
examples of different crystal habits and examples of common minerals that may exhibit each
habit.

Acicular – needle-like, e.g. natrolite, rutile

Bladed – blade-like, slender and flattened, e.g. kyanite

Botryoidal – grape-like masses, e.g. hematite, malachite

Columnar – long, slender prisms, e.g. calcite, gypsum

Cubic – cube-shaped, e.g. pyrite, galena, halite

Dendritic – tree-like, branching in multiple directions, e.g. pyrolusite, native copper, native silver

Fibrous – very slender prisms, e.g. asbestos, tremolite

Foliated or lamellar – layered structure, parts easily into very thin sheets, e.g. muscovite, biotite

Granular – aggregates of crystals, e.g. bornite, scheelite

Hexagonal – six-sided, e.g. quartz, hanksite

Massive – no distinct shape, e.g. turquoise, realgar

Octahedral– eight-sided, e.g. diamond, magnetite

Platy – flat, tablet shape, e.g. wulfenite

Prismatic – elongate, prism like, e.g. tourmaline, beryl

Radial or stellate – radiating outwards from a central point, star-like, e.g. wavellite, pyrophyllite

Acicular habit (rutile)

 Botryoidal habit (malachite)

Cubic habit (pyrite)

 Fibrous habit
(sillimanite)

Foliated habit (biotite)

 Massive habit
(realgar)

Hexagonal habit (sapphire)

 Platy habit (wulfenite)

Prismatic habit
Hardness
Hardness is a measure of how resistant a mineral is to scratching. This physical property is
controlled by the chemical composition and structure of the mineral. Hardness is commonly
measured on the Mohs scale. This is defined by ten minerals, where each mineral can scratch
those with a lower scale number. Diamond (hardness 10) can scratch everything below it on the
Mohs scale, but cannot itself be scratched, whereas quartz (hardness 5) can scratch calcite
(hardness 3) but not corundum (hardness 9).

Scale Number Indicator Mineral

1 Talc

2 Gypsum

3 Calcite

4 Fluorite

5 Apatite

6 Orthoclase

7 Quartz

8 Topaz

9 Corundum

10 Diamond

Streak
The streak of a mineral refers to the colour of the mark it leaves behind after being rubbed
against a piece of unglazed porcelain. Hematite provides a good example of how streak works.
While this mineral is usually black, silver or brown-red in hand sample, its streak is always a
dark blood-red. Chalcopyrite is usually golden-brown in hand sample, but has a green-black
streak. Streak can be used only for minerals with a Mohs hardness of 7 or less, as minerals with a
hardness greater than 7 will themselves scratch the streak plate.

Lustre
Lustre refers to the way in which the surface of a mineral reflects light, and is controlled by the
kinds of atoms present and their bonding. It is described by the following terms

Adamantine – diamond-like lustre; such minerals are usually transparent and have a high
refractive index; e.g. diamond, cerussite, cubic zirconia
Dull or earthy – no reflections; e.g. kaolinite

Greasy – the appearance of being coated with an oily substance; may also be greasy to the touch;
e.g. opal

Pearly – the whitish iridescence of materials such as pearls; e.g. stilbite

Vitreous – like glass; e.g. calcite, quartz, beryl

Silky – like silk fabric; e.g. satin spar (a variety of gypsum)

Resinous – like a resin; e.g. fire opal

Metallic – metal-like in appearance; e.g. pyrite

Adamantine lustre (diamond)

 Resinous lustre (fire opal)
Cleavage
Minerals are composed of atoms, which, for each mineral, have a characteristic arrangement.
Weaknesses in the chemical bonds between these atoms cause planes of weakness in the crystal
structure. Cleavage is an indication of how well a mineral breaks along these planes of weakness,
and may be a good diagnostic characteristic. Cleavage may be described as “perfect”, ”good”,
“distinct” or ”poor”. In transparent minerals or in thin sections viewed though a microscope,
cleavage may be seen as a series of parallel lines.

The number of cleavage planes in a mineral may also aid its identification. Cleavage typically
occurs in either one, two, three, four or six directions. Micas easily split along their one plane of
cleavage to form thin sheets. Amphiboles exhibit two cleavage planes. Iceland spar, a variety of
calcite, cleaves readily along three planes of weakness into distinctive rhombs. Galena breaks
along three cleavage planes producing cubic fractions. Fluorite and diamond show cleavage in
four directions. Sphalerite exhibits cleavage in six directions. Not every mineral displays
cleavage. For example, quartz does not have a weakness in its crystal structure, and therefore
does not exhibit cleavage. When a quartz specimen is broken with a hammer, it displays
conchoidal (shell-like) fracture.
PETROLOGY

A. The rocks can be classified into two main varieties, namely, Igneous
rocks and Sedimentary rocks. But when these rocks are subjected to
prolonged fluctuations of temperature and pressure, they are
transformed to a new variety which is termed as Metamorphic rocks.

1. Igneous Rocks:
A change of temperature caused the formation of igneous rocks. It has
already been noted that the earth, at its beginning was in a gaseous
state. The loss of heat through radiation and gradual cooling led to
solidification and hardening of the upper portion. Thus igneous rocks
came to be formed in the past. The upper part was the first to solidify
leading to the formation of igneous rocks. These are known as Primary
rocks.

Further, since igneous rocks are not formed as layers or strata, these
are also called unstratified rocks. Igneous rocks are formed even today
in different regions of the earth and in different parts of the earths’
interior.

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For instance, though the materials deep inside the earth are more or
less in hardened state, these melt and turn liquid if for some reason
the pressure from above decreases. These materials then wants to
come out. That liquified materials of the interior is called magma.

As magma cools down with the passage of time it turns into rock. The
rocks formed from magma are known by different names in different
parts. The magma which escapes to the surface of the earth is called
lava. The lava solidifies very quickly due to contact with the
atmosphere. This type of rock is called extrusive igneous rock.

Due to rapid cooling, the minerals found in this type of rock solidify
into very small-size crystals. Basalt is a rock of this type. It occurs
widely in the south-western part of Deccan plateau and the Rajmahal
Hills of Bihar.

At times the magma materials cannot escape out to the surface. These
then get deposited in layers inside the earth’s crust which slowly cool
down, and turn into rock. This type of rock is known as intrusive
igneous rock. When magma solidifies at a considerable depth below
the surface, it cannot lose heat easily through radiation. Hence, it cools
down very slowly.

This slow cooling helps the formation of large crystals of various

minerals in the rock. This type of rock is also known as plutonic rock.
Granite and Dolerite are two examples of intrusive igneous rock. In
India there are abundant deposits of such rocks in areas like Raniganj,
Rajasthan, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
Meghalaya and Assam. In Assam, these rocks occur abundantly in and
around Guwahati and North Cachar Hills.
On the basis of location, size and shape, intrusive igneous
rocks are called by different names:
(а) Batholith:
Batholiths are the largest intrusive igneous rock bodies. They may be
50-80 km across and many hundred km in length. They are so huge
that their bottoms are not visible. They form the core of the world’s
mountain systems.

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(b) Laccoliths:
Laccoliths are formed between horizontal layers of sedimentary rocks
near the earth surface. They are also dome-shaped and take the shape
of a mushroom. They are also of huge size and form the reservoir of
magma producing eruption.

(c) Dykes:
Dykes are near vertical formation from a few metres to kilometres in
length. They come into existence when liquid molten materials pass
through cracks and get solidified into rocks.

(d) Sill:
Sometimes molten materials get solidified into a thin sheet in
horizontal position between two rock layers. Such an intrusion is
termed as sill.

(e) Stocks:
Batholiths of smaller size having somewhat rounded shape are called
stocks.

2. Sedimentary Rocks:
With the passage of time, the primary rocks on the surface of the earth
are weathered and reduced to bits and pieces by the physical and
chemical actions of heat, cold, wind, rain, glacier, sea wave, etc. These
broken down or weathered rock particles are carried away by river,
wind, glacier, etc., to the oceans or lakes where these are deposited at
the ocean floor of lakebeds.

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Generally, the bigger and heavier particles are deposited below the
finer particles. Due to pressure and chemical reaction, these sediments
are turned into rock. This type of rock is called Sedimentary rock.
Since the sediments are deposited in layers or strata it is also called
stratified rock.

Sometimes the remains of animals and plants get embedded in the

sediments and become rock-like substance due to pressure and
chemical change. The remains are called fossils.

Sedimentary rocks which carry fossils in them are called fossiliferous

rocks. Sandstone and limestone are two examples of sedimentary rock.
Nearly 75 per cent of the earth’s landmass is made-up of sedimentary
rocks. Sandstone deposits occur in many parts of Himalayas and the
Aravalli Range of Rajasthan.

There are rich deposits of limestone in Cherraphunji area of

Meghalaya and in North Cachar and Karbi Anglong District of Assam.
The river valleys are generally made up of sedimentary rock deposits.
Coal and mineral oil are two very important resources that are derived
from the sedimentary rock deposits.

Although 75 per cent of the earth’s surface is covered with sedimentary

rocks, they make up only about 5 per cent of the volume of the earth’s
crust. Out of the total sedimentary rocks 8 per cent is limestone, 12 per
cent sandstone and the rest 80 per cent shales.

Sedimentary rocks, although derived from pre-existing rocks, it is

interesting to know that some of them are older than either igneous or
the metamorphic rocks as found in Greenland in 1973.

3. Metamorphic Rocks:
At times, movements inside the earth cause sudden and marked
change of pressure and temperature. These induce chemical and
physical changes in igneous and sedimentary rocks. As a result, these
rocks are transformed into a new kind of rock called Metamorphic
rocks. This way, granitic igneous rocks are converted to gneiss and
schist.

Sedimentary rocks such as sandstone and limestone are transformed

into quartzite and marble respectively. Again mudstone, which is a
sedimentary rock, is transformed into a metamorphic rock known as
slate. In India, marble deposits are found in Rajasthan and Madhya
Limited deposits of slate are found in Meghalaya, Nagaland, and
Mizoram. Graphite which is a metamorphic rock formed of coal is
found in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.

The metamorphic rocks are recognised by their great hardness,

specialised structures and interlocking crystals. In the process of
change, new and precious minerals like gems, rubies and sapphires are
born, their sizes are enlarged and crystals are re-arranged.

B. Igneous rocks are formed when magma (or molten rocks) cool down, and
become solid. High temperatures inside the crust of the Earth cause rocks to
melt, and this substance is known as magma. Magma is the molten material
that erupts during a volcano. This substance cools down slowly, and causes
mineralization to take place. Gradually, the size of the minerals increase until
they are large enough to be visible to the naked eye. Igneous rocks are mostly
formed beneath the Earth’s surface.

The texture of Igneous rocks can be referred to as Phaneritic, Aphaneritic,

Glassy (or vitreous), Pyroclastic or Pegmatitic. Examples of Igneous Rocks
include granite, basalt and diorite.

Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are usually formed by sedimentation of the Earth’s
material, and this normally occurs inside water bodies. The Earth’s material is
constantly exposed to erosion and weathering, and the resulting accumulated
loose particles eventually settle, and form Sedimentary rocks. Therefore, one
can say, that these types of rocks are formed slowly from the sediments, dust
and dirt of other rocks. Erosion takes place due to wind and water. After
thousands of years, the eroded pieces of sand and rock settle, and become
compacted to form a rock of their own.
Sedimentary rocks range from small clay-size rocks to huge boulder-size
rocks. The textures of Sedimentary rocks are mainly dependent on the
parameters of the clast, or the fragments of the original rock. These
parameters can be of various types, such as surface texture, round, spherical
or in the form of grain. The most common type of Sedimentary rock is the
Conglomerate, which is caused by the accumulation of small pebbles and
cobbles. Other types include shale, sandstone and limestone, which is formed
from clastic rocks and the deposition of fossils and minerals.

Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are the result of the transformation of other rocks. Rocks
that are subjected to intense heat and pressure change their original shape and
form, and become Metamorphic rocks. This change in shape is referred to as
metamorphism. These rocks are commonly formed by the partial melting of
minerals, and re-crystallization. Gneiss is a commonly found Metamorphic
rock, and it is formed by high pressure, and the partial melting of the minerals
contained in the original rock.
Metamorphic rocks have textures like slaty, schistose, gneissose, granoblastic
or hornfelsic. Examples of these types of rocks include slate, gneiss, marble,
and quartzite, which occurs when re-crystallization changes the shape and
form of an original rock formation.
Summary:
1.Igneous rocks are formed when magma (or molten rocks) have cooled down
and solidified. Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation of other
eroded substances, while Metamorphic rocks are formed when rocks change
their original shape and form due to intense heat or pressure.
2.Igneous rocks are commonly found inside the Earth’s crust or mantle, while
Sedimentary rocks are usually found in water bodies (sea, oceans etc.).
Metamorphic rocks are found on the Earth’s surface.
3.Igneous rocks can be an important source of minerals, and Sedimentary
rocks, or their bedding structure, is mostly used in civil engineering; for the
construction of housing, roads, tunnels, canals etc. Geologists study the
geological properties of Metamorphic rocks, as their crystalline nature
provides valuable information about the temperatures and pressures within
the Earth’s crust.
4.Examples of Igneous rocks include granite and basalt, while examples of
Sedimentary rocks include shale, limestone and sandstone. Common
examples of Metamorphic rocks are marble, slate and quartzite.