AMD Studentship Programme 2017-18

1. Requirements in Uranium exploration

Exploration is the act of searching or discovery of oil, gas, coal, water, ores (mineral
exploration). Mineral exploration is the cumulative endeavour of finding ore (commercially
viable concentrations of economic minerals) by adopting suitable combinations or the whole
gamut of geological, geophysical and geochemical techniques. When these efforts are
directed towards finding of uranium ore, it is called Uranium Exploration. Mineral
exploration is an intensive, organized and professional form of mineral prospecting.

For taking up Uranium Exploration Programme, we must know

• Geochemical properties of Uranium

• Nuclear properties of Uranium
• Geophysical properties of associated rocks / structures
• Geological aspects of uranium metallogeny
• Processes of Uranium mineralization
• Geology of the terrain to assess its potentiality

2. Uranium Geochemistry

• Discovered by M.H.Klaproth (1789), Heaviest of all naturally occurring elements.

• Radioactivity discovered by Becquerel (1896)
• Density : 19.05 g/cc, Melting Point :11330C, Boiling point :39270C
• Natural Uranium has three isotopes: U238 (99.27%), U235 (0.72%) and U234 (0.0058%).
• U235 fissile; contains 92 protons and 143 neutrons (92 + 143 = 235).
• Uranium is a Lithophile, Oxiphile element.
• Uranium readily reacts with water to form oxide and liberate Hydrogen.
• Uranium has two stable oxidation states: U+4( 0.97Å) and U+6(0.87Å). Intermediate
species U+5 is transient in nature.
• High charge and small ionic Radii inhibit uranium from entering mafic minerals and it
mainly concentrates in acidic rocks and late differentiates.
• Uranium occurs as
(1) Discrete form: Pitchblende, Uraninite
(2) Secondary minerals (bright yellow, orange, green, and all of the combinations):
Carnotite, Torbernite, Uranophane, Autonite, etc.
• Uranium substitutes for Th, Zr, REE and Ca (limited).

Although almost all the rocks contain uranium, it needs a specific geological process
to migrate and accumulate. Migration and accumulation of uranium is primarily controlled
by its mineral chemistry and that of other elements in the crust.

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Uranium Concentration (ppm) in Common Rocks

Silicic intrusives :1-6 Silicic extrusives :2–7

Silicic pegmatites :1–4 Alkaline rocks : 0.1 - 3
Basic intrusive : 0.3 – 2 Basic extrusive : 0.2 – 4
Ultrabasic : 0.001 – 0.03 Granite :4
Andesite :2 Basalt : 0.5
Shale : 3.2 Sandstone : 2.2
Limestone : 1.5 Crust : 2.6
Seawater : 3ppb

3. Formation of Uranium Deposits

Formation of a Uranium Deposit requires followings

1. Source (protolith) or a provenance that can supply Uranium - an acidic rock like
Granite.
2. Transportation of uranium dispersed in source/protolith by oxygenated solution to
suitable locales – oxygenated groundwater can transport U.
3. Fixation and Concentration of this uranium - Reductants like carbon, sulphides,
organic matters, H2S etc. may help in fixation of U.

Redistribution and reconcentration of uranium to form an economic deposit (i.e. multiple

cycles of factors 1- 3 above)

4. Stages of Uranium Exploration

Phase-I: Planning and Selection of Area

1. Literature Survey
2. Remote Sensing and Photogeological Studies.
3. Conceptual Modeling

Phase-II Identification of areas of Interest

A. Areas with good rock exposure

1. Airborne Gamma Ray Spectrometry.

2. Geophysical Survey.
3. Jeep-borne Gamma Ray Spectrometry.
4. Ground Radiometric Survey.

B. Areas with considerably thick soil cover

1. Geophysical Survey.
2. Hydro-geochemical Survey.
3. Pedo-geochemical Survey.
4. Radon Emanometry.
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Phase-III Delineation of Target (Mineralised Zone)

1. Detailed Radiometric Survey.

2. Geological Mapping.
3. Channel / Groove Sampling and Assay.
4. Trenching and Pitting.
5. Shielded-probe Logging.
6. Isorad Mapping.
7. Petromineralogical Studies.
8. Reconnoitory (400m x 200m) and Exploratory (200m x 100m) Drilling.
9. Borehole Logging and Core Assay.
10. Correlation of Drilling Data.

Phase-IV Defining the Ore Body and its Assessment

1. Evaluation Drilling (50m x 50m).

2. Borehole Logging and Core Assay.
3. Uranium Mineralogy.
4. Byproduct (if any) Assessment.
5. Leachability Studies.
6. Exploratory Mining.
7. Correlation Of Drilling and Mining Data.
8. Geostatistical Analysis.
9. Ore Reserve Estimation.
10. Economic Evaluation.

5. Uranium Exploration Techniques

 Airborne survey and Remote sensing
 Airborne gamma ray spectrometer
 Geological mapping
 Reconnaissance 1: 50,000 to 1: 25,000
 Detail 1:1000 to 1:2000
 Stratigraphic Study/Structural analysis
 Study of sedimentary facies and mapping
 Basin analysis
 Study of alteration patterns and mapping
 Radiometric survey and techniques
 Geiger-Muller counter
 Scintillometer
 Isorad mapping
 Shielded probe logging
 Portable gamma ray spectrometer
 Bore hole gamma ray logging
 Geochemical survey (Sampling and analysis of natural material)
 Litho geochemical survey
 Pedo-geochemical survey

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 Hydro geochemical survey

 Stream sediment survey
 Atmogeochemical survey
 Biogeochemical survey

Multi elemental analysis will be carried out by fluorimetry, XRF, AAS, ICPMS, Infrared
spectroscopy etc. After receiving the data from laboratory, several fundamental and common
data plotting will be done as per requirement with respective of type of data.

Statistical analysis: Data homogenization, normalization, standardization, univariate

analysis, multivariate analysis like correlation studies, factor analysis, study of alteration
indices etc., and finally, data interpretation.

 Non-Radiometric Geophysical survey (Magnetic, Gravity, Electrical and EM Survey)

 Drilling (Both Non-Core and Core)

Based on Stage of Exploration

Reconnoitory drilling
Exploratory drilling
Evaluation drilling

6. Laboratory Studies

 Petromineralogical studies – Petrography and Petrogenesis

 Mineral identification – XRD method, Radioactive minerals phases identification by
autoradiography (SSNTD) study and XRD method
 Isotopic studies
 Geochronological studies – Dating of rocks and minerals
 Mineral Beneficiation
 Hydrometallurgical studies
 Geotechnical studies

7. Classification of Uranium deposits

Uranium deposits worldwide are grouped into 15 major categories of deposit types
based on their geological setting. The most recent geological classification has been defined
by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA, in 2013) and is adopted in the latest
version of the Red Book (2014). They are given below.

1. Intrusive
2. Granite-related
3. Polymetallic iron-oxide breccia complex
4. Volcanic-related

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5. Metasomatite
6. Metamorphite
7. Proterozoic unconformity
8. Collapse-breccia pipe
9. Sandstone
10. Paleo-quartz-pebble conglomerate
11. Surficial
12. Lignite and coal
13. Carbonate
14. Phosphate
15. Black shale

Important Definitions
Uranium Ore: Uranium Ore is an assemblage of minerals from which Uranium metal can be
recovered economically by prevailing Technology
Uranium occurrence: Uranium occurrence is defined as a naturally occurring anomalous
concentration of uranium
Uranium Deposit: Uranium Deposit is a mass of naturally occurring mineral Material from
which uranium could be exploited at present or in the future

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8. List of Geological Application Soft wares

The list shows the most common applications used. There are many applications, that are
more special available

Subject Name Use

Statistics Microsoft Excel For basic stats (Harker, bar, pie,…)
Minitab, SPSS Statistical modelling
Systat
Geochemistry MinPet
Petmin
NewPet Most geochemistry plots, modelling
Igpet
GCDkit 2D and 3D graphic
Petrograph
Grapher
Structural geology GEOrient Structural data plotting
Openstereo
Stereonet
Contouring Surfer Convert in a data into contour, surface, wireframe,
vector, image, shaded relief, and post maps
Mapping/GIS Civil 3D geological maps, engineering drawing…
(AutoCAD)
Arc Map storing and manipulating data
Mineral Interdex Mineral exploration software packages. Integration
Exploration Lapfrog of Geology, Geophysics, Geochemistry and
Management Isatis , Geosoft Imagery for Mineral Exploration Applications

9. Maps and Mapping

Map is a pictorial representation of the features on the earth’s surface on a two dimensional
plane to a scale.

• Topographic maps
• Thematic maps – geological, rainfall, forest, soil maps etc.
• Cadastral or revenue maps

The process of preparing a map is mapping

The process of extracting meaningful information from the map is map reading

Map scale: Scale of a map indicates the relationship between two points on the map and the
actual horizontal distance between the corresponding points on the ground.

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Two methods:

1. Representative fraction : 1:50000 or 1/50000

2. Linear Scale: Linear scale permits instant measurement of distances on the map by simple
comparison. The scale remains unaffected during reduction or enlargement of the map

Toposheet

Topographic maps are prepared by the Survey of India.

Generally available on 1:250000, 1:50000 and 1:25000 scales.

1:250000 scale sheets cover 10x10 lat and long (degree sheets).

These topographic maps are used as base maps in preparation of geological maps.
Base geological maps are prepared on 1:50000 or 1:25000 scale toposheets (for
systematic Geological mapping and mineral exploration).

10. Geological field equipments

The list below includes basic field equipment for which individuals are responsible.

 GPS
 Brunton compass
 Rock Hammer
 Hand Lens -- 10X magnification is a good choice.
 Magnet – good quality
 Knife -- pocket knife
 Field notebook
 Pens
 Pencils -- 0.5mm mechanical pencils are fine.
 Erasers
 Geometry box -- get a small, good quality one for plotting strikes and dips in the field
 Coloured pencils -- minimum of 12 colours.
 Permanent Ink Pens (Markers)
 Sample bags
 Camera
 Field bag
 Map case -- for protecting and carrying maps and air photos in the field.
 General textbooks --structure book and stratigraphy book, may be useful in the field
 Boots -- heavy hiking shoes is advisable
 Hat -- A must for protection from the sun
 Water bottle
 Toposheet—1:50000 or 1:25000

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11. Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of energy in the form of particles or
electromagnetic radiation by unstable nuclei to attain stability. The lighter nuclei generally
have equal number of protons (p) and neutrons (n). As the atomic number increases, the
number of neutrons increases and nuclear n/p ratio is more than one. The increasing n/p ratio
results in nuclear instability and heavy atoms with n/p > 1.5 are observed to be radioactive in
nature. Uranium being a natural radioactive element, radiometric techniques is used for its
exploration. Besides U, there are two more radioactive elements thorium (Th) and potassium
(K) exist in earth’s crust which interfere in measurement of U.

In radiometric survey, we have used Radiation Survey Meter (RSM) provided by the AMD.

Units of Radioactivity

Roentgen: For X rays or gamma rays field intensity is expressed in terms of ionization
produced in air, called exposure rate. The unit of radiation exposure is Roentgen, expressed
in the form of mR/hr. The radioisotopes of U, Th and K are most abundant, easily measured
and have significance for uranium exploration.

Instruments used in Radiometric Survey:

Radiation Survey Meter (RSM): This is based on the phenomena of scintillations produced
in certain materials like Sodium Iodide (Tl activated), by the action of radiations. A
scintillation counter (or RSM) consists of a scintillator and photomultiplier tube. When
nuclear radiation falls on the scintillator, it emits flashes of light (scintillations). The
photomultiplier tube converts the light flashes into electric pulses and amplifies them. The
photomultiplier consists of a cathode and a number of electrodes. The light flashes impinging
on the cathode, emit photoelectrons, which are multiplied by the different dynodes, and a
large electric pulse appears at the anode of the photomultiplier tube. Block diagram showing
working principle of scintillometer is given below. These are calibrated with Ra-226 source
of known strength.

Photo
NaI (Tl)

multiplier Pre amplifier Amplifie Scaler

tube r

High Voltage

Schematic block diagram, showing working principle of Radiation survey meter

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The salient features of this survey meter are:

1. NaI(TI) scintillation detector,

2. Chargeable battery operated
3. Portable, Rugged, handheld unit,
4. Total Radioactivity measurement in μR/h, nSv/h and ppm,
5. Geographical co‐ordinates of latitude and longitude,
6. Day, date, real time and ambient temperature information,
7. User friendly Menu options,
8. Audible alarm indications above programmable threshold limit of activity,
9. In‐built memory for data storage,
10. Automatic shutdown feature to conserve battery power in idle state,
11. Integrated with user friendly PC based software,
12. Data retrieval, data compilation and automatic Excel report generation by PC
software