CARAGA STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Engineering and Information Technology

Engineering Sciences Department
Mining Engineering Division

EM 100
Principles of Mining

Gerome L. Amper, EM
Instructor
INITIALIZING DATA
LOADING
DATA COMPLETED
Chapter 2.1
Definition of Terms:
• Prospect – surface indication of mineralization that
requires investigation.
• Prospecting - is just part of exploration – it is the
direct search for surface indication of ore
mineralization.
• Exploration - is to look and search for something
valuable to man. It includes all activities involved the
discovery and evaluation of ore deposit, its size,
grade, initial flowsheet and annual output of the new
extractive operation.
• Mineral Exploration – is defined as the scientific
investigation of the earth crust to determine if there
are mineral deposit present that maybe commercially
developed.
• Mineral – are naturally occurring substance that have
a corresponding chemical composition and distinct
physical properties.
• Ore – any rock that contains enough mineral that can
be mined at a profit.
• Mineral Deposit – any known mineral occurrence with
a potential to become an orebody worthwhile of
mining.
• Rock – are aggregate of mineral
• Gangue Mineral – valueless minerals associated in
the ore.
• Waste Rock – are barren rock in the mine.
• Host/Country Rock – are considered mother rock
where the mineral is enclosed/deposited/confined.
• Bedrock – any solid rock in place underlying a soil,
clay or other overburden.
• Gossans – are ferruginous deposit filling the
upper part of some mineral veins forming
superficial cover over masses of pyrite. It
consist mainly of hydrated iron oxides and has
resulted from removal of sulfur as well as
copper and other sulfides originally present.
• Floats – are mineral exposures consisting of
loose or traces of mineral remnants found
downslope of a mineral deposit.
• Talus – are transported broken rocks by
surface water flowing downslope.
• Geologic Map- is a record of geological facts in
their correct space relations facts, be it noted,
not theories..
• Definition of Terms
• Drill – a mechanized equipment used to make a hole
beneath the surface of the earth.
• Drillhole – a drilled hole for the purpose of obtaining
physical, geological and engineering character of the
material beneath the surface of the earth using a
rotary-type of drill equipment.
• Borehole – a drilled hole drilled by percussive
method;
• Blasthole – a drilled hole used mainly for mining
exploration and blasting purposes.
• Core Drill – a rotary rock drill which the work is done
by the abrasion of diamond sets in the head of the
boring tools.
• Percent Core Recovery (%CR) - is the length of core
recovered (CR) divided by the Length of Run (LR) x
100%.
• Definition of Terms
• Ore Limit - dividing line where the last assay shows
minable grade
• Detrital Materials - consist of transported sand and
gravel fragments
• Core - rock sample obtain from core drilling
• Borehole – a hole drilled by percussion drilling
• Drillhole – a hole drilled by rotary drilling
• Blasthole – a hole created either by percussion or
rotary drills intended for the placement of explosives
• Texture – arrangement of grains or particles in rock
• Structure - well-pronounced macroscopic feature of
rock
• Drill Strings - series of drill rods connection to the
water swivel
 I. INTRODUCTION
- Mining begins with prospecting and exploration stages
with long periods of investments and high risks of
failure.
- Prospecting & Exploration discovers evidence of
mineral occurrence and outline its size and character.
It’s Program should be designed to find and acquire a
maximum number of acceptable mineral deposits at a
minimum cost and within a minimum period of time.
- Defining a mineral deposits is a collective efforts of
geologists, geophysicist, geochemists, metallurgists,
mining engineers, chemists, lawyers and even
politicians.
• To find and acquire new deposits:
- the explorer must have access to land;
- it must undergoes rigorous government approval
and monitoring process;
- it must be capable of discovering deeply
concealed (hidden) deposits which have eluded
previous explorers;
- the deposits must be amenable to economic
extractive operations now or in the future.
Each exploration entity shall defines its own objectives in
terms of acceptable minimum rate of return on
investments (ROI) for any deposit found and retained,
and in terms of which commodities, and markets are
to be involved.
A. OBJECTIVES OF EXPLORATION
To Human Beings:
- To discover more God’s given natural resources for man’s
maximum use in a wise and sustainable manner;
- To provide the basic necessities of man to survive where
almost everything that we eat, drink, wear, drive, live-in,
fly-in depends on the products of mineral industries for
either its components, its production, and its source of
energy;
To Mining Companies:
- To find an economic mineral deposit that will increase the
value of the company’s stocks to the stockholders on a
continuing basis;
- To find and acquire a maximum number of mineral
deposits at a minimum cost and within a minimum period
of time.
B. Qualification of a Mineral Explorer
- Geologist/Mining Engineer
- Any engineer or professional with background
in mineral exploration
- Good health
- Risk-taker
- Adventurous
- Broad-minded
- Patient
- Knowledgeable on Use of Exploration
Equipment/Apparatus
C. Factors to Consider Prior to
Exploration Work
- Scope of work of proposed exploration project;
- Permits & Clearances;
- Amount of existing information;
- General geology of the prospect;
- Type of sampling and data required;
- Availability of exploration technology,
equipment, manpower, etc.
- Capability of equipment
- Cost of exploration works;
- Environment (terrain, access,
vegetation, etc.)
- Social Acceptability;
- Right-of-way to the site;
- Peace and Order
- Availability of infrastructures and
utilities.
 PROSPECTING & EXPLORATION
METHODS & TECHNIQUES
A. STAGES OF EXPLORATION
Stage 1 :Prospecting Stage
- Field and Library Researches
- Reconnaissance Geologic Survey
- Rock Sampling & Laboratory Testing
- Plotting of Geologic Data & Map Interpretation
Stage 2 : Preliminary Exploration Stage
- Further Library/Field Researches
- Preliminary Geological Mapping
* Field Traverse along Rivers/Creeks & Roadcuts
* Aerial Photogeologic Study
* Stream Sediment Sampling (rocks & minerals)
- Laboratory Testing (petrographic/mineralographic)
- Plotting of Geologic Data on Maps/Interpretation
- Preparation of Prelim Report
Stage 3 : Detailed Exploration Stage
- Detailed Geologic Mapping of Indicative Areas
- Geochemical Testing
- Geophysical Investigation
- Drilling Investigation
- Laboratory Testing
- Preparation of Geologic Report
Stage 4: Ore Reserve Determination
- Geologic Modelling & Interpretation
- Ore Reserve Estimation
- Mine Evaluation
- Mine Pre-Feasibility Report
 -Heavy Mineral Panning
FLOWSHEET OF A MINERAL
- Field/Library Researches - Airborne & Satellite Tech
EXPLORATION PROGRAM
- Reconnaissance Geo-mapping - Fluid Inclusion

- Rock Sampling & Lab Testing - Isotopes Studies

Searching PROSPECTING - X-ray Analyzer
- Plotting of Geologic Data on Maps
- Laser Techniques

MINERAL EXPLORATION -Field/Library Research - Geologic Logging

- Photogeologic Study - Boulder Tracking

Geologic - Outcrop Examination -Test Pit/Trenching

- Geologic Mapping - Aerial Examination
Defining
of Ore - Stream Sediment - Specialized Sampling

Deposit Geochemical - Water Sampling - Assaying

- Rock Sampling
- Aeromagnetic - Radiometric - Magnetic
Geophysical
- Electromagnetic - Gravity - Seismic
Confirming of
- Remote Sensing - Electrical - Radiometric
Ore Deposit - Percussion - Rotary Drilling
Drilling
Geologic Data - Rotary-Percussion - Diamond Core Drilling

Gathering & SAMPLING & DATA GATHERING

Interpretation
GEOLOGIC INTERPRETATION
Ore Reserve
Evaluation ORE RESERVE ESTIMATION
Final Output PRE-FEASIBILITY STUDY
B. Prospecting Techniques
1. Heavy Mineral Panning
2. Airborne & Satellite Techniques
3. Fluid Inclusion Studies
4. Isotope Studies
5. Portable X-ray Fluorescent Analyzer
6. Laser Techniques
• Heavy Mineral Panning
- applicable to resistant metal and minerals with high specific
gravity like: gold, platinum, cassiterite, tungsten, barite.
• Airborne and Satellite Techniques
- done by aerial photography supplemented by a satellite-
airborne electronic imaging system to map structural, lithologic
and alteration features
- An example of satellite-airborne imaging system is a
Multispectral Scanner (MSS)
• Fluid Inclusion Isotopes
- Detect fluids during ore-forming processes. The fluids
(hydrothermal solutions) are those that are:
- entrapped during the growth of its host crystals
- entrapped after the growth of host crystal occurring along
microfractures
Isotope – any of two or more species of atoms of a chemical
element with same atomic number and nearly identical
chemical behavior but w/ differing atomic mass and different
physical properties.
• Isotope Studies
- the study of the different properties of isotopes
in a mineral.
• Portable X-ray Flourescent Analyzer
- detect radioisotope sources to irradiate the
sampled material with gamma rays;
- very limited penetration of less than 3mm
- metals detected by portable analyzer are Cu,
Sn, Mo, Pb, Zn, Ni, Fe, Ti, Tn, Ba, Zr, Ag.
• Laser Techniques
- utilize laser beam (luminex system) to
measure luminescent radiation coming from
minerals. The luminex system can detect and
quantify responsive minerals occurring in an
outcrop;
- used to detect metals like tungsten, zinc,
molybdenum, and gold.
C.MINERAL EXPLORATION METHODS
I. Geologic Exploration
2. Geochemical Exploration
3. Geophysical Exploration
4. Drilling Exploration
5. Mining Exploration
I. Geologic Exploration :
A prime tool in mineral exploration & includes
the following:
- derivation of target concepts;
- collection of available geologic data
(mapping, alteration & zoning studies, core
logging, etc.);
- interpretation of data collected;
- integration of geologic data on maps
Activities Involved:
- Office/Library Researches/Compilation
- Photogeologic Study (Aerial/Ground)
- Outcrop Examination
- Geologic Mapping/Investigation
- Geologic Logging
- Boulder Tracking
- Test Pitting & Trenching
Activities:
A. Geologic Mapping- Surface investigation as to color and
textures at the surface of weathered ore mineralization or
outcrops are primary consideration. The tracing of mineralized
“float”, fragments of ore, gossans and ore-associated rock that
have been eroded and transported.
B. Trenching and Test Pitting – This involves excavation trial
pits and trenches to expose the surface outcrop. This is also to
determine the possible thickness of overburden and character
of the ore deposit. If a vein is exposed near the surface,
remnants of the vein called “float” will frequently appear
downhill in the overburden material. If the vein material is
resistant to weathering, float usually starts appearing some
distance downhill from the hidden vein outcrop).
C. Field Sampling & Laboratory Testing - Ore samples are
collected from or near outcrops for visual examination and
laboratory (petrographic & mineralographic) analysis.
• Types of Mapping
• Surface Mapping- a field activity conducted
by geologist or engineers to trace, locate and
record surficial geological information and
plotted in map.
• Underground Mapping - a subsurface
activity conducted by geologist or engineer in
the mines to trace, locate and update
geological records and plotted in map.
• Air Photograph Mapping - a field activity
through the use of an aircraft to trace, locate
and other surficial geological features using
high polarizing cameras.
• What to map:
Any exposure of rock presents a wealth of
detail:
- Soil and rock types
- Geological structures
- Physical properties
- Chemical properties
-Other surficial features (weathering,
alteration)
* What to map first: It seems advisable to
record all possible features foot by foot or
meter by meter as the mapping progresses.
• Basic Geologic Instruments/Equipments
1. Brunton Compass, geologist pick, hand lens,
pocket tape, cloth/chain tapes;
2. Geological knife, protractor, dilute HCl,
magnet, nail, survey pads, cement nails,
sample tags, sample bags, marking pen,
aluminum sheet folder;
3. Sample ring for holding sample bags during
chip sampling, pencils, pens, mapping
sheets, log forms, field vest with large
pockets, clipboard.
4. Portable Global Positioning System (GPS),
camera, Laptop, etc.
2. Geochemical Exploration
-Defines the analytical measurements & chemical
interpretation of the abundance of an element in
naturally-occurring materials such as soil, rocks,
water, air/gases, gossans, plants, micro-
organisms, animal tissues, particulate and stream
sediments.
- Includes molecular & isotropic concentration and
composition or bacterial counts;
Geochemical Exploration Methods
a) Stream Sediment Sampling
b) Water Sampling
c) Rock Sampling
d) Specialized Sampling
e) Assaying
Activities Involved:
A. Field Survey – This involves the collection of
closely spaced samples within the vicinity but
preferably undisturbed mineralization;
B. Sample Collection and Handling - This
requires well-trained personnel capable of
recognizing and describing the correct sample
material and the sample site characteristics.
The samplers should be able to recognize and
if possible avoid situation where contamination
from human activity or changes in the natural
physiochemical conditions can produce
spurious or unusual results. This must be
under the supervision of a geochemist or
geologist.
Sampling Media :
1. Soil – are mixture of mineral & biologic matter. They
are classified as residual and transported materials
and vary in composition & appearance according to
their genetic, climatic, & geographic environment.
- Residual soils may contain detectable dispersion
patterns developed during the weathering of
mineralization of underlying bedrock.
- Transported soil present more difficult sampling
problems, but meaningful sampling is possible
once the genetic origins of transported cover
are understood;
Soils are sampled along traverses or grids in the
follow-up or detailed prospecting stage of a
geochemical program.
2.Stream Sediments and Water : Stream
sediment are natural composite sample of
erosion materials from upstream derived from
weathered mineralization.
3.Lake Sediments & Water : The sampling
focuses in the collection of organic mud using
especially-designed sampling device.
4.Rock Samples: The systematic sampling of
outcrops, trenches, drill cores or cuttings
within the zone of oxidation and weathering.
Rock samples are grind and pulverized to
grain size of less than 150-200 mesh.
5.Vegetation : This involves the morphology and
distribution of certain plants affected by the
presence of metals in the soils. Such visible
variation in a plant species are referred to as
“GEOBOTANICAL INDICATORS”.
Plants that will not shows any visible variations but
of capable of absorbing metals in their tissues
through the soils or groundwater and the presence
of these anomalous metals is often reflected in the
metal content in leaves, twigs, or other plant organs.
These invisible metal concentration are known as
“BIOGEOCHEMICAL INDICATORS”.
f. Animal Tissues : This involves the content of
mineralization in animal and fish tissues.
g. Microorganisms : This organism is “Bacillus
Cereus” which increases with the natural
increase of precious metal content of soils in
the vicinity of the known mineral deposits.
h. Gases and Air : Some mineral deposit
produces gaseous emanations that can be
detected by specialized measurements. Radon
for example is produced during the radioactive
decay of uranium and radium. Helium
produced during radiogenic decay with deep-
seated origin. Mercury produce by sphalerite
and other sulfides.
How To Prepare Samples for
Geochemical Test:
1.Drying : Exposure to sun or dried in an oven
heating in excess of 1600F (700C) can lead to
less volatile elements that may of value to
exploration.
2. Sieving and Crushing : Using pestle and
mortar or others (80-mesh)
3. Heavy Mineral Separation
4. Treatment of Chemical Reagents
5. Laboratory Analysis
3. Geophysical Exploration
Geophysical-Airborne
- Aeromagnetic Survey
- Electromagnetic Survey
- Radiometric Survey
- Remote Sensing
Geophysical – Ground
- Gravity - Seismic
- Magnetic - Electrical
- Radiometric
• Aeromagnetic Survey
- conducted from an aircraft to detect the earth’s
magnetic fields to at least an accuracy of a
gamma.
- a map shows the magnetic intensity over the
area being surveyed as basis for interpreting
the probable distribution of magnetic rocks in
the earth’s crust.
- susceptability of a mineral to magnetization
depends on volume of magnetite content, field
strength, grain size, presence of less common
magnetic minerals, and the state of natural
remanent magnetization.
Ex. Magnetite-ilmenite series, magnetite
associated w/ gold placers, phrrhotite,
magnetite-chalcopyrite, magnetic nickel ores.
• Electromagnetic Survey
- conducted on fixed-wing aircraft used employing
either continuous wave frequency domain,
wave forms or pulse-time domain techniques;
- applicable to electrically conductive minerals
such as massive sulfide orebodies;
• Radiometric Survey
- set-up in an aircraft where gamma rays will
penetrate into several hundred feet through the
atmosphere but few inches into the earth to
attenuate natural radiation;
- gamma ray detectors consist of crystal that is
activated to give off a minute flash of light upon
being stuck by an ionizing gamma particles.
Ex. Uranium, thorium, etc.
• Remote Sensing
- uses a high-altitude-radar-equip aircraft that maps
earth’s topography by using satellite images to detect
buried pipes, bedrock and mineralized boulders.
- an energy is emitted in the radio portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum of which the source portion
is reflected back to the radar equipment. The single
pulse radar wave is applied directly to ground surface
or U/G tunnel and boreholes. The wave is turned and
registered a video pulse which appear similar to
seismic refraction wave. Irregularities on the wave
action indicate reflector such as clay-filled, fault zone
in crystalline rocks, cavern or rock.
Limitation: In development stage, does not provide
depths or engineering properties, shallow penetration
of about 10-15 meters only.
 Ground Geophysical Methods
Methods Physical Properties
Gravity Density
Magnetic Magnetic susceptability
Electrical Electrical Conductivity
Dielectric permittivity
Magnetic Permeability
Seismic Seismic wave velocity
Radiometric Radioactive decay
Magnetic & Electrical : are mostly used in mining exploration
Seismic & Gravimetric : are intended for petroleum and gas exploration
Limitations of Geophysical Methods: Will not tell what type of rocks or
mineral is present in the tested area.
• Gravity Method
- Uses new cryogenic & mechanical-optical gravimeters to
measure gravity variations and proved successful to detect
small masses & subsurface voids (caves or tunnels);
- buried channels that may contain gold or uranium minerals
can be located by gravity or seismic method because the
channel fill is less dense that the rock in which the channel
has been cut.
- Bouguer Anomaly - that part of the difference between
measured gravity and theoretical gravity which is a result of
purely of lateral variations in material density

Other factors affecting gravity are altitude and topography.

Old gravimeters consisting of spring pendulum same as
seismograph (Eotvos Torsion Balance) where heavy
masses attract the instruments & conversely, light masses
allow the instruments to be deflected away from them.
Applicability: Widely used in petroleum
geology but until recently have found little
use in ore search partly because of rough
topographic characteristic. It is normally
used for cavity detection in limestone for
engineering studies. - ores detected are
chromite, hematite, barite that have such
high density compared with the material
that surrounds them
Limitations: Detect major subsurface
structures such as faults, domes, intrusion
or cavities;
• Magnetic Survey
- Many rocks contain small but significant
quantities of ferro-magnetic minerals which vary
with rock type. The weak magnetization
modifies the earth’s magnetic field to an extent
that can be detected by sensitive instrument
called “Magnetometers”.
Application:
-Mineral prospecting & location of large igneous
masses;
- Magnetic orebodies that are strongly magnetic;
Limitation: Normally not used in engineering
studies;
Equipment: Magnetometers – provide the
measurements and when place in aircraft.
2. Electrical Method
-Various surface material have characteristic
conductance for direct currents of electricity.
Electrolytic action, usually made possible by the
presence of moisture and dissolved salts w/in the
soil/rock formation, permit the passage of current
between electrodes placed in soil surface. In general,
conductance is good in such material as moist clay
and silts, and poor material such as dry loose sands,
gravel and sound rock.
Resistivity – refers to the resistance to current flow
developed in geologic materials, and is expressed as
OHM-CM2/CM or simply as OHM-CM or OHM-FT.
Applicability:
- Locate water boundaries, clean granular & clay strata,
rock bedrock;
- Massive sulfide bodies such as arsenopyrite,
chalcopyrite;
- Outlining the contour of bedrock surface in placer
deposit;
- Locating quartz veins, cavities in limestone, potential
failure;
- Thickness of organic deposit & depth of GWL.
Limitation: Difficult to interpret and subject to wide
variations. Does not provide engineering properties.
Basic Equipment: Terrameter, battery (energy source),
potential meter, electrodes
Typical Resistivity Values of Geologic Materials
Material Resistivity
OHM-FT OHM-M
Clayey silt: wet to moist 5-10 1.5-3.0
Silty Clay/Silty Soils: wet to moist 10-50 3.0-15.0
Silty & Sandy Soils: moist to dry 50-500 15-150
Bedrock: well fractured to slight
fractured, moist soil-filled crack 500-1000 150-300
Sand & Gravel w/ silt layers 1000-8000 300-2400
Bedrock: slightly fractured w/ dry
soil-filled cracks 1000-8000 300-2400
Sand & Gravel deposit: coarse/dry >8000 >2400
Bedrock: massive and hard >8000 >2400
Fresh water 67-200 20-60
Seawater 0.6-0.8 0.18-0.24
• Seismic Method
- consist of detonating a charge of dynamite or
other explosives and measuring the reflection
and refraction of artificial earthquake waves set-
up by a shock. Elastic waves travel through
geologic media at characteristic velocities. The
waves passing the material finally arrives at the
surface where they detected and recorded by
an instruments.
Types of Seismic Methods:
a) Refraction Method
b) Reflection Method
a. Refraction Method
- determine stratum depth & character velocities
in land/water;
- ideal for land exploration to depths of less than
300 meter because of direct and refracted
waves arrive first and tend to mask the reflected
waves;
- locate faults or underground caverns.
Limitations: Maybe unreliable unless velocities
increase with and bedrock surface is regular.
Data are indirect and represent average.
Basic Equipment: Energy source (hammer or
explosive); elastic wave detonators
(seismometers) which are geophones (electro-
mechanical transducer); seismograph (power
source); amplifiers; timing device; and recorder.
b. Reflection Method:
Application: Not used on land for engg studies but
useful for offshore continuous profiling. Provide a
pictorial record of sea-bottom profile showing changes
of strata, salt domes, faults and marine slides.
Limitation: Does not provide velocities computation of
depths to stratum. Changes require velocity data
obtained from other means.
Basic Equipment:
1) Boomers-operate in water depth (3-200m) and
provide high resolution (15-30cm) but moderate
penetration(100m);
2) Sparkers-operate in water depth (10-600m),high
resolution of about 15-25m w/ penetration depth of
1,200m or more
4. Drilling Exploration
a) Percussion Drilling
b) Rotary-Percussion
a) Down-hole Conventional Drilling
b) Pneumatic Drilling
c) Rotary Drilling
a) Conventional Rotary
b) Reverse Circulation
d) Diamond Core Drilling
a) Conventional
b) Wireline
e) Other Drilling Methods
a) Churn c) Wash Boring e) Shot Drilling
b) Auger d) Hammer Drilling
• Objective of Drilling Exploration Program
- Define the lateral distribution and thickness
of soil/rocks;
- Define the groundwater level;
- Identify geohazards;
- Perform in-situ testing to measure
engineering properties;
- Collect samples for visual examination and
laboratory analysis.
• Factors to Consider Prior to Drilling
- main purpose of drilling or information needed;
- availability of raw materials & machine parts;
- peace and order;
- availability of technical, skilled & support
personnel;
- water sources;
- social acceptability;
- geological & engineering maps
- accessible routes
• Planning and Executing Drilling
Program
1. Type of Drilling Method
2. Type of Equipment Used
3. Boring Specification (spacing, depth,
sample preservation, GWL, drilling
methodology)
4. Logging and Laboratory Testing
In drilling, a complete geological information comprising a
complete log will contain the following data:
a) Engineering d) Metallurgical
b) Assaying e) Operational
c) Geological
a) Engineering : location of hole, coordinates, name of
claimowner or property, collar elevation, depth, date of
drilling, amount of sludge recovered.
b) Assaying: assay returns of individual sample for valuable
constituents, results of composite sample.
c) Geological: kind of rock, type and strength of alteration and
mineralization, amount of ore or gangue minerals
d) Metallurgical: metallurgical test of wet samples or composite
samples
e) Operational: locating structures or soft zones of alteration,
hardness of rock, caving of hole, reliability of the sample,
number of bails for each sample, depth of groundwater level,
color of sludge, drilling time and casing record including depth
to bottom of each string of casing, size of casing.
• Drilling Cost and Speed
The costs and speed depends on the following:
- hardness of the rock, extent of its fracturing and
its ability to stand without caving;
- care and manner in which the hole is cased in
order to ensure reliable samples;
- speed with which casing can be recovered and
the rig can be moved to a new set-up;
- diameter of hole and depth to which it is drilled;
- manner of sampling and the special precaution
taken;
- skills and experience of the crew.
In mineral exploration, drill holes that are considered
shallow are those with a maximum depth of 300 feet.
1. Percussion Drilling
- This type of drill adapted hammering method of drilling
where hammer bit with chisel tip is driven to loosened
the rocks to be explored. Drilling is performed by
“raising and dropping” of the bit. The bit is allowed to
fall freely until it is close to the hole bottom. At this
point, the return motion of the cable bringing the bit
hits the rock and the cable is stretched and the bit
rebounds quickly. If the rock contain water, the bit is
lowered to bottom of the hole to loosened the rocks
but if the formation drilled is dry, water is lowered into
the hole bottom through a bailer and dumped. Water
is not poured from the collar since it tends to wash
rock from the sides of the hole thereby introducing
foreign material into the succeeding sample.
The samples are obtained by “Bailing”. This is conducted
by lowering a bailer into the hole by a light cable where it
is filled with sludge of drill cuttings and water and hoisted
to the collar and discharged. This procedure is repeated
several times until all the sludge is removed and only a
small amount of slime remains in the water bailed. When
soft formation is encountered, casings are used to
prevent cave-ins. Rock chips or cuttings are placed in
sample bags and brought to geological laboratory for
analysis.
Determining the structures of rocks:
1. through careful examination of sludge;
2. gouges from large faults can sometime be identified;
3. changes from the oxidized zone to the zone of
secondary enrichment and from that to the primary
ore zones.
2. Rotary-Percussion
- a hybrid form of drilling, combining separate percussive
and rotational actions using either drag or roller bits;
- the single jack drill arm is modified by replacing by
pneumatically or hydraulically driven hammer that
transmit its force to a rotating drillbit through a string of
hollow drill steel or directly to the bit in case of down-
hole hammer;
- air or water is circulated through the drill steel column
to the bit to cool its surface and clean the hole of
cutting by forcing them along the outside of the
column to the hole collar;
- sample collection is done where the hole collar is
usually fitted with casing and a tee connection to divert
the fluidized stream of cuttings into a cyclone collector;
- applicable to competent wall rock, dry and
impermeable.
3. Rotary Drilling
The hole is drilled by rotating the bit and cuttings are
removed by continuous circulation of drilling fluids as
the bit penetrates the formation. The bit is attached to
the lower end of a string of drill pipe, which transmit
the rotating action from the rig to the bit. Drilling fluid
is pumped down through the drill pipe and out through
the ports or jet in the bit. The fluid then flows upward
in the annular space between the hole & drill pipe
carrying out cuttings in suspension to the surface. At
surface, the fluid is channeled into a settling pit or pits
where most of the cuttings drop-out. Clean fluid is then
picked up by the pump at the far end of the pit or from
the second pit and is recirculated down the hole.
- Drill bits used are: roller cone, drag, auger, and
diamond bits. This is applicable for shallow
overburden where high penetration rate needed.
Drill cuttings (chips of pulverized rock produced by
the action of the bit) are obtained;
- When drag bits are used, the sharing or plowing action
of a drag-type rotary drill bit is performed by a variety
of tools, including blade, diamond, and shot drills, as
well as rope, chain and rotary saws. Drag action at
the cutting surface is supplied by 2 forces:
1. the thrust( a static load acting axially)
2. the torque (force component of a
rotational moment acting tangentially.
• Reverse Circulation Drilling
Reverse Circulation Drilling are intended for
unconsolidated formations and in soft consolidated
rocks such as sandstone and even hard rocks using
water and air as drilling fluids.
In RCD, the flow of drilling fluid is reversed when
compared to direct rotary method. The suction end of
the centrifugal pump, rather the discharge end, is
connected through the swivel to the kelly and drill
pipe. The drilling fluid and its load of cuttings move
upward inside the drill pipe through a cyclone and are
discharge by the pump into the settling pit. Centrifugal
pump with large passageways are often used to pump
the drill fluid because they can handle the cuttings w/o
excessive wear of the pump.
- When compressed air is used a drilling medium, the
air is introduced through a 1 ¼ or 1 ½ in (32-38mm)
plastic or metal air line suspended inside the drill pipe
or through an external air line attached to the outside
of the drill pipe. The air is injected by means of a
manifold into the drill string at the proper depth. The
external air line system may consist of 2 pipes welded
on opposite sides of the drill pipe. The air is injected
by means of a manifold into the drill string at the
proper depth. The cuttings move upward inside the
drill pipe through a cyclone and discharge into the
sampling bags. In case of cobbles or boulders larger
than the drill pipe or opening of drill bit, a roller cone
bit can be used to grind them into smaller fragments.
• Advantages of RCD
1. Porosity and permeability of the formation near the borehole is
relatively undisturbed than to other method;
2. Large diameter holes can be drilled quickly;
3. No casing is required during drilling;
4. Well screens can be set easily as part of casing installation;
5. Most geologic formation can be drilled with exception of
igneous or metamorphic rocks;
6. Little opportunity exist for wash outs in the hole because of the
low velocity of the fluid.
• Disadvantages of RCD
1. Large water supply is needed;
2. Reverse CD rigs & components are usually larger and more
expensive;
3. Large mud pits required;
4. Some drill sites are inaccessible because of its rig size;
5. For efficient operation, more personnel are required than other
drilling methods.
Rotary Drills
Classes of Rotary-Type Bits
4. Diamond Core Drilling
- a method of making a vertical inclined or horizontal hole
beneath the surface of the earth to gather physical, geological
and engineering character of the subsurface materials using a
bit inset with diamonds to obtain a sample or core. The bit is a
ring-like bit armed with a small diamonds that rotates and cuts a
cylindrical core of the rocks through which it passes. The bit is
mounted at the end of the core barrel connected to drill rods.
The rods are rotated by the impelling mechanism. Periodically,
as drilling progresses the driller pulls the rocks out of the hole,
unscrewing the joints where necessary and removes the core
which has accumulated in the core barrel.
Applicability:
– Mineral Exploration
– Engineering Geological and Geotechnical Investigation
– Rock Mechanic Investigation
– Blasthole Opening in O/P
– Mine U/G Excavations
• In core drilling, it is not involved with the
making of holes or rapid advance of footage,
but has as its end goal the collection of
accurate information.
• In core drilling, it is not how big the hole or
how deep the hole but rather the contents of the
hole that matters.
• In core drilling, it is the core all important
product and the most essential pieces of
information that can be recovered. Other
knowledge such as water level, presence of
voids is gained as a byproduct but the core
itself, can be physically examined, felt, tested,
smelled, tasted, split and assayed, is the real
purpose.
Two Methods of Core Drilling
1. Conventional Core Drilling
This method make use of conventional type of diamond core
drill where the drill rods are pulled-out together with the core
barrel to recover the sample in every length of drill run. Then,
the rods with core barrel at the end are lowered again to bottom
of hole to starting the core drilling operation.
2. Wireline Core Drilling
This method will deal primarily with the Q–series, which is
certainly one of the more popular series throughout the world.
One of the primary differences is the drill rods. Wire line drill
rods are thin hollow tubes with a pin and box thread on either
end. The design of the “Q” thread is such that it meets the
shoulder to shoulder on each joint, thus it is very rigid and locks
the rods together, adding more strength to the string of tools.
The rods must be hollow so as to allow the inner core barrel.
The core barrels is designed so that the inner core barrel can
be raised on a wireline without removing the entire of string of
drillrods. This is done by lowering the overshot assembly down
the hole on the end of the wire line.
Conventional Diamond Core Drill
Wireline Diamond Core Drill
Classes of Diamond Bits
 Sizes of Diamond Core
Designation Hole Diameter Core Size
(inches/mm) Diameter(in/mm)

AQ 1.890 in (48mm) 1.082 in (27mm)

BQ 2.360 in (65mm) 1-5/8 in (46mm)

NQ 2.980 (75mm) 2-1/8 in (55mm)

HQ 3.782 (100mm) 3.0 in (75mm)

PQ 4.827 (125 mm) 3-15/16 in

(100mm)
5. Other Drilling Methods
A. Churn Drilling
This is performed by rhythmic raising and dropping of the bit on the bottom
of the hole. The striking end of the bit is allowed to fall freely until it is close
to the bottom of the hole. It utilizes a hollow casing driven into the sampled
material leaving an inside core of relatively undisturbed material where it is
then pulled out a cable tool bit, broken, pumped or lifted to surface
B. Auger Boring
Two (2) Auger Methods:
1. Continuous Flight Augers – used to depths of 100 feet or more
depending in equipment available and drilling conditions. A cutter head is
attached to the leading section of the flight and cuts approximately 1-inch
clearance for the flights that follow.
2. Hollow Stem Augers – provides a faster means of advancing a hole thru
many types of soil by eliminating the need to remove the auger during
sampling. It has large hollow center. When the hole is being advanced, a
center stem and plug are inserted into the hollow center of the auger.
The center plug with drag bit attached and located in the face of the cutter
head aids in the advancement of the hole. The center stem consist of AW
rods that connect at the bottom to the plug or bit insert and at the top to a
drive adapter to ensure that the center stem and bit rotate with augers.
C. Wash Boring
This method involved the drilling through ordinary/soft
soils/minerals by initially driving hollow drill casing into
the ground at certain depth. The casing is then
cleaned out by means of chopping bits attached to the
lower end of the drill rods, with water exiting at high
pressure at the side hole of the chopping bit, carrying
the cuttings or loosened soil particles out of the
borehole through the space between the casings and
drill rods. The sludge are allowed to flow through a
launder with bottom fine screens and placed in
sampling plastic bags. This procedure was repeated
until the desired depth is attained or hard formation
has been reached. Casings were added to prevent
the drillhole from caving-in.
D. Hammer Drilling
- utilize mechanical pneumatically-operated
or
hammer drill as used in U/G blastholes;
- Heavy duty split-spoon sampler will penetrate into the
subsurface material by means of a 140-250 lbs jarring
hammer to fall onto a drive head from a height of 76
cms. The sampler is driven into a desired penetration
depth and then pull-out to recover the samples.
After the sample are taken, the sampler is lowered again
and this procedure is repeated until the desired depth
or hard rock formation is reached. Drive samples were
then collected for megascopic and laboratory analysis,
and the relative consistencies of the materials
calculated.
E. Shot Drilling
It is similar to diamond drilling, but the
cutting medium, instead of diamonds,
consist of loose chilled-steel shot fed into
the rods with wash-water and rolling
under the bit.
5. Mining Exploration
1.Tunneling – horizontal development
excavation to confirm, define and trace
direction of mineral veins. This is
applicable for lateral and wide ore deposits
exposed on rough or hilly terrain;
2. Shaft Sinking – vertical development
excavation for deep ore deposits
particularly useful for inclined of vein-type
deposit
 MINERAL IDENTIFICATION
• How are Minerals Identified
1.Visual Examination of Hand Specimen aided w/
hand lenses
2. Laboratory Examination
- Microscopic Method
a) Petrographic microscope for gangue &
transparent minerals. It employs
transmitted polarized light for use in
studying fresh and altered rocks.
b) Reflecting microscope for sulfides &
opaque minerals
- Petrofabric Method
- Heavy Mineral Separation
- Mineralogic studies-techniques,
sequence of deposition, criteria of
supergene-enrichment in copper
ores, etc.
- X-ray and Spectroscopic Studies
• Steps in Mineral Identification
At a starting point, use a piece of fresh mineral
broken off from larger specimen. Testing
should be thorough and all properties seen by
the naked eye or lens are carefully recorded.
1.Collect fresh mineral samples broken-off from
a large specimen;
2.Testing should be thorough and all properties
recognizable by the naked eye or hand lenses
are carefully recorded;
3. Note the external shape and appearance of
crystals;
4.Take note on the color, streak, luster,
transparency, hardness; and other associated
features present in the minerals;
5.Observe the presence or absence of cleavage,
brittleness, malleability, flexibility and elasticity;
6. Weigh the sample for its specific gravity;
7. With smaller fragment of the mineral, test it in
water or HCL for its solubility test;
8. Check or compare the results once more,
comparing the data to the Book Guide on
Rocks and Minerals.
• Sequence in Logging a Mineral Sample:
1. Mineral and Host Rock
2. Color
3. pH
4. Weathering/Alteration/Oxidation
5. Grain/Crystal Arrangement (Texture, sorting, etc)
6. Specific Gravity
7. Degree of Jointing/Fracturing
8. Hardness
9. Streak and Luster
10. Percent Core Recovery (% CR)
11. Other descriptive features in mineral sample
(magnetic, transparency, associated secondary
mineral components, etc.)
 MAPPING & MAP INTERPRETATION
• Geologic Mapping
A major a geologic activity conducted by professional
geologists or mining engineers to locate, trace and records
recent geological features found in the field either in
surface and subsurface areas. Preliminary Geologic
mapping is a preliminary examination of an area of
interest. Rock/mineral types, weathering, alteration,
oxidation, discoloration of rock surfaces, mineral chips or
float, or unusual earth structures may be signs of a mineral
deposit. Detailed geologic mapping is a detailed
examination of an area foot by foot or meter by meter
taking into account observed rock/mineral types,
alteration, geologic structures, strike & dip of
mineralization & structures, vein geometry and other
geologic features are recorded and plotted in topo maps.
• Type of Geo-mapping
- Surface Mapping - Aerial Photograph Mapping
- Underground Mapping
• Kinds of Maps
• Topographic Map - contains the elevations,
coordinates, contours, roads, surface water
sources, legends, scales and other surficial
features that are present in the area.
• Geologic Map - contains the different soil and
rocks, geologic structures, coordinates,
contours, elevations, surface water sources,
geological symbols, lithology, legends, scale
and other surficial features found in the field.
• Hydrographic Map – contain the elevations,
coordinates, contours, scales and the other
features of underwater/seabed conditions.
• What to Plot on Maps
- Rock type
- Mineral type
- Geologic structures present
- Strike and dip of mineral vein and geologic
structure present;
- shape, size and extent of mineral vein;
- location of spring and other water sources;
- vegetation;
- geohazards like soil creep, landslide, ground
slumping, ground subsidence, etc.;
- natural and man-made water ways;
- infrastructures and utilities like roads, railways
etc.
• Geologic Data Collection
Data that must be collected and compiled for the
resource estimates are as follows:
1. reliable assays from an adequate number of
representative samples;
2. coordinate locations for the sample data;
3. consistently recorded geologic data that describe
mineralization controls;
4. cross section or plan maps with the geologic
interpretation of the mineralization controls;
5. tonnage factors or specific gravities for the
various ore and waste rock categories;
6. surface topographic map, especially for deposits
to be surface mined.
• Geological Interpretation
• Resource Characterization : This is defined as the
determination of the shape, size, quality, quantity, and
variability of the geologic entity and determining limits
of variable geologic features
• Two Models in Geologic Interpretation
1. Emperical Model – represents the compilation and
integration of numerous types of chemical,
mineralogical, structural and not uncommonly
numerically quantifiable zoning studies.
2. Conceptual or Genetic Model – explains the
distribution and origin of the geologic features in a
useful and meaningful way.
• Other Major Importance of
Geologic Data in Mineral
Exploration
1. Geotechnical Engineering
2. Hydrology
3. Mine Planning
4. Metallurgical Aspect
5. Land and Legal Aspect
6. Environmental Support
END OF PRESENTATION

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