Engineering Geology Course Study of Minerals and Rocks

Course Title: Engineering Geology
Course Code: CIEG 209

Unit 4
Study of Minerals and Rocks
Dr. Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. & PostDoc

(Ksyushu University)
Visiting Faculty,
School of Engineering, Department of Civil & Geomatic Engineering, Kathmandu University, NEPAL
Visiting Associate Professor

Institute of Lowland and Marine Research (ILMR), Saga University, JAPAN
Former Secretary General cum Treasurer

International Association of Lowland Technology (IALT), JAPAN
Chief Guest Editor & Associate Editor

Lowland Technology International Journal (LTI), JAPAN
Unit 4: Study of Minerals and Rocks

Formation and descriptive study of
minerals
Rock forming minerals
Phases Igneous Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 2
1
Formation and descriptive study of minerals
Mineralogy
Greek Word, "Minera"
 The word “Mineralogy” is the combination of “Mineral + Logy”.
 The word “Mineralogy” is the study of minerals. Mineralogy is the
study of minerals, including their formation, composition, properties,
and classification.
 “Although the emergence of mineralogy as a science is relatively
recent the particle of mineralogical arts is as old as human
civilization.”
Rocks
Petrology
Greek Word, “Petra"

 The word “Petrology” is the combination of “Petra + Logous”.
 The word “Petrology” is the study of rocks and the condition in which
rocks form.
 Petrology consists the origin, association, occurrence, mineral
composition, texture, structure, physical properties, etc. of rocks.
 There are 3 types of rocks: Igneous, Sedimentary & Metamorphic

2
Formation of Mineral
Source: Google
•Solidification of liquid or gases.

•The most common process is through solidification of hot, molten material.
•Crystallization of saturated solution of common salt or by precipitation of calcite in
ocean basin or from hot springs.
•> 80 elements make up about 3000 minerals in the earth's crust.
Identification of Minerals
Physical Properties: External appearance of

minerals
Chemical Properties: Chemical composition of
minerals
Optical Properties: Appearances of minerals passed
through Polarizing Microscope

3
Physical properties of minerals
1. Color: Inherent (related to chemical composition) or exotic (related to

small traces of impurities).
2. Luster: Reflection of light from surface of the minerals (shining).

a. Metallic Luster
b. Non-metallic Luster
c. Admantine Luster
d. Peraly Luster
e. Silky Luster
f. Vitreous Luster
g. Resinous Luster
h. Earthy Luster
3. Streak: Color of minerals in powdered form.

Luster of minerals
Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) Source: Google 8

4
Streak of minerals
Source: Google
4. Transparency: Capacity of passing light through a mineral.
a. Transparent: Light passes fully through a mineral.

b. Semi transparent: Light passes partially and outline of
object is not distinct.
c. Transluscent: Diffused light passes and object could not
been seen.
d. Opaque: Light does not allow to pass through a mineral.
5. Hardness: Resistance of minerals from scratch, developed by

Mineralogist F. Moh, called "Moh's Hardness Scale"

5
Moh’s Hardness Scale
Photo courtesy: Google Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 11
Hardness Mineral Composition

1 Talc Hydrous Silicate
2 Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
3 Calcite CaCO3
4 Fluorite CaF2
5 Apatite Ca5(PO4)3F
6 Orthoclase KAlSiO3
7 Quartz SiO2
8 Topaz Al2[SiO4] (F,OH)2
9 Corundum Al2O3
10 Diamond C
Hardness Objects
2-2.5 Finger nail
3.0 Copper coin
5-5.5 Knife blade
7.0 Glass plate
6
6. Cleavage: Tendency to break parallel to atomic planes along certain
direction.
a. Perfect Cleavage (e.g. calcite, muscovite)
b. Good Cleavage (e.g. feldspar)
c. Distinct Cleavage: easily cleaved
d. Indistinct Cleavage: easily cleaved but difficult to
recognize whether cleavage or fracture (e.g. beryl).
7. Parting: Resembles cleavage sometimes referred to as false cleavage.
a. Twinning
b. Deformation
c. Inclusion
d. Parallel exsolution lamella: Breakdown of a homogenous
solid solution of two separate phase upon cooling (e.g.
perthite).
Source: Google
7
Muscovite
Calcite/Dolomite
Source: Google Fluorite: Octahedral cleavage

Quartz twinning Muscovite star twinning
Staurolite twinning
Source: Google

8
Inclusions Insect inclusion in Amber
Perthite exsolution lamella Source: Google
8. Fracture: All breakage in minerals in a direction other than that of

cleavage.
a. Conchoidal Fracture
b. Even Fracture: Breaks approximate to a plane surface
(flat) though rough (e.g. chert).
c. Hackly: rough, jagged, and sharp edged elevation
d. Splintery (fibrous): resembling split of wood (e.g.
asbestos).
e. Uneven: rough and entirely irregular

9
Source: Google
Conchoidal fractures of chert mineral (quartz group)
Hackly fracture of Copper ore Uneven fracture of Pyrite Splintery fracture of

Chrysotile
Even fracture Source: Google

10
9. Tenacity: Tensile strength, resistance of minerals offering mechanical
deformation or disintegration on bending, crushing, hammering or
cutting.
a. Brittle: Readily crushed into fine powder (e.g. quartz).
b. Malleable: Capable of rolling or hammering to thin plates/sheets
(e.g. Cu).
c. Sectile: Cut into shavings with a knife (e.g. stibnite).
d. Flexible: Can be bent easily (e.g. gypsum).
e. Elastic: Springs back to original form (e.g. micas).
f. Tough: Difficult to break (e.g. Jadeite)
10. Specific Gravity: Ratio of density of mineral that of density of

water at 4 °C.
Source: Google

11
Malleable Gold Brittle Pyrite
Sectile Calcite Elastic Biotite mica Flexible Gypsum
Source: Google
Chemical properties of minerals
• Mineral formations are based on two controlling factors of chemical

(including biochemical) and physical.
• The definite proportions of elements and atoms at particular
temperature and pressure make up identical minerals.
• Their chemical compositions are identical and hence help to identify
the types of minerals. Detailed chemical analyses help to formulate
elements and names are based on their chemical constituents.
• From the many thousands of chemical analyses that have been made
of rocks, it has been well established that only few elements are
present as essential components.
• Consequently, the analysis of nearly any rock can be considered
reasonably complete if the following constituents are determined:
SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, FeO, MnO, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, P2O5, H2O,
and CO2.
12
• Only eight elements – O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, and Mg are present in
amounts greater than 1%, and these make up nearly 99% of the
earth’s crust.
• Four more – Ti, H, P, and Mn are present in amounts between 0.1%
and 1%.
• The remaining elements together make up the remaining less than
0.5% of the crust.
• It is also evident that of the major elements, oxygen is absolutely
predominant; it makes up about one-half of the crust by weight.
• And, this predominance is even more marked when the weight
percentages are recalculated to atom percentages and to volume
percentages
• The geochemical character and the abundance of an element are
largely responsible for both the number of minerals the element
forms and the geological environment in which the minerals may
form and occur. Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 25
Table: The Eight Most Common Chemical Elements in the Earth’s Crust
Elements Weight Percent Atom Percent Volume Percent

O 46.6 62.55 91.7
Si 27.72 21.22 0.2
Al 8.13 6.47 0.5
Fe 5.00 1.92 0.5
Ca 3.63 1.94 1.5
Na 2.83 2.64 2.2
K 2.59 1.42 3.1
Mg 2.09 1.84 0.4

13
Magnetic properties of minerals
• Magnetite, Fe3O4, pyrrhotite, Fe1-xS, and maghemite, generally

considered being a polymorph of Fe2O3 and these minerals are
attracted by a simple bar or horseshoe magnet.
• Actually, nearly all minerals are affected by a non-uniform magnetic
field; i.e., they react mechanically, to some greater or lesser extent
whenever they are placed in a magnetic field.
• Although it has shown that there are five kinds of reaction termed as
diamagnetism, paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, ferrimagnetism,
and antiferromagnetism. Of them only three different kinds are
easily distinguished.
Optical properties of minerals
• The optical properties of minerals comprise a wide variety of

phenomena – reflection and refraction, luster, diaphaneity, color
and streak, luminescence.
• The polarizing microscope (also called petrographic microscope) is
used to determine the optical properties of minerals in order for the
minerals to identify under plane polarizing light and under cross
nicols.
• The grains being observed are about 0.1-0.2 mm in greatest
dimension (i.e. 70-150 mesh). Those grains are immersed in a liquid
that is on a glass slide and is covered by a thin coverslip.
• A thin section may comprise one or more mineral grains and
suggested procedures are used to delineate mineral identification.

14
Electrical properties of minerals
• On the basis of electric properties, minerals can be divided into two

groups – the conductors and the nonconductors.
• Some scientists, however, subdivide conductors into conductors, per
se, and semiconductors.
• The electrical nature of many minerals can be correlated directly with
bonding; for instance, conductors are minerals with metallic bonds,
and nonconductors (some times referred to as dielectrics or
insulators) are minerals with covalent or ionic bonds.
• Electrical conductivity in semiconductors can be described
conveniently under the band theory, previously referred to “Color
and Streak”. The native metallic minerals such as copper, gold, iron,
platinum, and silver are conductors; some of the sulfides and oxides
are semiconductors; nearly all of the other minerals are
nonconductors..
Table: Correlation of Crystal Systems and Optical Classes
Crystal System Optical Class Optical Axis Refraction

Isometric Isotropic Single refractive
index
Tetragonal
Hexagonal Uniaxial (+ or -) Double refractive
Orthorhombic Anisotropic indices
Monoclinic Biaxial (+ or -) Three refractive
Triclinic indices

15
Classification of minerals
Silicate Group Non-Silicate Group
Feldspar group: Plagioclase, Orthoclase Oxides: Haematite, Magnetite
Pyroxene group: Augite Carbonates: Calcite, Dolomite
Hypersthene Sulfides: Pyrite, Galena, Sphalerite
Amphibole group: Horblende, Actinolite Haloids: Halite, Fluorite

Mica group: Biotite, Muscovie, Serpentine, Sulfates: Barite, Gypsum
Talc, Chlorite, Kaolinite
Miscellaneous silicates: Tourmaline, Miscellaneous non-silicates:
Epidote, Olivine, Garnet, Quartz, Topaz, Graphite, Diamond, Gold, Sulfur
Beryl

Differences between Metallic
Non-metallic minerals
and
Source:
Google
32
Rock forming minerals
 Rock-forming mineral: Any minerals that forms igneous,

sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks and that typically, or solely,
forms as an close part of rock-making processes.
 In contrast are those minerals that have a limited mode of occurrence
or are formed by more unusual processes, such as the ores of metals,
vein minerals, and cavity fillings.
 Also, some precipitates and secondary minerals are not properly
classified as rock-forming minerals; these form at a later time than
the original rock and tend to destroy its original character.
Essential Minerals: Major minerals > 50 % of that rock

Accessory Mineral: Limited quantities in a rock

17
Source: Google
Importance of Rock forming minerals

In Civil Engineering
 All properties of rocks depend on the properties of their mineral

assemblages. Thus, the strength, durability and appearance of rocks
can be assessed only with the knowledge of the minerals that form
rocks i.e. rock-forming minerals which are very important in civil
engineering projects.
 The economic minerals in excessive quantities do not permit to use
as a construction material because their economic values are quite
higher with compared to building and construction costs. Therefore,
rock forming minerals indicate whether they are relevant in civil
engineering projects or other purposes.

18
Rocks
Petrology
Greek Word, “Petra"

 The word “Petrology” is the combination of “Petra + Logous”.
 The word “Petrology” is the study of rocks and the condition in which
rocks form.
 Petrology consists the origin, association, occurrence, mineral
composition, texture, structure, physical properties, etc. of rocks.
 There are 3 types of rocks: Igneous, Sedimentary & Metamorphic
Igneous Petrology
Formation of rocks due to cooling of molten material (lava or magma) is

called igneous rocks. Igneous rocks form by two ways:
1. Plutonic Rock: The rock which forms by cooling of magma beneath
the surface of the earth is called plutonic rock (intrusive rock). This
type of rock forms due to slow process of solidification of molten
materials such that rocks form with more or less well crystallized
shape. For e.g., granite, gabbro, etc.
2. Volcanic Rock: The rock which forms by cooling of lava on the
surface of the earth due to eruption of volcano is called volcanic
rock (extrusive rock). This type of rock forms due to rapid cooling of
molten lava which traps air and water vesicles to form as glassy
appearances. For e.g., rhyolite, basalt etc.

19
Mode of formation of Igneous rock
Basalt
Source: Google
Granite Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 39
IUGS (International Union of Geological

Sciences) classification of Igneous rock
QAPF triangular classification of igneous rock
Source: Google
20
Forms of Igneous Rocks:
Concordant Bodies:
 Sill: Magma pushes the existing bedding/foliation of rocks and
solidified as a thin sheet.
 Phacolith: Under low pressure, magma pushes into existing crests
and troughs of a fold in the existing rock and solidified.
 Laccolith: Magma injects layers of existing rocks but unable to spread
length and width to a greater distance owing to high viscosity.
Disconcordant Bodies:
 Dyke: Magma is forced through vertically through cracks or fissures
and solidified.
 Volcanic neck: Magma intrudes holes of inactive volcanoes and
solidified.
 Batholith: Under high pressure, it fills up large space in the existing
rocks by the melting them away or keeping aside, particularly of huge
igneous mass.
 Xenolith: Relict or remnant of parent material within igneous rock
due to movement of magma. Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 41
Source: Google
42
Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering)

21
Photo courtesy: Google
43
Metamorphic Petrology
The transformation of existing rocks of either igneous or sedimentary
or existing metamorphic rock due to heat (temperature greater than
150 °C to 200 °C) and pressure (150 megapascals) is called
metamorphic rock, causing profound physical and/or chemical change.
Types of Metamorphism:
Dynamo-thermal or Regional Metamorphism: Heat and pressure both
act on regional scale.
Dynamic Metamorphism: Pressure is key factor for metamorphism. It is
of 2 types:
Cataclastic: Dynamic pressure is key factor for metamorphism.
Burial: Static pressure is key factor.

22
Thermal Metamorphism: Heat is key factor for metamorphism. It is of 2
types:
Contact Metamorphism: Rocks come to contact with magma.
Metasomatism: Adjacent rocks are metamorphosed due to intense
liquid and gas at high temperature.
Metamorphic minerals:
• Also known as index minerals, include sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite,

andalusite and some garnet.
• Other minerals, such as olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas,
feldspars, and quartz, may be found in metamorphic rocks, but are
not necessarily the result of the process of metamorphism. These
minerals formed during the crystallization of igneous rocks.
Metamorphic grade
Contact metamorphism
Source: Google

23
Burial metamorphism
Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) Source: Google 47
Metamorphic Texture & Structures
• Cataclastic: Fine rock mass under the influence of severe crushing

and shearing effects of metamorphis such as breccia, mylonite, and
slate.
• Schistose: parallel or sub-parallel bands or layers of flaky, platy or
rod-like minerals.
• Genissose: Bands or folia of flaky and platy minerals alternate with
those of equidimensional and granular minerals.
• Maculose: Spotted appearance of the rock due to development of
large-sized crystals (porphyroblasts).
• Augen: Similar to maculose but resistant minerals deformed into
thin, lenticular, lenses, eye shaped character.
• Granulose: Individual grains interlock with no outlines viz. quartzite
and marble.

24
Source: Google

25
Source: Google
Source: Google
26

53
Sedimentary Petrology
Sedimentation includes compaction, lithification (rock), petrification
(hard), cementation, and diagenesis (cementation, compaction and
finally growth of new minerals).
Types of Sedimentation:
Weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition, and then compaction,

lithification, petrification, cementation and diagenesis.
• Chemical Sedimentation: Precipitation and accumulation of soluble
materials.
• Biogenic or organic Sedimentation: Precipitation and accumulation
of decomposed parts of organic matters.

27
Origin of grains:
Clastic: Mechanical processes
Size of grains: Coarse-grained (> 5mm);
Medium-grained (1-5mm);
Fine-grained (< 1mm)
Source: Google
Source: Google

28
Textures of sedimentary rocks are determined by the processes from

which it forms by means of weathering, erosion, transportation,
deposition and diagenesis. The factors which derives the sedimentary
textures are:
 Nature of source rock
 Strength of water or aeolian currents
 Span of transportation
 Biogenic activities in the basin before diagenesis
 Chemical environment of sediments
1. Grain Size
2. Sorting
3. Roundness
4. Packing of grains
5. Textural maturity
6. Descriptions of texture
7. Induration Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 58
29
1. Grain Size
Sedimentary rocks are classified on the basis of predominant grain sizes
present in that rock. Udden and Wentworth has given the standard
classification of grain size classification of clastic sediments.
Source: Google
Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng.
(Geotechnical Engineering)
59
2. Sorting
The uniformity of grain particles during deposition in a sediment or
sedimentary rock is called sorting. In other words, it is the packing of
grains in a sedimentary rock or in a sediment during deposition. It
depends on the energy of transporting medium and density of
materials. Higher velocity carries heavier/larger fragments while lower
velocity brings fine/lighter particles.
Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng.

(Geotechnical Engineering) Source: Google 60
30
3. Roundness
The transportation of sediments caused abrasion of materials and round
off the sharp edges of sediments. Sediments/sedimentary rocks
deposited near the source reveal very angular shape while farther the
source cuts off all possible sharp edges to form well rounded shape.
Meanwhile, roundness is classified as relative terms with sphericity.
4. Packing of grains
Packing of grains are the arrangement of sediments. When the clastic
grains touch each other throughout the rock, then it is said to be grain
supported sedimentary rock. In contrast, if the grains are separated by a
mud or silt matrix and the rock is poorly sorted, it is called matrix
supported sedimentary rock.
Grain supported conglomerate Matrix supported conglomerate
Source: Google

31
5. Textural maturity
Textural maturity is determined by the degree of sorting and roundness.

For e.g., well sorted and well rounded sediment is termed as texturally
mature sediment.
Source: Google
6. Descriptions of texture
Complete descriptions of texture incorporates textures any sedimentary
rocks described above including induration of the rock.
7. Induration
Induration of rock is determined by the degree of breakage of any

sedimentary rock with the help of a geological hammer. Well indurated
rocks are difficult to break while moderately indurated rocks can easily
break with the help of geological hammer. Similarly, poorly indurated
rocks are broken very easily through hand. Non-indurated rocks are
referred as not cemented sediments.

32
Sedimentary Structures
• Physical (inorganic) structures are sedimentary features formed by
physical processes without the influence of organism.
• Primary sedimentary structures are the most important features
formed during the deposition of the sediments. There are two major
types of structures:
1. Stratification and bedding
a. Parallel bedding
b. Cross bedding
c. Graded bedding
d. Imbricate pebbles
2. Surface features
a. Ripple marks e. Flute casts
b. Mudcracks f. Tool marks
c. Raindrop marks g. Tracks and trails
d. Load casts
1. Stratification and bedding

• Layered structures of any sedimentary rocks/sediments are termed as
bedding which is the most important feature of the sedimentary
rocks.
• Each bed has distinguished mineralogy, clast size, degree of sorting or
colour. Various thickness of the layered structures are termed with
different terminologies.
Layer thickness Names
(cm)
> 300 Massive bed
100-300 Very thickly bedded
30-100 Thickly bedded
10-30 Medium bedded
3-10 Thinly bedded
1-3 Very thinly bedded
0.3-1.0 Thickly laminated
< 0.3 Thinly laminated Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng.
66
(Geotechnical Engineering)
33
a. Parallel bedding
Alternative parallel layers having different properties are called parallel
bedding.
Source: Google
b. Cross bedding
Sets of bedded material within rock layers that are inclined at angles as
large as 35 degrees from the horizontal. These latter indicate wind-
blown conditions in either a desert or a beach.
Source: Google
34
c. Graded bedding
The deposition of sediments/sedimentary rocks from coarse to fine
materials from bottom to top forming a set of single layer is called
graded bedding.
Source: Google
d. Imbricate pebbles
Elongated pebbles, cobbles and boulders of river generally stack on each
other to form imbrications during deposition in the form of imbrication.
These imbricated pebbles helps to find the palaeo current direction and
identify the bottom and top sequence.
Source: Google

35
2. Surface features
a. Ripple marks
Ripple marks are found in bedding planes of shallow water deposits.
They are formed either by water waves or by winds piling up the
sediment into long ridges.
Asymmetrical ripples gives the directional movement while symmetric
ripples identifies the bottom and top of the deposition.
Source: Google
b. Mudcracks
Mudcracks are formed due to shrinkage of the sediment on the surface
after drying out.
Carbonate mudcracks in
cross section
Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) Source: Google
72
36
c. Raindrop marks
These are the pits created by rain drops which is a good indicator to
identify the top bottom structures.
Source: Google
d. Load casts
These are bulbous protrusions. These are formed when compaction
causes sediment to be pushed downward into softer sediment.
Source: Google
37
e. Flute casts (Sole marks)
Flutes are elongated depressions that are formed on the bottom as the
current erodes.
Flute casts
Sole marks
Source: Google
f. Tool marks
Any object carried along by water current creates depressions, scratches
or gouges are said to be tool marks.
Source: Google
38
g. Tracks and trails
When organisms move on the soft sediments, they leave their imprints
across the sediment by means of walk, crawl or drag their body parts
through the sediments. Such trapped structures are called trace fossils.
Source: Google

39

40
Source: Google
Source: Google 82
41
Source: Google
Source: Google
42

43
11, February 2022
Assignment 17
Discuss the importance of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock. Correlate its
importance in civil engineering field with suitable examples (illustrate with at least 6
examples).
Assignment 18
Write down the specific uses of following rocks.
a. Limestone
b. Dolomite
c. Granite
d. Chalk
e. Marble
f. Slate
g. Sandstone
i. Slate
j. Clay Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 87
Thank you for

your kind attention !!!
44

Engineering Geology Course Study of Minerals and Rocks

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Course Title: Engineering Geology

Course Code: CIEG 209

Dr. Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. & PostDoc

Visiting Associate Professor

Former Secretary General cum Treasurer

Chief Guest Editor & Associate Editor

Unit 4: Study of Minerals and Rocks

Rock forming minerals

Phases Igneous Rocks

Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 2

Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 3

Greek Word, “Petra"

Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 4

•Solidification of liquid or gases.

Physical Properties: External appearance of

Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 6

1. Color: Inherent (related to chemical composition) or exotic (related to

2. Luster: Reflection of light from surface of the minerals (shining).

3. Streak: Color of minerals in powdered form.

Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) Source: Google 8

4. Transparency: Capacity of passing light through a mineral.

a. Transparent: Light passes fully through a mineral.

5. Hardness: Resistance of minerals from scratch, developed by

Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 10

Photo courtesy: Google Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 11

Hardness Mineral Composition

Source: Google Fluorite: Octahedral cleavage

Quartz twinning Muscovite star twinning

Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 16

Perthite exsolution lamella Source: Google

Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 17

8. Fracture: All breakage in minerals in a direction other than that of

Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 18

Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 19

Conchoidal fractures of chert mineral (quartz group)

Hackly fracture of Copper ore Uneven fracture of Pyrite Splintery fracture of

Even fracture Source: Google

Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 20

10. Specific Gravity: Ratio of density of mineral that of density of

Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 21

Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 22

Sectile Calcite Elastic Biotite mica Flexible Gypsum

Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 23

Chemical properties of minerals

• Mineral formations are based on two controlling factors of chemical

Elements Weight Percent Atom Percent Volume Percent

Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 26

• Magnetite, Fe3O4, pyrrhotite, Fe1-xS, and maghemite, generally

Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 27

Optical properties of minerals

• The optical properties of minerals comprise a wide variety of

Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 28

• On the basis of electric properties, minerals can be divided into two

Table: Correlation of Crystal Systems and Optical Classes

Crystal System Optical Class Optical Axis Refraction

Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 30

Silicate Group Non-Silicate Group

Feldspar group: Plagioclase, Orthoclase Oxides: Haematite, Magnetite

Pyroxene group: Augite Carbonates: Calcite, Dolomite

Hypersthene Sulfides: Pyrite, Galena, Sphalerite

Amphibole group: Horblende, Actinolite Haloids: Halite, Fluorite

Suman Manandhar, Dr. Eng. (Geotechnical Engineering) 31