Ore Geology Reviews 118 (2020) 103357

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Ore Geology Reviews

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Electromagnetic methods for mineral exploration in China: A review T

a,b,c d,e,f,⁎ a,b,c d,e,f
Zhenwei Guo , Guoqiang Xue , Jianxin Liu , Xin Wu
a
School of Geosciences and Info-Physics, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
b
Hunan Key Laboratory of Nonferrous Resources and Geological Hazard Exploration, Changsha 410083, China
c
Key Laboratory of Metallogenic Prediction of Nonferrous Metals and Geological Environment Monitoring (Central South University), Ministry of Education, Changsha
410083, China
d
Key Laboratory of Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
e
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
f
Institutions of Earth Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Electromagnetic methods play an important role in mineral exploration and are widely used in the search for
Electromagnetic methods metallic resources such as copper, molybdenum, lead-zinc, bauxite, uranium, etc. In this paper, we focus on
Metal deposits reviewing the application and development of electromagnetic methods, such as magnetotelluric (MT), audio
Mineral exploration magnetotelluric (AMT), controlled-source audio magnetotelluric (CSAMT), and transient electromagnetic
Cases studies
(TEM), respectively. This paper also presents examples of electromagnetic methods applied to the exploration of
China
metal deposits on land, airborne and in the marine environment. Furthermore, we discuss the future develop-
ment of electromagnetic prospecting tools, the data processing, modeling and inversion, interpretation, and their
application in complex geological environments. The future of successful mineral exploration using EM methods
will be focused on concealed and deep target exploration, and possibly one day on resources on the seafloor.

1. Introduction In this paper, we review the development of the EM methods in

Electromagnetic (EM) methods have been developed and applied in
mineral exploration since the early 1920ies. Some good reviews of the
application of EM methods are given by Sheard et al. (2005), Vallée
et al. (2011), and Smith (2014) and their papers focus on the years
before 2012.
Theoretically, mineral exploration using EM methods detectability
is based on the different electrical resistivities of the ore body and its
surrounding rocks or formations since the resistivity of the rocks can
vary over several orders of magnitude (Fig. 1). The more conductive
sulfide ores are very distinct from their wall rocks and that makes EM a
powerful tool in mineral exploration.
Hence, EM methods are widely used in mineral exploration during
airborne, onshore, offshore, and borehole surveys, respectively. The EM
methods are continuously improved both by industry and academia.
The academic community has a strong interest in developing new
packages and software for the forward modeling and inversion of EM
data. The efficiency of the EM equipment is also continuously improved
due to academic research and development. The mining industry con-
tributes with practical experience and by providing case studies.
China, including airborne, onshore and offshore environments, and
thereby concentrating on the years between 2012 and 2018. We also
review papers published in the Chinese literature.
In this context, we discuss some typical metal deposits in China and
their exploration, and reviewing the finite-difference (FD), finite-ele-
ment (FE) and integral equation (IE) numerical solutions for 3-D
modeling of EM data and inversion model problems, as documented by
Xiao et al. (2015). We also review the new and current improvements of
EM equipment in China (e.g. Yin et al. (2015), and Xue et al. (2016; Xue
et al., 2018)). Practical case studies are also included.
2. Classic models of metallic mineral deposits
2.1. Volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits
Volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits are often found on
land, due to obduction processes. Typically, the VMS deposits represent
important Au, Ag, Cu, Zn and Pb resources. The VMS deposits have
distinct geophysical properties: higher density and higher conductivity
than silicate rocks (Franklin et al., 2005). The EM is one of the most

⁎
Corresponding author at: Key Laboratory of Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19 # Beitucheng west road, chao yang district, Beijing 100029,
China.
E-mail address: xueguoqiang@mail.iggcas.ac.cn (G. Xue).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2020.103357
Received 3 January 2019; Received in revised form 13 January 2020; Accepted 20 January 2020
Available online 23 January 2020
0169-1368/ © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Z. Guo, et al.
Fig. 1. Resistivity varies over several orders of magnitude in crustal materials.
efficient tools to explore for VMS deposits. As large quantities of sul-
fides are easily detected by modern EM methods, for instance TEM as
documented by Safipour et al. (2018). Continuous mineralization in-
terconnected veinlets should be considered carefully, as the EM signal
may be weaker in veinlet-style mineralization. Economic VMS deposits
may include zones that are dominated by veinlet-hosted miner-
alization. These are characterized by less intense EM signals when
compared to those with massive sulfides.
2.2. Skarn deposits
Skarn deposits can have economic concentrations of Fe, W, Cu, Pb,
Zn, Mo, Au, Ag, and Sn, respectively. Normally, skarn deposits are
developed in carbonate rocks, and can be detected by EM because their
resistivity commonly differs from their surrounding wall-rocks. The
Gongpengzi Cu-Zn-W skarn deposit is located in Binxian County,
Heilongjiang Province, NE China. There are abundant skarn deposits in
China. For instance, the Xianglushan mine, in the Jiangxi Province,
represents one of the largest tungsten mines in China in terms of its
annual production of about 3600 t and it is considered as a classic
tungsten skarn deposit (Zhang and Ni, 2018). A skarn-greisen deposit is
documented at Shizhuyuan mine which is one of the largest tungsten
deposits in the world (Lu et al., 2003; Zhu et al., 2015).
2.3. Porphyry Cu deposits
The term porphyry Cu deposit refers to magmatic-hydrothermal Cu-
Mo or Cu-Au deposits associated with intermediate intrusions hosting
disseminated and stock work vein-related sulfide mineralization
(Fig. 2).
The main ore body is usually associated with potassic alteration of
both the parental intrusion and wallrocks. In China, the most significant
porphyry Cu deposits, such as Tongling, Shaxi, and Dexing (in Fig. 3)
are hosted by adakitic or high-K calc-alkaline rocks (Pan et al., 1999;
Wang et al., 2006).
Porphyry copper deposits are commonly associated with magnetic
highs in the potassic core, where the magnetite content can be up to
5 vol%, due to the magnetite-biotite alteration assemblage (Sillitoe,
1972; Oldenburg et al., 1997). Some porphyry Cu-Au deposits are
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Ore Geology Reviews 118 (2020) 103357
defined by magnetic doughnut anomalies, such as Bajo de la Alumbrera,
Argentina (Chernicoff et al., 2002). They form where sericite-pyrite
alteration overprints the initial biotite-magnetite alteration assemblage
due to the martitization of magnetite (magnetic) to hematite (non-
magnetic). While aeromagnetic surveys can be very useful for the target
generation of porphyry Cu deposits on a regional scale, EM and espe-
cially induced polarization (IP) surveys are most effective in porphyry
exploration on the prospect scale or for defining drill targets Pelton and
Smith (1979). Ground EM methods are generally very useful tools for
detecting both skarn and porphyry copper mineralization. Electro-
magnetic tools are also useful in the exploration of supergene Cu mi-
neralization on top of hypogene porphyry systems, because it is defined
by clay- and silica-rich advanced argillic alteration which can be de-
tected by its high resistivity. In porphyry exploration it is most effective
to focus on EM anomalies that overlap with geochemical anomalies.
2.4. Other hydrothermal mineral deposits
The Dahutang W deposit in the Jiangxi Province, China, represents
another type of hydrothermal mineral deposits (Zhang et al., 2018). The
metal-bearing hydrothermal fluids were derived from magmas. The
hydrothermal fluids are derived from magmas. The resistivity between
the ore body and its host rocks is different which makes EM methods a
very powerful tool in mineral exploration. Cheng (2007) describe hy-
drothermal mineral deposits at Gejiu, China. Cheng (2007) provide a
case study from the Gejiu tin–polymetallic mineral district, in the
Yunnan Province. They demonstrate that the concepts of singularity
and the singularity mapping technique are applicable and useful for
delineating anomalies caused by mineralization and for predicting the
locations of undiscovered mineral deposits. Until now the EM methods
are considered as the main exploration tool at Gejiu.
3. Development of EM methods
3.1. A brief history
In the 1950s, the magnetotelluric (MT) method was introduced by
Cagniard (1953). With the development of the MT equipment and
modern data processing, MT rapidly became an important method in
Z. Guo, et al. Ore Geology Reviews 118 (2020) 103357

Fig. 2. Conceptual model of porphyry Cu-Au mineralization and the typical resistivity and chargeability signatures across the hydrothermal system. Adopted from
Sillitoe et al. (2010).

hydrocarbon and mineral exploration. Wait (1956) present the tran- was widely applied in mineral exploration. The early history of FDEM
sient electromagnetic (TEM), which measures the electromagnetic was introduced by Frischknecht (1967). In addition, MT sounding, a
signal in time domain by a loop. During the 1950s and 1960s, con- high-frequency EM method called audio-magnetotelluric (AMT)
trolled-source frequency-domain electromagnetic (FDEM) sounding sounding was introduced in order to better detect shallow exploration

Fig. 3. The location of the Wunugetushan, Tongling, Shaxi and Dexing Cu deposits. The Wunugetushan porphyry Cu-Mo deposit ).

3
Z. Guo, et al.
targets (Berdichevsky, 1969). The natural signal both for MT and AMT
is weak, hence, a control source needs to be applied to excite the in-
duced currents. This is called the controlled-source audio electro-
magnetic (CSAMT) method (Goldstein, 1971). The penetration depth
depends on the frequency. Both MT and CSAMT methods are applied in
mineral exploration. It is well established, that induced polarization
(IP) is a useful tool for mineral exploration because of the chargeability
of the mineral deposits. Commonly, IP method is combined with MT/
CSAMT for ore body detection. The long offset transient electro-
magnetic method (LOTEM) was applied to geophysical investigations of
the earth’s crust by Strack et al. (1990).
The multichannel transient electromagnetic (MTEM) method, de-
veloped from LOTEM, offers an increased dynamic range in order to
measure at much smaller offsets data than LOTEM (Wright et al., 2001).
In order to detect shallow exploration targets, such as coal deposits, a
short offset transient electromagnetic method (SOTEM) was introduced
by Xue et al. (2013). The frequency EM method also has been improved
during the last ten years, and He et al. (2010) present the pseudo
random electromagnetic (PSEM) and wide-field electromagnetic
(WFEM) two frequency EM methods. In these methods the apparent
resistivity is defined from the complete analytical expressions of the
horizontal electrical field source and the vertical magnetic field source
with a homogeneous half-spacing.
Since the 1970s, airborne electromagnetic (AEM) methods have
been applied in China. The M−1 system developed by Changchun
College of Geology was the first ATEM system used in China, and it was
applied in mineral exploration in both the Heilongjiang and Hubei
Provinces. Unfortunately, research in aerial geophysical exploration
was subdued due to a limited budget. Between 2006 and 2010, the Aero
Geophysical Survey & Remote Sensing Center (AGRS), Ministry of Land
and Resources, developed the first Chinese HTEM system (i.e. CHTEM).
The transmitting loop diameter of the CHTEM system measured about
12 m, with 5 turns, and a peak current of 450 A. The transmitting
waveform was trapezoid and the operation cycle was about 20%. The
AGRS had gained already considerable experience in the development
and practical application of the CHTEM system, which accelerated the
development of airborne TEM methods in China. The CHTEM was
mainly designed for the use in mineral exploration. Yin and Fraser
(2004) developed the 1D AEM response of the anisotropic model and
identified the subsurface anisotropy by 1D AEM data inversion. Liu and
Yin (2014) document the results of frequency domain AEM anisotropy
inversions. Cai et al. (2014) introduce horizontal weighted constraints
in order to improve the frequency domain AEM data inversion. Yin
et al. (2016) apply the weighted lateral constraint to the inversion of
time domain AEM data and compare it to the data measured by Helitem
Multipuls of CGG (originally an acronym for Compagnie Générale de -
Géophysique) company. Yin et al. (2018) present AEM data inversion
constrained by incorporating known geo-electrical information.
Marine electromagnetic methods have also been rapidly developed
during the last twenty years. Researchers designed the seafloor equip-
ment for oil and gas exploration during the late 1990s. For offshore
hydrocarbon exploration, Statoil ASA (Equinor) successfully tested the
marine controlled-source electromagnetic (CSEM) technique in Angola
in November 2000 (Eidesmo et al., 2002). This new technique was also
tested at the Troll area in Norway by EMGS ASA in 2003. The “seabed
logging” (SBL) system locates the receivers on the seafloor, while the
horizontal electric dipole (HED) source is towed over the seafloor for a
distance of about 30 m. In order to increase the horizontal data density,
the towed streamer electromagnetic (EM) method was presented by
PGS ASA using a similar marine seismic data acquisition system. The
towed streamer EM method employed the HED source and a long
streamer with EM receivers (Ziolkowski et al., 2010). It has been suc-
cessfully tested in the North Sea (Linfoot et al., 2011; Zhdanov, 2012).
Seafloor massive sulfide (SMS) exploration has been developed
during the last decade (Franklin et al., 2005). The Trans-Atlantic Geo-
traverse (TAG) across the Mid-Atlantic Ridge has used a dipole–dipole
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electromagnetic system called ROV (Cairns et al., 1996). Recently,
marine transient electromagnetic (TEM) and controlled-source elec-
tromagnetic (CSEM) surveys have been both used in SMS exploration.
Marine TEM has been applied for the SMS detection and characteriza-
tion (Nakayama and Saito, 2014). Marine CSEM systems have also
successfully explored for SMS deposits (Cairns et al., 1996). In recent
years, China has started to use SMS methods at the Southwest Indian
Ridge (SWIR) (Tao et al., 2013).
3.2. Modeling of EM field data
The finite element method, the finite difference method and the
integral equation method are commonly used in the electromagnetic
three-dimensional numerical simulation. The finite element method
was originally applied to electromagnetic simulation by Coggon (1971).
The numerical simulation method has since rapidly evolved in the
following aspects: (1) differential control equation, (2) finite element
space, (3) mesh discretization, and (4) linear solver (). It is common to
simulate the EM field by using the vector basis function replacing the
node type basis function in the finite element space. For the effective
interpretation, it is easy to directly solve large-scale electromagnetic
problems by using the parallel computational tools, such as MPI
(Puzyrev et al., 2013).
In order to simulate complex geological settings, the mesh dis-
cretization method utilizes the unstructured mesh technique. Based on
the unstructured mesh technique, the local dense mesh is applied for
the 3D resistivity simulation, for 2.5D DC resistivity modeling, and for
adaptive FEM in EM field modeling (Ren et al., 2013). Zhang et al.
(2017) propose a 3D infinite element numerical simulation method for
CSEM data modeling using the second-field. Tang et al. (2018) propose
a new method for the complex structure modeling that is based on the
complete integral formula, tetrahedral unstructured mesh and singular
reference points.
Tan et al. (2003) discuss the finite-difference numerical simulation
algorithm for interlaced sampling in order to calculate the 3D MT re-
sponse. Li et al. (2012) introduce parallel computing technology to
improve the speed of the staggered grid finite difference method for 3D
MT data simulation. Sun et al. (2013) improve the finite difference
algorithm in order to calculate the diffusion equation for TEM. In their
study, the authors consider the loop source excitation process for turn-
off time, allowing the finite difference equation to take into account the
calculation of the first field.
Compared to the finite element method and the finite difference
method, the integral equation has less computational variability be-
cause it only needs to unitize the anomalous body. Moreover, the in-
tegral equation has higher precision which approximates the semi-
analytical solution. The integral equation was applied to the CSAMT
modeling during the early days (Zhdanov et al., 2006). Based on the
hexahedral mesh, Zhang et al. (2015) simulate 3D EM responses with
electrical dipoles by using the Gaussian quadrature and the continuous
fraction in order to calculate the Green function.Computational speed
and computational accuracy have always been a dilemma for forward
and inversion modeling. Wang et al. (2009) improve the calculation
speed with the satisfied solution accuracy by using the approximate
solution method. The computational speed is also considered as a
priority, as shown by Abubakar and Habashy (2005). These authors
compute the integral equation by using extended Born approximations,
generalized extensions derived from approximations, and quasi-linear
approximations. Ren et al. (2017) improve the accuracy of the 3D MT
data by using the integral equation method and discretizing the sub-
surface anomaly with tetrahedral elements. They can solve the strong
singularity problem of the dyadic Green's function by using the analy-
tical expression without singularity.
Z. Guo, et al.
3.3. Data processing, inversion and interpretation
The commonly used inversion algorithms comprise two categories:
linear and nonlinear inversion algorithms, such as (1) Gauss-Newton,
(2) Conjugate gradient algorithms, and (3) artificial neural grid, and (4)
simulated annealing algorithm. The advantage of the nonlinear inver-
sion algorithms is that the local minimum can be avoided. It is suitable
to solve 1D and 2D inversion problems. Linear iterative algorithms are
applicable to 2D and 3D electromagnetic problems. Forward modeling
is important both for EM data processing and inversion. Improving the
efficiency of forward modeling also can improve the inversion effi-
ciency. In the previous section, we discussed the development of the EM
simulation. In the following section we address the development of the
inversion algorithms.
3.3.1. MT and AMT inversion and interpretation
The 3D MT data forward modeling and inversion techniques have
been applied to the calculation and interpretation of raw data (Zhang
et al., 2015; Xiao et al., 2015). Based on the conjugate gradient method,
By considering the current-type distortion, 3D MT data inversion was
further improved by Li et al., 2016b. . Ren et al. (2017) propose to
reduce the 3D MT inversion computational cost by using a new forward
modeling method computed by integral equation. Qin et al. (2017a)
propose a parallel computing 3D MT forward modeling method, and
document 3D inversion based on L-BFGS algorithms. They also test the
inversion algorithm by using the open datasets DSM2 and DSM3 (Qin
et al., 2017b). Yin et al. (2018) propose the joint inversion method by
combining 3D gravity and MT data. Cao et al. (2018) propose an object-
oriented adaptive finite element method for 3D MT forward modeling
of an anisotropic model.
Magnetotellurics has been applied in tectonically active areas and
earthquake-prone regions (). Zhan et al. (2014) reveal the deep elec-
trical structural features of the western Qinling orogenic belt and the
northeastern section of the Longmenshan tectonic belt by using 2D MT
inversion results. The authors conclude the Chengxian County in the
Western Qinling orogenic belt. Wang et al. (2014) analyze the relative
movement along the Longmenshan fault zone in Sichuan province and
the Songpan-Ganzi block by interpreting 2D NLCG MT data inversion
results. They conclude that the Wenchuan earthquake and the Lushan
earthquake were independent processes of each other. Cheng et al.
(2017) studied the structural formation of the Sichuan-Yunnan dia-
mond-shaped block and the South China block by inverting MT data
and reveal a deep resistivity structure.
The AMT method measures the natural EM field, and this light
equipment is very suitable for mountainous areas with a rugged terrain.
Theoretically, it can detect targets in up to two kilometers depth.
Because the natural EM signal is relatively weak, Tang et al. (2012) try
to improve the coherence and signal-to-noise ratio of electromagnetic
sounding data using far reference technology in order to remove the
noise. and propose a self-learning feature structure of human noise from
observation data through a dictionary learning method in order to
identify and separate human noise in AMT data.
3.3.2. CSEM/CSAMT data inversion and interpretation
The controlled-source electromagnetic (CSEM) method has a high
sensitivity for the relatively resistive hydrocarbon in offshore explora-
tion. The classic inversion method was introduced as Occam’s inversion
by Constable et al. (1987). The Occam’s inversion was initially applied
for CSEM data inversion by Key (2009). Guo et al. (2016) propose an
irregular sparse mesh to reduce the number of free parameters for the
CSEM inversion. The seismic image has a high resolution and Guo et al.
(2017) combine the advantage of seismic resolution and EM sensitivity
to enhance the marine CSEM inversion. Zhou et al. (2014) propose to
invert the electrical data using image-guided Gauss-Newton inversion.
Similarly, Guo et al. (2017) could define the seismic image-guided
Occam’s inversion to in order invert the marine CSEM data.
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Ore Geology Reviews 118 (2020) 103357
Onshore, the CSAMT method is usually applied in mineral ex-
ploration. The CSAMT method has been successfully applied for de-
tecting water inflow in iron ore mines. propose a 3D inversion algo-
rithm for CSAMT incorporating a constrained trust-region technique.
Recently, the method was successfully applied in mineral exploration.
An ore-bearing mineralized zone of Longtoushan Ag-Pb-Zn deposit is
detected by using CSAMT in the Inner Mongolia, northern China (Chen
et al., 2010). The CSAMT survey has been successfully applied at the
iron (Fe) and polymetallic (Pb-Zn) deposits in the Longmen region by
Hu et al. (2013). The CSAMT method can be used to define geological
structures (An and Di, 2016). However, the topography can affect the
EM data. In order to test the 3D topographic effects, trapezoidal-hill and
trapezoidal-valley models were simulated by Wang et al. (2017) who
developed tensor CSAMT modeling and anisotropic inversion in ani-
sotropic with a 3D staggered-grid FD modeling method and the limited-
memory Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno (LBFGS) inversion
method, respectively. By combining the IP and CSAMT results, the Ea-
gles-Nest polymetallic deposits have been verified by the drilling wells
(Guo et al., 2019).
3.3.3. TEM data inversion and interpretation
The TEM is a common time-domain electromagnetic method
(TDEM) for artificial source electromagnetic exploration. Recently, a
new data processing and interpretation method has been developed
based on conventional TEM methods (Li et al., 2015). The new TEM
method can be used for more complex applications and for deeper
targets.
The high signal-to-noise ratio can be obtained by near-source TEM;
however, the measurement error can be large due to the traditional
dipole approximation. In order to overcome this challenge, Xue et al.
(2013) investigated the TDEM fields using TEM detection of the whole
field. Zhou et al. (2013) replace the rectangular loops by circular loops
to reduce the error. When we explore the shallow targets, there is a
problem of the influence of the mutual inductance of the transmitting
and receiving coils. In order to solve this problem, the traditional TEM
method uses an inductive magnetic field sensor to observe the time rate
and change of the magnetic field (decibel/dt). Li et al. (2005) introduce
the processing method based on the wave field in the TEM data pro-
cessing, such as quasi-earthquake processing and synthetic aperture
imaging (Li et al., 2015), in order to obtain a higher resolution of
concealed targets.
Strack et al. (1992) propose a long-offset transient electromagnetic
method (LOTEM) where the grounding wire source (magnetic source) is
only used for artificial source frequency domain methods. Compared to
the loop source, the grounding wire source is much easier and more
efficient to deploy in the field. Because the traditional LOTEM source is
located far away from the data collection tool, it is very susceptible to
geological structures and topography. Because the EM signal has strong
attenuation in the low resistivity medium, it is difficult to detect deeper
targets. In order to overcome this challenge, the short offset transient
electromagnetic method (SOTEM) was proposed as a near-field large-
depth prospecting method based on a ground line source (Xue et al.,
2013). Using the SOTEM method, Zhou et al. (2013) compare the time-
domain electromagnetic field response between point-charge and di-
pole sources. Chen et al. (2014; 2016) studied the effective skin depth
of the electromagnetic field by the ground source and analyzed the
characteristics and optimal data collection. Additionally, the airborne
TEM equipped with an observation device was developed as ground-to-
air electromagnetic detection methods using grounding wire sources.
The multi-channel transient electromagnetic method (MTEM) is a
newly developed TEM method (Wright et al., 2001). The long
grounding wire source is employed to emit a time-varying electro-
magnetic excitation signal to the earth, and the electric dipole varitious
in the extension line document the data. Compared to the LOTEM
method, the MTEM method uses m-sequence pseudo-random signals to
transmit waveforms and collect the data (Ziolkowski et al. 2010). Di
Z. Guo, et al.
et al. (2016) develop the modern MTEM systems in China. Ongoing
research on data processing including noise removal, surface con-
sistency correction, earth impulse response calculation, and peak time
resistivity calculation have been published.
3.4. Examples for the application of EM methods
The pesudo-random triple frequency IP and the CSAMT methods
have been successfully applied for discovering concealed ore bodies in
the Fenghuangshan ore field, Tongling district, China (Liu and Peng,
2004). MT data inversions contributed to the discovery of the Naru Cu
deposit, which is a large porphyry copper deposit in Tibet (Zhu, 2013).
The application of AMT methods successfully explored the iron ore
deposit in Qiumu Mine, in Guizhou (Zhang et al., 2015). In the Baish-
ilizi area of Heilongjiang Province, AMT methods were used to explore
the Damingshan gold deposit, which is an epithermal type gold deposit.
The large-line source TEM technique was successfully employed to
discover the Sharang porphyry molybdenum (Mo) deposits in Tibet
(Xue et al., 2012). The buried Precambrian banded iron-formation (BIF)
located at the North China Craton (NCC), was discovered by using the
short-offset transient electromagnetic method (SOTEM) (Chen et al.,
2017). This survey area is covered by thick Quaternary sediments.
Marine TEM and CSEM methods have also been applied in the ex-
ploration of submarine metal deposits. However, the exploration of
submarine mineral deposits is still not economic (Tao et al., 2013). The
use of marine EM methods has in recent years focused on exploring
submarine hydrothermal polymetallic sulphide deposits. The EM re-
sponse of submarine hydrothermal sulfide deposits can be detected by
modern offshore TEM methods. Li et al., 2016b study the data from
hydrothermal sulfide deposits at the mid-Atlantic mid-ocean ridge and
the southwest Indian Ocean. The authors modeled these deposits in 3D
using TEM forward modeling.
3.5. Equipment
Examples of EM instrumentation are V-8 multifunction receivers
from Phoenix Geophysics Ltd. in Canada, GDP 32 II multi-function re-
ceivers from Zonge in the USA, STRATAGEM EH4 systems from
Geometrics Company in the USA, GMS-07E systems from Metronix in
Germany, and terra-TEM from Monex Geosope in Australia. Most of the
equipment above combine the frequency and time domain EM data
acquisition methods, respectively.
During recent years, the EM technology has rapidly evolved in
China. Di et al., 2013 review the development and the design of existing
MT instruments, together with the transmitting and receiving software
and the visualization software of the Surface Electromagnetic Pro-
specting (SEP) system. The SEP system was tested during a field study at
Jincang, Gansu province, in northwestern China. Di et al., 2013 provide
a comparison study of the SEP system and commercial high-end in-
struments. The results show that the SEP system has robust anti-inter-
ference abilities compared with the other equipment, and it is suitable
for a variety of complex tasks. The SEP system has been tested in the
Liaoning province and in Inner Mongolia to measure electric fields,
magnetic fields, apparent resistivity and impedance phases (). Wang
et al. (2017) present a multifunction borehole ground electromagnetic
transmitting system with a high signal-to-noise ratio, which transmits
rectangular waves at a low frequency error.
Central South University successfully developed the JSGY-2 wide-
area electromagnetic instrument, which can measure a wide area from
the far region. The working frequency range is 3/256 Hz-8192 Hz, and
the source transmits a pseudo-random signal. The receivers only mea-
sure the × component field. Hence, this method has the advantage of
high depth penetration, high precision, and strong adaptability, re-
spectively (He et al., 2010).
In terms of airborne EM equipment development, the AEM method
has been used in China since the 1970s. The time-domain AEM system
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Ore Geology Reviews 118 (2020) 103357
(M−1), which was designed by the Changchun College of Geology has
been used already in 1970 (Yin et al., 2015). During 1981–1983, the
time-domain AEM system (M−2) was developed from the M−1
system, unfortunately, the research was stopped because of a lack of
funding. Since 2000, the fixed-wing tri-band aviation electromagnetic
system HDY-402 was developed by the Geophysical and Geochemical
Exploration Institute of the Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences
while the CHTEM time domain helicopter aerial electromagnetic survey
was developed by the Land Resources Aviation Geophysical and Re-
mote Sensing Center (Yin et al., 2015). The HDY-402 system uses an
upright coplanar transmitter and receiver with a transmission and re-
ception distance of 19.2 m, operating frequencies of 463 Hz, 1563 Hz
and 8333 Hz, a maximum sampling rate of 8 times per second, and a
noise level of less than 20 ppm. When the zero drift is less than
100 ppm/hour, the exploration depth is about 100 m. With increasing
altitude, the intensity of the signal gets weaker and, hence, the appli-
cation of this system is limited to detect shallow orebodies and
groundwater resources (Yin et al., 2015).
In China, marine CSEM equipment has been refined since decades.
Deng et al. (2013) design the equipment for MT data acquisition in deep
water environments. Wang et al. (2015) provide technical details on the
development of both deep-tow and deployed transmitters. The deep-
towed transmitter was tested during a survey in the South China Sea in
2014. The deep-tow marine CSEM transmitter system has been devel-
oped for gas hydrates exploration in cooperation between the Scripps
Institution of Oceanography (SIO) and China University of Geosciences
(Beijing) (CUGB) ().
4. Future developments of electromagnetic methods in mineral
exploration
Electromagnetic methods represent an important tool in global
mineral exploration. Outcropping mineral resources on land are in-
creasingly exploited. Currently, geophysical prospecting has to focus on
deep or concealed exploration targets. This will require the use of deep
penetrating geophysical prospecting tools such as EM.
More sophisticated equipment for EM prospecting will need to be
developed to discover deep ore bodies under cover. Marine TEM tech-
niques are already very powerful tools for offshore exploration.
Airborne TEM techniques can be applied on land. However, these tools
still need to be improved in their accuracy and efficiency, respectively.
The 3D EM data acquisition and new EM equipment can measure
large datasets of secondary EM signals of electrical conductivity from
subsurface data. Hence, there is a need of rapid forward modeling ca-
pacities. In order to improve the accuracy of the inversion results, EM
data inversion techniques in conjunction with other geophysical
methods will need to be improved. The anisotropic inversion of re-
sistivity data could also provide the potential to improve geophysical
prospecting.
Artificial intelligence and deep learning techniques also provide the
potential to improve geophysical prospecting. It has already been suc-
cessfully applied in seismic imaging and 3-D interpretations in the oil
exploration industry and it will be increasingly used in mineral ex-
ploration.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
We thank the useful discussion with Dr. Peng Zidong from the
Chinese Academy of Sciences. This research study is supported by the
National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant No.
Z. Guo, et al.
2017YFC0601204); and the Natural Science Foundation of China
(NSFC) (41804073; 41674079; 41830101; 41474095). The research
also funded by Open Research Fund Program of Key Laboratory of
Metallogenic Prediction of Nonferrous Metals and Geological
Environment Monitoring (Central South University), Ministry of
Education (Grant: 2019YSJS10). Furthermore, the research got the
Grant from the Open Foundation of Key Laboratory of Submarine
Geosciences, SOA (KLSG1905). Key R&D Program Projects at Shaanxi
Province (2017GY-175);
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2020.103357.
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