Radioactivity

Definitions:

Atomic Number: The number of protons in an atom.

Mass Number: Total number of protons and neutrons in an atom.

Isotope: The same number of protons but different number of neutrons.

Half Life: The time taken for number of unstable nuclei to halve, or for the number of decays per
second to halve. It depends on the stability of each nucleus, and number of unstable nuclei.

Fuel Rods: The rod of material used in a nuclear power plant, which undergoes fission, releasing
neutrons and energy in a chain reaction.

Control Rods: Rods of boron and cadmium are lowered inside the reactor to absorb neutrons and
keep the chain reaction under control.

Coolant: Water used to convert into steam using the heat released from fission, turning the turbine.

Moderator: Heavy water used to slow the speed of neutrons to allow them to carry out fission.

Activity: Number of decays per second, measured in Becquerel (Bq)

Contamination: Having radioactive material on or inside you.

Irradiation: Exposure to radiation.

Alpha Beta Gamma

Decay 2 protons and 2 neutrons lost 1 neutron turned into 1 Nucleus is excited and releases
proton, and 1 electron lost energy.
Radiation 2 proton, 2 neutrons Fast moving electron EM Wave
Range 10cm in air (low) Several m in air (medium) N/A (high)
Stopped by Paper Aluminium Thick piece of lead/concrete
Ionising Power High Medium Weak
Penetrating Power Low Medium High
Uses of Radiation:

Alpha:

Used in smoke alarms due to its high ionizing and low penetrating power. The alpha particles ionize
the air, creating a current. If smoke is present, the current is disrupted as smoke particles prevent
alpha particles from ionizing the air, resulting in the ringing of an alarm. Beta and Gamma particles
would not be stopped by smoke, and would be harmful to humans.

Beta:

Used in thickness control due to test the thickness of a material. Beta radiation is passed through a
material into a beta detector. Depending on the thickness of the material, the counts per second
detected will vary, allowing rollers to thin out the material if necessary. Alpha particles would be
stopped by the material, and all Gamma particles would go through the material whatever the
thickness.

Beta particles can also be used in tracing to view blockages in organs or the body.

Gamma:

Used in medicine in chemotherapy. Due to its high penetrating power, gamma particles can
penetrate deep into body tissue. Gamma radiation can also be used to sterilise surgical equipment
due to its high penetrating power.

Ionizing Radiation:

This is the process of removing or adding electrons to an atom, giving it a charge. Ionising Radiation
can be detected by a Geiger-Muller detector, or photographic film. Alpha particles, Beta particles
and Gamma rays are all ionizing radiations emitted from unstable nuclei in a random process.

Dangers of Ionizing radiation:

 Mutation of DNA (typically Alpha inside the body)

 Making cells become cancerous (typically Alpha inside the body)
 Nuclear Waste Disposal

Hazards of ionizing radiation can be prevented by…

 Limiting exposure time of workers around radiation,

 Shielding spaces where radioactive material is kept (with lead),
 Wearing protective shields and eye covers when working with radioactive material,
 Monitoring exposure to radiation.

Nuclear Waste Disposal:

 Low level (e.g. contaminated equipment or materials): Waste is put in drums and
surrounded by concrete, before being put into clay lined landfilled sites
 Medium level (e.g. components from nuclear reactors, radioactive sources used in
medicine): Waste is mixed with concrete and put in a stainless steel drum in a purpose-built
store
  High level (e.g. used nuclear fuel and chemicals from reprsocessing fuels): Waste is stored
underwater in large pools for 20 years, then placed in storage casks in purpose-built
underground stores where air can circulate to remove heat produced.

Sources of Ionizing Radiation:

 Nuclear reactions from the Sun and stars in space

 Radioactive decay in body tissue and soil
 Radioactive decay in rocks (especially those that contain radium)

Nuclear Fission:

Nuclear Fission is the process in which a nucleus (typically Uranium 235) splits into 2 daughter nuclei,
release energy and emitting a few neutrons (typically 2 or 3).

Nuclear Fission is a chain reaction, as when a fast moving neutron hits the nucleus of a Uranium
atom, further neutrons are emitted which cause further fission reactions, in turn releasing more
neutrons and energy.

In a nuclear reactor, nuclear fission is used to release energy. A fast moving neutron is slowed down
by a moderator (typically heavy water), which are cooled by a cold coolant. This now slow moving
neutron collides with the nuclear fuel (the unstable Uranium 235 nucleus), resulting in the splitting
of the nucleus into 2 daughter nuclei, and a few neutrons. The number of reactions taking place can
be controlled by lowering control rods, which absorb neutrons, slowing the speed of the chain
reaction. A concrete shield is used to prevent products of fission escaping from the reactor.

Nuclear Fusion:

Nuclear fusion is the process of 2 smaller nuclei fusing to form a bigger nuclei. This reaction takes
place at high temperatures (e.g. in the Sun), so that the repulsion force between the two nuclei are
overcome. When 2 smaller nuclei are joined together, the resulting nucleus has slightly less mass
than the 2 constituent parts, as some mass has been converted into energy.

Fusion is the energy source for stars.

Fission v Fusion:

Fission Fusion
What happens? Large nucleus breaks into 2 2 smaller nuclei fuse into 1
smaller nuclei. larger nucleus.
Is there a chain reaction? Yes No
Products: 2 daughter nuclei, a few 1 nucleus, lots of energy
neutrons, energy
Raw material used: Difficult to obtain (Uranium) Easy to obtain (Hydrogen)
Is nuclear waste produced? Yes No
Does it occur naturally? No Yes
Nuclear Equations:
A A− 4 4
Alpha Decay: Z X → Z−2Y + 2 α
A A 0
Beta Decay: Z X → Z +1Y + −1 β

Gamma Decay: Nucleus remains unchanged

Background Radiation:
Background radiation is the radiation that is always present around us in the environment.
Most background radiation is natural; however a small amount comes from artificial sources
such as X-Rays.

Sources:

 Radon Gas – 50%

 Rocks and Building Materials – 15%
 Medical (e.g. X-Rays) – 13%
 Natural nuclides in the body – 11%
 Cosmic Rays – 10%

Practical:
Measuring the activity of a source:

 Place a GM tube far from radioactive sources and measure the count for 5 minutes
 Find the background activity by dividing the count by the number of seconds
recorded.
 Place the GM tube close to the radioactive source Measure the counts for one
minute and divide the count by 60 to get the activity
 Subtract the background activity to find the activity of the source.