Nuclear Decay

Background Radiation

Sources of radiation are natural or human made.

Background radiation is low levels of radiation in the environment, largely

from natural sources (Radioactive gases such as Radon).

Radon is produced in the decay of Uranium or present in certain rocks such

as Granite.

Radiation levels are often reported in counts per second with the SI unit of
Becquerel (Bq).

To determine the average background radiation a Geiger-Muller tube with a

counter are used.

In nuclear radiation investigation, the background radiation must be

measured separately and deducted from the count of measured radiation.

True count rate = Measured count rate – Background count rate

Types of nuclear radiation

Radioactivity (Radioactive decay) involves the spontaneous (without

outside interference) emission of an alpha or beta particle from the nucleus
of an unstable atom, causing the proton number of the atom to change.

An individual radioactive decay therefore always involves one element

changing to another element.

Radioactive decay may also be accompanied by gamma emission.

This is how the nucleus rids itself of excess energy if it is in an excited state
after emitting an alpha or beta particle.

Alpha α Beta β Gamma γ

Helium nucleus Electron Electromagnetic

Nature 4
2𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑒𝑒 − wave

Ionizing ability in
Highly ionizing Moderate ionizing Minimal ionization
a body

About few meters in Several meters in air

About 5 cm in air air can be stopped by
Range Can be stopped by Can be stopped by very thick lead or
thick sheet of paper few mm sheet of few meters of
aluminum concrete.

Very dangerous
Danger and
Health risks Causes radiation Cancer danger for
exposure must be
inside the body poisoning and long time exposure.
minimized.
cancer possible

Can cause moderate

Absorbed by dead Can cause cancer
Health risks ionization, therefore
skin layer causing from long-term
outside the body close exposure must
no danger exposure.
be minimized
In nuclear decay the radiation particle leaves the nucleus with certain
amount of kinetic energy, this particle ionizes particles in its path and loses
a small amount of kinetic energy by the ionization process.

When the kinetic energy is completely transferred, the particle stops and is
absorbed by the substance.

Probability and decay

The radioactive decay is a spontaneous and random process
The probability for a nucleus to decay at any second is called decay
constant λ.
Nuclei decay is independent, the decay constant relates the number of
atoms that decay per unit time and the total number of atoms present
before the decay process started.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= −𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

For large sample of nuclei, the probability of decay determines the fraction
of these nuclei that will decay each second.
The larger the sample the larger the number of atoms that will decay per
second.
The rate at which nuclei decay is called activity (A)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐴𝐴 = = −𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The minus sign indicates that the number of nuclei that decay decreases
over time (in practice it is ignored).
Example:

𝑑𝑑𝑁𝑁
The equation = −𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 can be solved to calculate the number of nuclei
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
remaining in the sample after a fixed time
𝑁𝑁 = 𝑁𝑁0 𝑒𝑒 −𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆

Where N is the number of nucleons remaining in the sample and N0 is the

original number of nuclei in the sample before decay.

Example:
Half-Life
In a radioactive sample the activity decreases over time as the nuclear
decay decreases

The half-life 𝑡𝑡1/2 is the time taken for half the atoms of the sample to decay.
1
Mathematically, the half-life can be found when 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑁𝑁0
2

𝑁𝑁 = 𝑁𝑁0 𝑒𝑒 −𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
𝑁𝑁0
= 𝑁𝑁0 𝑒𝑒 −𝜆𝜆𝑡𝑡1/2
2
1
= 𝑒𝑒 −𝜆𝜆𝑡𝑡1/2
2
1
ln � � = −𝜆𝜆𝑡𝑡1/2
2
−ln 2 = −𝜆𝜆𝑡𝑡1/2
ln 2
𝑡𝑡1/2 =
𝜆𝜆
Or
ln 2
𝜆𝜆 =
𝑡𝑡1/2

Example
Half-Life Graphs
In the experiment to determine the half-life of a substance, the activity over
time must be measured.

𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴0 𝑒𝑒 −𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆

The activity vs time graph is used to

determine the half-life (the point at
which the activity is halved).
Examples:
Nuclear Fission and Fusion
Energy mass equivalence

The atomic mass unit (u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg)

In practice, the mass of the nucleus is always less than the total mass of its
constituent nucleons. The difference is called the mass deficit or mass
defect.
Nuclear Binding Energy
A small amount of the mass of nucleons is converted into energy; this
energy is needed to hold the nucleus together.
This energy is called the binding energy and it can be calculated from
Einstein's Equation
∆𝐸𝐸 = ∆𝑚𝑚. 𝑐𝑐 2
The Binding Energy is the minimum external energy needed to separate all
the neutrons and protons of the nucleus.

1) Mass in Kg + speed of light in ms-1 → energy in joules

2) Mass in u and convert to Mega-Electron volt
1u = 931.5 MeV
Binding Energy per Nucleon
To remove one nucleon from the nucleus; the binding energy of the
nucleus is needed and the number of nucleon must be known.

The graph of the binding energy per nucleon vs. the mass number of the
nucleus shows how tight the nuclides are bond to each other.

From the graph; (Fe-56) has the max binding energy per nucleon.
Any nuclear reaction that will increase the binding energy per nucleon will
give out energy.
Smaller nuclides than 56 combine to make larger nuclei up to 56 with
greater binding energy per nucleon.
This is called "Nuclear Fusion"

Larger nuclei than 56 break up into smaller pieces to make smaller nuclei
with greater binding energy per nucleon.
This is called "Nuclear Fission"
Both reactions give out energies and can be used as power sources.
Nuclear fusion
In nuclear fusion, light nuclei join and form heavier nucleus.
The mass of the formed nucleus will be less than the constituent parts.
Not all energy is used for binding and some energy will be released.
The formed nucleus has higher binding energy per nucleon.
Example:

Converting Hydrogen into Helium is a great way to supply the planet with
energy.
Fusion reaction control is not yet successfully maintained.
For fusing 2 repelling protons to collide the kinetic energy needed requires
temperatures of many million Kelvin.
Moreover very high density of protons is needed to ensure the collision.
Nuclear Fission
In nuclear fission, a large nucleus breaks up to into two smaller nuclei, with
the release of neutrons and energy.

Examples:
Nuclear reactors
The most common fission reaction used in power stations is that of Uranium-
235.
The Uranium isotope is hit by slow neutron called thermal neutron.
The neutron is absorbed to form Uranium-236.
Uranium-236 is unstable and breaks up to 2 medium sized radioactive
nuclei with about half the nucleons per each.
A Moderator such as water or Graphite is used to slow the emitted
neutrons.
The slow neutrons will be absorbed by further ( 235𝑈𝑈) nuclei and cause
further fissions and continue the chain reaction.
To control the reaction in nuclear reactors (unlike the nuclear bomb) control
rods made of cadmium or boron are used to absorb the slow neutrons to
shut down the reaction.
An alternative non-renewable energy
About 3kg uranium runs about 100MW nuclear power station a day.
For same amount of power 9000 tons (about 9,000,000 kg) of coal is
needed.
(1 ton = 907.2 kg about 1000kg)

Uranium is found principally in just few countries

Nuclear Disasters
In nuclear industry, the hazards are extreme to health and safety, so the
probability must be minimized.
The harmful isotopes decay quickly and cause the greatest damage.

Nuclear power Legacies