J.J.

-discovered negative particles in

atoms called electrons
-"plum pudding" model_electrons
(negatively charged subatomic
Thomson particles) are scattered about the
atom like plums in a plum pudding.
- the "pudding" part of the atom was
(1897) composed of positively charged
material

Rutherford Fired a beam of

and Marsden alpha particles
(1909) at thin gold foil

Most alpha particles went

Results of through the gold foil so most
was empty space
Rutherford's Some were deflected back
due to mass in centred,tiny
experiment nucleus which was positive.
LED to nuclear model

Niels 1913- discovered

that electrons move
around the nucleus
Bohr in orbits called
electron shells.
 Current Positively charged
nucleus surrounded by
negative electrons
atom which orbit in shells,
most mass in tiny
structure nucleus

Atoms neutral as number

of electrons is
equal to number of
are protons

If an atom loses positively

an electron, it
becomes a charged
__________. cation

Atoms can
join together
to make
more
Mass and Mass = 1
charge of charge =
proton +1

Mass and Mass = 1,

charge of
neutron charge = 0

Mass and mass

charge of negligible,
electron charge -1
When can an when an atom
electron move absorbs enough
to a higher electromagnetic
energy level? energy (excited)
 What happens It loses the
when an electrons energy which is
falls down energy carried away by
levels again EM radiation.

A higher higher
frequency so
energy visible light is
means a often released

As you move Closer together so the

further out of the difference in energy is
less so falling back from
nucleus, the 2nd to 3rd loses less
energy levels get energy than 2nd to 1st

If an outer it can move so

electron absorbs far it leaves the
radiation
with enough atom, positively
energy.. ionising it.
 What is Radiation that
knocks electrons
ionising off atoms, creating
radiation positive ions

atoms with the same

What is number of protons but
different number of
an isotope neutrons so different
mass number

All elements Two or

have isotopes
but there are three stable
only ones usually

What is The process in which

unstable isotopes decay
into other elements and
radioactive emit radiation as they
attempt to become more
decay? stable
 Types of alpha, beta,
radioactive gamma or
decay neutrons

What is When an alpha particle is emitted

from the nucleus
-Alpha particles contain two
neutrons and two protons
alpha -They don't penetrate very far into
materials - only a few cm in air -
and are stopped quickly. They can
radiation? be absorbed by a sheet of paper
-They are strongly ionising

What is When a beta particle is released from the

nucleus
-A beta particle is a fast-moving electron with
virtually no mass and a charge of -1

beta -They are moderately ionising

-They penetrate further into materials than alpha
particles - a few metres in air - and can be
absorbed by a sheet of aluminium

radiation? -For every beta particle emitted, a neutron in the

nucleus turns into a proton

What is Gamma rays - waves of electromagnetic

radiation - are released by the nucleus
-They penetrate far into materials without being
stopped and travel a long distance through air

gamma -They are weakly ionising - they tend to pass

through atoms rather than collide with them
-When they finally hit something, they'll do
damage

radiation? -They can be absorbed by thick sheets of lead or

metres of concrete
 Equations used to
What are represent
nuclear radioactive decay
using element
equations symbols

Nuclear Mass number

decreases by 4
equation when and atomic number
emitting alpha decreases by 2

Nuclear Mass number

equation for stays the same
beta minus and atomic number
decay increases by 1

Nuclear Mass number

equation for stays the same but
position atomic number
emission decreases by 1
 Nuclear Mass number
equation for decreases by 1
emission of a and atomic number
neutron stays the same

Both numbers stay

Nuclear the same because
equation for it's a way of getting
rid of energy not
gamma rays particles

Radioactive
Radioactive isotopes that give
sources out radiation from
the nuclei of their
contain atoms

Radioactive Random
decay is a process
 The number of decays
Radioactive of a sample per
second - becquerels 1
activity is? Bq is one decay per
second

the time taken for

What is the radioactivity of
a specified isotope
the half life to fall to half its
original value.

How to Photographic
detect film gets
radiation darker

As unstable The activity

nuclei
disappear decreases
 Never reaches
Problem with zero so it's an
measuring average of how
long it takes to
half life drop off

A short the activity falls quickly,

because lots of the
half-life nuclei decay quickly.
Dangerous to start with
means... but quickly safe

the activity falls more

A long slowly because most of
the nuclei don't decay for a
half-life long time, they just sit
there, basically unstable.
means... Can be dangerous over a
long time

Finding Read initial activity

(number showing activity
Half-Life in Bq) the top one
divide it by 2 to get half of
it, then draw line to
on a graph wherever it lands
 What is The low-level
radiation that's
background around us all
radiation? the time

Where does -Radioactivity of naturally occurring

isotopes: the air; in food; in building
materials and in rocks
background -Radiation from space - cosmic rays,
which come from the sun - the Earth's
radiation come atmosphere protects us from most of this
-Radiation due to human activity e.g.
fallout from nuclear explosions or nuclear
from? waste

What does the Your

amount of radiation
your exposed to job,where
depend on you live

Objects near Irradiated by

a radioactive it (exposed
source are to it)
Irradiating Make it
something
does not radioactive

Lead lined boxes,

Ways to behind barriers, different
room, controlled arms.
reduce effects Wear photographic film
of radiation badges to measure their
exposure

If radioactive
items get onto Contaminated
an object it is

A Decay, realising
contaminated radiation which
item might may cause harm
 The contaminating
Why is atoms might then decay,
releasing radiation
contamination which could cause
dangerous? radioactive particles to
get inside your body

They are at risk

Once until the
someone is contamination is
removed or all has
contaminated decayed

What should be
used when gloves
handling and tongs
sources

What leads Radiation

entering living
to tissue cells which
damage ionises atomsl
 lower Cause minor damage
with killing cells. This
gives rise to mutant
doses of cells which divide
uncontrollably causing
radiation cancer

Kill cells
Higher completely causing
doses of radiation sickness
if many cells get
radiation killed at once

Outside of the Beta and gamma as

they can penetrate the
body ... are the body and damage
most delicate organs. Alpha is
less dangerous because
dangerous it can't penetrate

alpha sources do all

Inside of the their damage in very
body, which localised areas.
radiation is the Contamination is a
bigger threat than
most dangerous? irradiation for alpha
The lower the the safer it
activity of a
radioactive is to be
source around
Two sources that The longer half life will
produce the same be more dangerous
type of radiation because the shorter
that start with the half life will have fallen
same activity ... more in less time

Is safer but if it has

Something a long half life, it is
with a low more dangerous
over a period of
initial activity time

Find a balance between a

When choosing source with the right
a radioactive amount of activity for the
right amount of time which
source for an isn't too dangerous.
Planning of storage is
application needed
 A weak source of alpha radiation is
How do placed close to two electrodes. The
source causes ionisation of air and
smoke a current of charged particles flows.
If there is a fire the smoke will
absorb the charged particles to
alarms work? sound the alarm when the current
decreases

It can be irradiated
Food with to kill microbes.
gamma This means that
the food doesn't go
rays bad too quickly

Can be
Medical sterilised
equipment with
without being
gamma rays boiled

It doesn't involve high

Why is temperatures so fresh fruit or
medical equipment can be
irradiation a totally sterilised without being
damaged. The source used
good method of needs to be strong with a long
half life so it doesn't need
sterilisation? replacing too often
 Certain
radioactive
isotopes can be Tracers
used as

gamma-emitting source is
How do injected into the patient,
and its progress is
medical followed around the body
using an external detector.
tracers work? Can be used to diagnose
conditions

All isotopes Beta or gamma emitters

not alpha so the
that are taken radiation doesn't cause
into the body too much damage. Shirt
half life so doesn't harm
must be for too long

gamma Used in industry

to detect leaks
emitting and underground
tracer pipes.
 Beta Thickness control. You direct
radiation through the paper and
put a detector on the other side

radiation is connected to the control unit.

The control unit detects the
amount of radiation and adjusts
used in the rollers to flatten the correct
thickness

Why does beta It's partly

have to be used
in thickness blocked so that
control it's picked up

(positron emission
PET tomography) is a
technique used to show
tissue function and can
scanning diagnose medical
conditions

- Injection of FDG/carbon

How does radioactive isotope.

- Diffuses to area of interest.
- Decays releasing positively
PET work? charged particles (positron).
- Meets electron, releasing 2
gamma rays (measured).
 Short half lives but
Isotopes not too low to be
used in gone by the time
they are at the
PET have hospital

internal Radioactive material is placed near

a tumour and alpha emitters
(injected) kill the cancerous cells

radiation and limited damage to surrounding

cells. Beta is used in implants which
penetrates the implant casing

therapy before damaging surrounding cells.

Shirt half lives to limit damage

Beams of gamma rays (or

How can sometimes x rays or
tumours be protons) are aimed at the
tumour. Sometimes
treated damages healthy cells.
Kept in designated rooms
externally to keep people safe

What is A type of nuclear

reaction that is used to
release energy from
nuclear large and unstable
atoms by splitting them
fission? into smaller atoms
 In a chain reaction, one or
Chain more of the neutrons
released in fission goes on
reaction to cause fission of another
nucleus, which releases
(fission) more neutrons which can
then cause further fission.

Slow moving neutron is fired at an

How does unstable nucleus and it's absorbed which
causes the atom to split. It forms two new
daughter nuclei and energy is released.
nuclear fission There are many different pairs of atoms
that they can split into but all these new
nuclei are radioactive. Each time uranium
happen splits up it spits out 2or 3 neutrons which
can hit other nuclei

Fuel A cylindrical tube

that encloses
nuclear fuel within
rods a nuclear reactor

Thermal Slow
moving
neutrons neutrons
Moderator Like
in a fission
reactor graphite
What do Slow down the
moderators do fast moving
in the reactor? neutrons

What are neutron-absorbing

rods that help control
control the reaction by limiting
the number of free
rods neutrons

A lot of fissions
What would which could
happen without lead to
control rods explosions
Nuclear power
stations are
Nuclear
powered by reactors
Is transferred to thermal
Energy store of moderator then to
the coolant then to the
released cold water in the boiler
then the kinetic energy of
by fission the steam to push turbine
creating electricity

What is the process of

combining lightweight
nuclear nuclei to make heavier
nuclei. E.g hydrogen
fusion forming helium

The heavier Two separate light

nucleus does not nuclei did so some
have as much mass is converted
mass as the to energy
 Really high pressure and
Conditions temperatures (100000000)
to overcome the
electrostatic repulsion from
of fusion the two positively charge
nuclei being close

No material can
why is it hard withstand the
to get fusion temperature so
hard and
conditions expensive

A few experimental
Any fusion ones but none produce
more electricity than it
reactors? needs to get the
temperature

They think it's dangerous

Why do people and can't be disposed
safely. They have long half
not like nuclear lives so are radioactive for
energy years so can leak and
cause disasters
Positives Pretty safe, reliable, no fossil
fuels, no carbon dioxide or
sulfur dioxide and huge
of nuclear amounts of electricity from
small amounts, cheap and
readily available (high cost to
power set up and keep safe tho)

If something Most likely to

knock electrons
is highly from an atom
ionising it is forming an ion

A particle detector
Geiger that is used with a
counter to
muller tube measure count
rate.

50% radon gas

Percentages 14% medical
14% ground
of background 11.5% food
10% cosmic radiation - space
0.2% nuclear weapons
radiation 0.2% plane travel
0.1% nuclear power stations
 Different
isotopes of an
Different
element have half lives
What is the Everything
solar that orbits
system the sun

What are Large objects that orbit a star

There are 8 in our solar system
Their gravity is strong enough
to have pulled in any nearby
planets objects apart from their natural
satellites

Order of Mercury, Venus,

planets from Earth, Mars,
the sun Jupiter, Saturn,
outwards Uranus, Neptune
What are Planet-like objects that
orbit stars, but don't meet
dwarf all of the rules for being a
planet
They're basically too small
planets? to be a planet e.g. Pluto

Smaller objects
Moons that orbit a
planet, natural
satellite

Artificial Man-made objects

that revolve around
planets. Usually
satellites earth

rocky metallic objects

that orbit the sun but are
Asteroids too small to be
considered planets.
Usually found in
asteroid belt
 balls of ice, rock,
and dust in
Comets space with a tail.
Highly elliptical

The planets
move around
Circular
the sun in a... orbit
An object in a
circular orbit at Constantly
a constant accelerating
speed is

What is a force that acts on a

body moving in a
circular path and is
centripetal directed toward the
center around which the
force? body is moving.
 They are already
Why do planets accelerating so the
centripetal force just
orbiting the sun causes its circular
not fall in motion due to its
instantaneous velocity

What force
cause plants
to travel
Gravity
Weight of the gravitational
field strength at
an object the point where
depends on the object is

Gravitational Mass of the body

creating the field.
field strength Larger mass =
depends on larger gfs
What else does Distance. The closer
gravitational you are to a start or
planet, the stronger
field strength the gravitational field
depend on strength

the larger the

The instantaneous velocity
needed to balance it. So
stronger the closer you are to a star
or a plant, the fates you
the force need to go to remain in
orbit

If the speed The size of

of a planet its orbit
changes must too
Faster moving
objects will smaller
radius than slower moving
move in a stable objects.
orbit with a..
 suggested that
geocentric sun,moon,planets and stars all
orbited the earth in perfect
model of the circles due to people not having
telescopes and seeing the sun
and moon travelling across the
solar system sky each night at the same
way. Ancient Greeks 1500s

the idea that the

Heliocentric earth and the other
planets revolve
Theory around the sun in
perfect circles

When looking at Jupiter

Galileo with a Telescope, noticed
evidence on stars in a line near it and
noticed that they always
the heliocentric moved with Jupiter which
showed that not everything
model orbited the sun

How did Due to

evidence for
the heliocentric technological
model increase advances
 Planets orbit the sun but
Current the orbits are elliptical not
circular and the sun isn't
model of actually at the centre if the
universe. (Diagrams show
solar system circles to make it easy
though)

The
universe is expanding

Steady the universe has always existed

and always will, in the state it is
in now. As the universe
State expands, new matter is created
so the density is roughly the
same so there is no beginning
Theory or end to the universe

The theory that the universe

Big Bang originated as a small piece of

matter that was very dense and hit
so there was a huge explosion that
released all matter and energy

Theory causing expansion which is still

happening. This gives a finite age
for the universe which is 13,8 billion
years
Which creation
of the universe
Big bang
is accepted theory
Different Different
elements frequencies
absorb of light

Each Specific pattern of dark

lines at the frequencies
element that it absorbs in the
visible light part of the
produces EM spectrum

When we look When we look

at light from at light from
distant distant
galaxies we see.. galaxies we see..
 Red The increase in the
wavelength of light coming
from the galaxies and the

shift patterns shifts towards the

red end of the spectrum

Red shift is Vroom form a racing car

because it sounds lower
the same pitched when travelling
away from you because
effect as the the frequency drops

Measurements That all the distant

galaxies are
of the red shifts moving away from
suggest us very quickly

More distant galaxies

have greater red
the
shifts. What does this
indicate about the
universe is
universe expanding
 Scientists have Low frequency
electromagnetic radiation.
detected...coming Mainly microwaves known
from all parts of as cosmic microwave
background radiation
the universe (CMB radiation)

Both the steady

state and the Red
Big Bang
theory explain shift
In both steady Objects are
state and the moving away from
Big Bang the observer as the
theory universe expands

The Big Bang theory

CMB because it shows that
the universe had a
radiation only beginning so this is why
supports the Big Bang theory is
our current theory
 The first Stars initially
form a cloud of
stage of a dust and gas
star's life called a nebula

2nd stage Force of gravity

pulls the dust and
of a star's gas together to
life form a prostar

how is a The temperature rises as the star

gets denser and more particles
collide with each other. When the
prostar temperature gets high enough,
hydrogen nuclei undergo fusion to
form helium nuclei which gives out
formed? a lot of energy keeping the star hot

Third stage Long stable period where the

outward pressure caused by
thermal expansion balances the

of a stars force of gravity pulling it inwards.

This is the main sequence of a star
and lasts for billions of years. The

life heavier the star, the shorter it's in

this period.
 The energy
Thermal produced by
nuclear fusion tries
expansion to expand the star

4th stage The hydrogen core begins to run out and

the force due to gravity is larger than the
thermal expansion pressure. The star is
then compressed until it's dense and hot

of a star's enough that hydrogen in its outer layers

and helium in its core can fuse again.
This makes more thermal expansion so

life
the star begins to expand becoming a red
giant if it's small or a red supergiant if it's
a big star.

Why do stars the surface

become red? cools

A small/medium sized star

5th stage like the sun becomes
unstable and ejects its
of a stars outer layer of dust and gas
which leaves behind a
life hot,dense and solid core
(white dwarf)
 Supernovas. They start to glow
Instead of white brightly as they undergo more
fusion to make heavier
dwarfs, red elements. They expand and
contract several times as the
supergiants balance shifts between gravity
and thermal expansion until
become they explode into a supernova

When a Outer layers of dust and gas

are thrown out into space
leaving a very dense core
supernova called a neutron star. If the
star is massive enough, it will

explodes collapse and become a black

hole

A super dense
What is a point in space
black hole? that not even light
can escape from

A device built to
observe distant
telescope objects by making
them appear closer
 Refraction and
Telescopes reflection to
use allow you to see
distant objects

How to improve Increase the

the quality of the aperture of the
telescope or use a
image using a higher quality
telescope objective lens

Diameter of the
Aperture of objective lens
a (which is the big
lens at the end
telescope where light enters)

The earths atmosphere

What gets in because it absorbs a lot of
the way when the light coming from
space before it can reach
trying to detect us so you have to go
above the earths
light atmosphere to see these
 Light thrown up in
light the sky from street
lamps etc makes it
pollution hard to pick out
dim objects

Can reflect and

Air absorb light
coming from
pollution space

To get the best A telescope should be

view as on top of a mountain so
there's less atmosphere
possible on above it and in a dark
earth place or put it in space

Used to look at objects

optical close by in other
galaxies. Many objects
aren't detectable using
telescope visible light so optical
telescope didn't work
 Help see violent,
X-ray high temperature
events in space
telescope like exploding stars

Helped discover cosmic

Radio microwave background
radiation to help
scientists learn about
telescopes the origins of the
universe

Better resolution and can

Bigger gather more light so we
can see faint objects.
telescopes Improved magnification
means that we can look
give us further into space to
discover more galaxies

Modern Work with computers to

create clear and sharp
images so we don't
telescopes need as many humans
and can analyse the
often date 24 hours a day
 For every A neutron in
the nucleus has
beta particle turned into a
emitted... proton

Advantage of Not penetrating enough

to leave smoke alarm to
alpha radiation harm people
in smoke Ionising enough to
ionise the air molecules
alarms between metal plates

Where are
elements
heavier than supernova
iron produced

A type of decay in which

Beta plus an unstable nucleus of
an atom emits a
decay beta-plus particle (a
positron) and a neutrino.
 Momentum of a system
remains constant when
Conservation there are no net external
forces acting on it. So
of momentum this also pr bed
Newton's third law

Which way
does the toward
centripetal the center
force act

Red shift: light from distant

Evidence galaxies is shifted towards
the red side of the spectrum
that universe where wavelength is longer
showing that objects are
is expanding moving away from us so
universe is expanding

Evidence that CMBR - microwave

radiation left over from
universe began beginning. Move faster
further away. Microwaves
from a single because of cooling
point detected all over the sky
 How are Intentionally by humans
usually an oscillating
radio waves electric field. Alternating
current in electrical
produced circuits

Randomly from
How are radioactive decay from
nucleus. From energy
gamma rays changes to stabilise
nucleus and released by
produced? fission and fusion

What happens Proton

in the nucleus
when it emits become a
positron? neutron star

What happens to
the rate of reaction it
if the temperature
is INCREASED? increases
What to consider It is a vector so
when working out right is negative
change in and left is
momentum positive

Why do To increase the

moderators amount of
slow down collisions for
neutrons? fission