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CONTENT
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CHAPTER -1 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
Three basic particles are
Proton – Positively charged relatively heavy atomic particle. Inside the nucleus.
Neutron – Close to the same size and weight of Proton. In weight heavier than proton. No charge.
Inside the nucleus.
Electron - Negative charge. Lightest in weight. Outside the nucleus.
For a chargeless atom, number of protons inside the nucleus is same as the number of electrons
outside the nucleus.
The number of protons inside a nucleus is called atomic number (Z).
The sum of proton and neutron is called mass number.
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CHAPTER – 2 RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
Isotope – Two atoms are having same atomic number but different mass number is called
Isotopes.
Isotopes are available in nature but isotopes are also can be made artificially.
These artificial isotopes are created by bombarding an element with swarms of neutrons. Since
large numbers of free neutrons are given off by the atomic fission process, a nuclear reactor is an
ideal place to make new isotopes. After being exposed for a time to the high concentration of
neutrons in a nuclear reactor, the atoms of the basic element will absorb extra neutrons. The mass
number of these atoms has increased. The number of protons remains the same so the changed
atom is still the same element, but it is a different type, or isotope, or the element.
When a new isotope is content with its form, when the extra neutron dose not upset the balance in
the nucleus, the isotope is said to be ‘stable’. It just stays the way it is.
An unstable atom will disintegrate or decay into a more stable form – by disintegrate we don’t
mean that it falls apart; what we do mean is that the atom throws of or emits tiny particles or bits of
energy until it is again stable. Such atoms, the ones that are unstable, are said to be radioactive.
A number of radioactive isotopes (radioisotopes) are found in nature. Like radium.
In recent years, since scientists have had access to nuclear reactors, whole families of new
radioactive isotopes have been created. The process of creating artificial radioisotopes is called
ACTIVATION. A stable isotope is activated in a nuclear reactor by causing free neutrons to
penetrate the nuclei of the atoms and thereby increase mass number number. The resulting new
isotope is unstable, or radioisotope.
Some of these new artificial radioisotopes decay so rapidly that their presence is difficult to detect.
Others have longer lives and, depending on their other characteristics, are very useful for many
scientific and industrial applications. Radiography is one use for certain radioisotopes.
Therefore unstable isotopes will seek stability through a process of decay or disintegration – they
are radioactive. During the decay process, tiny particles traveling at high speeds are emitted and/
or energy in the form of waves is given off.
All of this radiation – particles and waves – comes from the nucleus of the radioactive atom.
During the decay of radioactive materials ‘alpha’ and ‘beta’ particles are emitted. After emission of
‘alpha’ and ‘beta’ particles, the excess energy is emitted in the form of gamma ray. Gamma ray is
a kind of wave. It has no weight.
‘Alpha’ s composed of two protons and two neutrons.
‘Beta’ is a very light particle – actually a chargeless high-speed electron.
The alpha particle emission results a new element with two less protons and with a mass number
four less than the original.
The process of beta particle emission is different. During beta particle emission, a neutron is
changed to a proton and during the process one chargeless electron is produced. This chargeless
electron is called beta particle. Therefore, due to the beta emission, a new element is produced
with same mass number and one more atomic number.
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Alpha and beta particles are of no value in radiography. When working with radioactive isotopes,
only the gamma rays are of any use to the radiographer.
To summarize the common modes or processes of radioactive decay, a radioactive atom,

depending on its type, can decay by one of the following means:
1. Alpha emission only

2. Beta emission only.
3. Alpha emission with associated gamma ray emission.
4. Beta emission with associated with gamma ray emission.
There are other decay patterns that occur, but they are not common ad will not be discussed here.
It should be mentioned here that any one radioactive isotope will decay according to a
characteristic pattern. For example, a quantity of thulium 170 (Tm-170) will always emit beta
particles within a certain predictable range of energies plus gamma rays of a specific energy. No
other isotope has exactly the same decay pattern.
It should also be mentioned that the product of radioactive decay may also be radioactive. For
example, when radium decays, it gives off a alpha particle and becomes the radioactive element
radon. The radon in turn decays into other radioactive elements in a series of disintegration until
finally it becomes a stable isotope of lead, Pb- 206.
All of the new elements that results from radioactive decay, whether they are radioactive or stable,
are called DAUGHTER PRODUCTS of the original radioactive isotope.
Now there is a question- where is the energy coming from that is given to the atomic particles that
are ejected, and where dose the energy originate that is given off as gamma rays?
This can be explained by Albert Einstein’s atomic mass energy conversion formula
E = m c2
In this equation E is energy, m is mass, and c is the speed of light.
This conversion is the basis on which the atomic ad hydrogen bombs work.
The basic unit for describing the activity (radioactivity) of a quantity of radioactive material is the
‘curie’
A quantity of radioactive material is said to have an ‘activity’ of one curie When 37 billion of its
atoms disintegrate in one second.
Ie, 1 curie = 3.7 X 1010 disintegration / sec.
The activity in curies, of 1 gram of any radioactive source is known as the SPECIFIC ACTIVITY of
the source.
The rate at which a radioactive isotope decays is commonly measured in “half life”.
The half life of an isotope is the time it takes for 1/2 of the atoms of the isotope to disintegrate.
Half life of few radio-isotopes
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Cesium 137 (Cs-137) 30 years

Radium 226 (Ra-226) 1620 years
Cobalt 60 (Co 60) 5.3 years
Thulium 170 (Tm-170) 130 days
Iridium 192 (Ir- 192) 75 days
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CHAPTER 3 – CHARACTERISTIC OF X RAYS & GAMMA RAYS
There are two kinds of radiation used in radiography, gamma rays and X rays. Gamma radiation,
as we know, is one of the products on nuclear disintegration or decay of radioactive elements. X
rays are produced artificially in a high voltage electron tube.
X rays and gamma rays are not bits of matter or particles as are alpha and beta radiation. X rays
and gamma rays have no mass or weight. Instead, they are wave of energy. They are invisible,
have no order and can not be felt. In other words, normal senses can not detect X rays or gamma
rays.
X ray and gamma rays are the part of an electromagnetic spectrum. Here is a electromagnetic
spectrum
Electromagnetic spectrum
COSMIC X RAYS ULTRA- VISIBLE LIGHT INFRARED SHORT WAVE

RAYS AND VIOLET RAYS RADIOS
GAMMA
RAYS
Decreasing Wave length Increasing
The waves we are talking about may be represented like this
Wave length
Figure 1
As X rays and gamma rays have no electrical charge, they are not influenced by electrical fields
and will therefore travel in straight line.
They are traveling in the speed of light.
The number of electromagnetic waves of a ray that pass a given point in one second is called the
“frequency” of that particular ray.
One wave length is the distance between successive troughs or successive peaks.
The high energy ray has more energy than the low frequency ray. Each wave has the same
energy, but in a high frequency ray there are more waves and, therefore more energy.
HIGH FREQUENCY, SHORT WAVE LENGTH, X AND GAMMA RAYS HAVE MORE ENERGY
THAN LOW- FREQUENCY, LONG WAVE LENGTH RAYS.
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The energy of X rays and gamma rays are measured in kilo electron volts (Kev) or in million
electron volts (Mev).
An electron volt is an amount of energy equal to the energy gained by one electron when it is
accelerated by one volt.
ISOTOPE RAY ENERGIES (Mev)
Cobalt 60 (Co-60) 1.17, 1.33
Iridium 192 (Ir 192) 0.31 Mev, 0.47 Mev, 0.60 Mev
Thulium 170 (Tm 170) 0.084 Mev, 0.052 Mev
Cesium 137 (Cs 137) 0.66 Mev
X-ray Intensity is controlled by the voltage that is applied to the X-ray tube.
The intensity of the X-ray is controlled by current. Intensity of X-ray is directly proportional the
current.
Voltage has little effect on the intensity of the X-ray.
The energy of an X-ray and gamma ray determines by its penetrating ability.
Gamma ray intensity depends on the activity or curie strength of the isotope.
Sometimes electromagnetic radiation acted like particles. Therefore a new idea was presented
that described electromagnetic radiation in term of energy. The parcels of energy were called
“quanta”. The idea of quanta is very useful in explaining some of the properties of electromagnetic
radiation. And today it is an accepted part of scientific knowledge on the subject.
The word “quanta” is also called as “photon”.
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CHAPTER 4 – INTERACTION WITH MATTER – ABSORPTION AND SCATTER
When X-ray penetrates a material, they are being absorbed by a process known as “ionization”.
The X-ray creates “ions” in the materials they pass through, and their energy is lost during the
process.
Basically an ion is an atom, a group of atoms, or an atomic particle with either a positive or
negative charge.
When an X-ray collides with an orbital electron in the penetrated material, it transfers some or all
of its energy to the electron and knocks it out of its atom.
The absorption of photons by the substances and knocking out of electrons from the atom is called
ionization.
There are ways other than ionization in which photons are absorbed, but they involve photon
energies outside the limits that the radiographer will normally use.
Ionization of atoms by X rays takes place in two different ways – Photoelectric Effect and
Compton Effect.
Photoelectric effect involves the complete absorption of the photon during the process of
knocking an electron out of orbit. It occurs primarily with lower energy X-ray photons of 10
kev to 500 kev.
In photoelectric effect the outer most orbital electron is ejected from the atom. The excess energy
of the photon is given to it in the form of kinetic energy or speed.
Compton Effect
Compton effect is a logical extension of the photoelectric effect, the difference being that the initial
photon energies are generally higher. In this case all the energies are not utilized to remove and
accelerate an electron. When the electron is ejected, there is still some excess, unused energy.
This excess energy takes the form of a new photon that has a longer wave length than the original
photon and moves off on a new path.
High Energy Photon Excess Energy Ejected electron

--
----- New path
New Photon
Of longer wavelength
COMPTON EFFECT Figure 2
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For example, suppose penetrating photon has an energy of 450 Kev. The photon removes an
electron that has a binding energy of 12 kev and gives the electron a boost of 80 kev. The photon
takes a new path in a different direction and has an energy equal to:
450 Kev – 12 Kev – 80 Kev = 358 Kev
A portion of the original photon energy has been absorbed by the penetrated material through the
process of ionization.
In the next step, the redirected photon will interact with matter and its energy will be absorbed in
exactly the same manner as any photon from the original X – ray beam. In fact, the photon may go
through several Compton effect actions before its energy is completely absorbed.
The change in the direction at which the new photons proceed after colliding with an electron
depends on the energy in the photon. The change in direction follows a very definite pattern.
Higher the photon energy, the smaller the change in course for the new photon.
After a Compton effect collision very high-energy photons will take a path that is very close to the
original path, but the path is never the same. In other words, high energy photons change direction
very little.
A low-energy photon, even if it results from the first Compton effect collision, will take a path that is
considerably different from the original. Very low energy photons may even move in an opposite
direction.
The Compton effects and photoelectric effects appear to cause the X ray beam to scatter. The
effect on the X ray beam of all those Compton effects, is called secondary radiation or Compton
scatter.
Compton scattering is taken place with moderate-energy photons (about 0.3 to 3.0 Mev).
Pair Production
Pair production is the mode of interaction predominat for high energy photons (above 3.0 Mev)
and high atomic number absorbers. Such interactions are most often important in radiography that
uses machine sources of radiation for radiography of very thick walled steel vessels. High energy
photons may convert into an electron and a positron (positively charged electron mass) when
passing near the nucleus of a large atom, like lead. The creation of the two particles requires 1.02
Mev, which is then the threshold energy for the conversion. Any energy above this amount is
sheared by the two particles as kinetic energy. Each particles loses its kinetic energy by ionization
and excitation. The positron is annihilated at the end of its path, and two 0.51 mev photons are
released in order to converse momentum. The two 0.51 Mev photons travel in opposite directions
and interact by photoelectric or Compton scatter.
E+
E0 E0 = E+ + E- + 2mc2
PAIR PRODUCTION
Figure 3 Page 10 of 52 E-
Attenuation:
The absorption of beta particles, neutrons, X-ray photons and gamma photons can be described
by similar mathematical expression
I = I0 e - µd
I0 is the incident gamma intensity.

I is the transmitted gamma intensity
µ is the linear absorption coefficient (a constant)
d is the absorber thickness
Inverse Square law:
The inverse square law describes the reduction in radiation intensity when no absorber is present
and the source of radiation approximates a point. In such a case, the radiation intensity decreases
as the square of the distance from the source; ie, inversely with the square of the distance. The
inverse square law is expressed mathematically as
I1 (d12) = I2 (d22)
I1 represents intensity at d1
I2 represents intensity at d2
Half Life
This property is treated mathematically as
N = N0 e –λt
N0 is the original quantity

N is the quantity at time t
λ is the decay constant
T is the time of decay
The decay constant is equivalent to
Λ = 0.693 / T
0.693 is the natural log 2, and T is the half-life.
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CHAPTER V – X- RAY GENERATION
Minimum requirements for the generation of X-ray –
 A source of electron
 A means of propelling the electrons at high speed
 A target to receive the impact of the electrons
The electrons are propelled to high velocities because the energy of the electron is its velocity.
The higher the velocity of the bombarding electron, the higher the energy of the X-rays that are
produced and the lower the velocity of the bombarding electron, the lower the energy of the X-rays
that are produced.
A heated wire filament will serve as a source of free electrons.
A piece of high metal is placed at a short distance. In order to attract the negative charged
electrons the metal piece is given a high positive charge with respect to filament wire. This is
called anode. If the positive charge of anode is increased, the speed of the electrons also
increased. The high positive charge of the anode means the speeding the electrons.
To complete the third requirement, a target material is required. This is usually accomplished by
embedding a special target material (usually tungsten) into the anode.
This arrangement gives the electron a suitable target to bombard for the production of X radiation.
Upon collision of high speed electrons with target material, the high-speed electron may collide
with an electron that is in orbit around the nucleus of one of the atoms. This will impose excitation
energy from the high speed electron to the orbital electron. The excitation energy imposed upon
the orbital electron will cause the electron to either leave the atom entirely or change its orbital
position. In both the cases the high speed electron gives up some of its energy to the orbital
electron. The orbital electron in turn must rid itself of this excess energy and dose so in the form of
X radiation. Radiation generated as a result of the collision of the two electrons is termed
characteristic radiation, referring to the characteristic energy level between the orbital electrons.
Generally characteristic X rays possess low energy and thus have little value in radiography.
These low-energy rays will cause scatter and have too little power to penetrate materials.
The energy of the characteristic X radiation is not determined by the energy of the bombarding
electron. The energy of the characteristic X- ray will be the amount of energy given up by an orbital
electron as it fills a vacancy in one of the electron ring.
Bremsstrahlung (Continuous X-ray)
Upon entering the area of the target, the high-speed electron continues towards the centre of the
atom. As the electron approaches the nucleus, its negative charge reacts with the positively
charged nucleus and a deflection towards the nucleus occurs. This deflection (curving) is
accompanied by a braking (slowing) of the electron, which diminishes its energy. The energy lost
is given off as bremsstrahlung or a continuous energy. These are called continuous because the
energy spectrum is continuous. That is the energy of continuous X ray range from near zero to the
maximum energy of the high-speed electron.
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PATH
OF
HIGH
SPEED
ELECTRON BRAKING AND CURVING OF HIGH-SPEED
ELECTRON
X-RAY
Figure 4
The energy of continuous X-rays is dependent upon three

factors. These are
1. The energy of the high-speed electron. The

maximum X-ray energy is limited to the rare instance where an
electron is fully braked and gives off an X ray equal to its total energy lost.
2. The density of the target material. The greater the density, the greater the
number of protons in the nucleus and the
greater the
attraction force that brakes or deflects the electron, thus, the greater the possible of X-ray energy.
CHARACTERISTIC X RAY
CONTINUOUS X-RAY
LOW – ENERGY – HIGH
0 KEV SPEED OF ELECTRON ENERGY (KEV) 300 KEV Figure 5
3. The distance from the electron’s path to the braking nucleus. Attraction force decreases as the
distance increases.
Page 13 of 52
Therefore, characteristic X-ray is low, while the continuous X-ray energy ranges from low to the
maximum of the high-speed electron. High speed electrons react with the nucleus of the atom for
continuous X-ray generation.
Remember: Characteristic X ray generated by the interaction of the high speed electron and the
orbital electrons. Continuous X rays are generated by the interaction of the high speed electron
and nucleus.
CATHODE GLASS ENVELOPE FLOW OF ELECTRON

FOCUSING CUP VACUM
ANODE
FILAMENT
TARGET WINDOW
Figure 6
Page 14 of 52
CHAPTER – 6 RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS
Radiographic Image Quality
The information about the specimen which is radiographed, is contained in the radiographic image
of that specimen. Therefore the test specimen’s information accuracy is depending upon the
quality of the radiograph. The quality of a radiograph is determined by its radiographic sensitivity.
Radiographic sensitivity is a qualitative term used to refer the smallest discontinuity that can be
seen in a radiograph.
Radiographic sensitivity is a combination of the factors of contrast and definition of the

radiograph.
Radiographic contrast is defined as the difference of densities of two areas of a radiograph.

Radiographic contrast is again sub-divided into subject contrast and film contrast.
Subject Contrast
Subject contrast is the ratio of radiation intensities transmitted by two selected portion of a
specimen.
As the energy level of the radiation is increased, the radiation becomes more penetrating. In some
cases high energy radiation may not be suitable.
Example, a test specimen having two steps of 0.5 inch and 1.0 inch is to be radiographed. For
radiography, the energy is selected which is suitable to penetrate up to 0.5 inch. In this case the
image of 1 inch thick portion will be washed out. In case a energy is selected which is suitable for
1 inch., the image of 0.5 inch portion will be totally black. Though both the cases are
representating higher subject contrast, but both the situations are not suitable for producing
acceptable radiography for that specific test specimen. To overcome such crisis, a radiation
source with suitable energy level can be used for penetrating both the thickness in order to get
acceptable radiograph of both the sections in one radiograph.
Using of this energy level will reduce the subject contrast. In other words we can say that as the
radiation energy is increased, the ration of photons transmission through the thicker portion to that
of the thinner section is decreased to give a lower subject contrast. The resulting film images will
have lower radiographic sensitivity.
Subject contrast therefore depends primarily on the shape of the specimen but as a
parameter that can be altered by choice of energy level.
Another factor affecting radiographic contrast is that of scattered radiation reaching the film and
raising overall background level. The fog resulting from such scatter radiation is not a subject
contrast factor but usually is lumped in with subject contrast when considering those factors
affecting overall radiographic contrast. Scattered radiation can lower image contrast and details
and can be considered as noise. It is always desiring to adopt proper precautions in order to
reduce scattered radiation to enhance signal- to- noise ratio of a radiograph.
Film Contrast
The radiographic contrast which is provided by the film is called film contrast. Each film type has a
characteristic exposure-density relationship. Study of this characteristic curve was first performed
on a radiographic film on 1890 by Hurter and Driffeled and is referred to us as H&D curve. The H &
D curve is a graph of the film density as a function of the logarithm of relative exposure. Relative
Page 15 of 52
exposure is used because there is no convenient unit for expressing exposure for all energy levels
and other exposure conditions. The logarithm is taken to compress the scale.
4.0
3.0
DENSITY
D2 A
2.0
1.0
θ
D1
O B
0.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
LOG E1 LOG E2
LOG RELATIVE EXPOSURE
Figure 7 Characteristic curve of a typical industrial X-ray film
Furthermore the ratio of the exposures is more significant in radiography rather than exposure
themselves. Pairs of exposures having the same ratio will be separated by the same interval on
the log relative exposure scale without mattering the actual exposure.
Whenever ionizing radiation (X-ray, gamma rays or light) strikes a photographic emulsion, an
effect can occur in the chemical or physical structure in the silver halide grains in the sensitive
emulsion. When such exposed film is developed, a reaction takes place such that the affected
halide grains are reduced to metallic silver. The result of this effect is to blacken the film emulsion.
The quantitative measurement of this film blackness is referred by photographic or film
density.
The film density is defined by:
D = log10 lo / lt
Where, D = Film density

lo = The incident light intensity
lt = The transmitted light intensity
According to above formula a density of 0 means 100% transmission, 1 means 10% of light
transmission and 2 means 1% of light transmission. Radiographic density is measured by a
densitometer. Densitometers generally use photoelectric detectors and provide a readout average
density over the area of the sensing aperture.
In the figure 7 of the characteristic curve, (D2- D1) denotes the subject contrast and the film
contrast is denoted by the formula : (D2- D1)/ (LOG E2 – LOG E1)
The slope or the gradient (tan θ) of the characteristic curve changes along the length of the curve.
The slope of a characteristic curve influences the change in contrast on the film due to a given
exposure ratio. The greater contrast change occurring when the slope is greater. A small change
in exposure results in a small change in contrast at a low slope but the same exposure change
Page 16 of 52
may result in a wide change in contrast if that exposure change occurs at the greater slope area of
that characteristic curve.
At figure 8, the effect of same

D1 exposure change is shown in two
different sloped area of same
characteristic curve. At low slope area
the contrast is D2 where as at high
D2 slope area the contrast is D1.
∆E ∆E
The
Figure 8 shape of
a
characteristic curve is insensitive to the change in the radiation quality but it is affected by change
in degree of development that is the type and temperature of developer and time of development.
Within limit, an increase in the degree of development results in an increase in the speed and
contrast of a radiographic film. As the processing time increased from 2 to 8 minutes the
characteristic curve becomes steeper and moves to the left, corresponding to higher contrast
(slope) and speed (less exposure for a given density). The characteristic curve of a typical film
developed
for
different 8 minutes
time is 6 minutes
D
E 4 minutes
N
S 2 minutes
I
T
Y
LOG RELATIVE EXPOSURE

Figure 9
documented in figure 9.
DEFINITION
Definition is defined as the sharpness of the image outline. The boundary between two adjacent
different densities in a radiograph is determining the definition of radiograph.
Page 17 of 52
Definition of a radiograph depends on geometric factors such as focal spot size, source-film
distance, shape of specimen etc. The screen/ film limitation on image sharpness (generally refer
as unsharpness) also a factor for the definition of a radiograph.
Unsharpness of a radiograph
The two major contribution of the unsharpness are geometric unsharpness and some inherent
factor such as film, screen and processing variables.
Calculation of Geometric Unsharpness
Source
SOD = Source to object distance

OFD = Object to film distance
SOD SFD = Source to film distance
SFD F = Active dimension of the radioactive source
Ug = geometric unsharpness
OFD Ug = F X OFD
SOD
Film
Figure 11
Geometric unsharpness therefore varies directly with active dimension of radioactive source or
focal spot dimension, object to film distance (OFD) and inversely varies with Source to object
distance.
Therefore to reduce geometric unsharpness, one should use a radioactive source with minimum
dimension as possible, position the source as far as possible from the test specimen and to keep
the film as close as possible to the test specimen.
Unsharpness is also dependent on the graininess of the film, X-ray energy, type of screen, and the
contact between the screen and the film.
Page 18 of 52
To reduce exposure size by increasing the film speed, it has been found necessary to increase the
size or concentration of silver halide crystal in the photographic emulsion. At lower energy levels,
one absorbed photon will in general expose one grain of halide, regardless of size. If the crystal
has been made large to give a higher speed, then a larger area will darken upon development.
Conversely, more photons will have to be absorbed in finer grain film to produce a given amount of
darkening, meaning that the film is slower.
At higher kilo-voltage levels, one incident photon may react with several individual silver halide
grains, thereby causing an increase in graininess for a given film type and at such higher energy
levels, lead screens are generally used to intensify the image as well as to reduce scatter. This s
accompanied by the fact that lead being a heavy metal, provides a much higher probabilities of
photon absorption than bare film. A shower of photoelectrons is emitted by the lead from the point
of photon absorption. Because film is ultimately exposed by electrons in any event, photoelectrons
emitted from the lead screen result in film exposure at the pint of contact.
When the lead screens are used, extreme care must be exercised to ensure intimate contact
between screen surface and film surface otherwise, divergence of photoelectron shower will cause
an enlargement of the image formed by the incoming photon- This will result in more enlargement.
IMAGE QUALITY INDICATOR (IQI)
The quality of a radiograph is judged by the Image Quality Indicator (IQI) or Penetrameter. These
are the small devices made in set of different diameter wires (wire type IQI) or a set of holes on
different plate thickness (Hole type IQI) of a combination of holes and steps. The penetrameters
are placed inside the inspection zone or very nearer to the zone of inspection.
Various conditions as given below are mandatory to meet regarding the use of penetrameter.
1. The penetrameter material shall be of same material of the test specimen or of a material
having less penetrating capacity in compare to the test specimen.
2. Method of recording should be simple, unambiguous.
Type of IQI
Mainly two type of penetrameters are widely used in industrial radiography purpose
1. Wire type IQI

2. Hole type IQI
Wire type IQI
Wire type penetrameter consists of a series of wires of different diameter. The sets are designated
with some identification number and the wires are arranged in an ascending or descending order
of wire diameter.
The widely available wire type penetrameters are of ASTM type and DIN type. As per ASTM total
21 wires of various diameter are used in four sets. Each set contains total 6 wires with an overlap
of one wire. Each penetrameter set is designated as SET A, SET B, SET C, SET D.
Table for ASTM IQI designation, wire diameter and wire identity
SET WIRE WIRE SET WIRE DIA. WIRE SET WIRE DIA. WIRE SET WIRE DIA. WIRE
Page 19 of 52
DIA. (mm) IDENTITY (mm) IDENTITY (mm) IDENTITY (mm) IDENTITY

.08 1 0.25 6 0.81 11 2.54 16
0.10 2 0.33 7 1.02 12 3.20 17
A 0.13 3 B 0.41 8 C 1.27 13 D 4.06 18
0.16 4 0.51 9 1.60 14 5.08 19
0.20 5 0.64 10 2.03 15 6.35 20
0.25 6 0.81 11 2.54 16 8.13 21
Another kind of wire type penetrameter is DIN type. In DIN type total 16 different diameter wires
are divided in 3 sets. Each set contains 7 wires.
Table for DIN Penetrameter set and wire identification

SET Wire dia. (mm) Wire No SET Wire dia. (mm) Wire No SET Wire dia. (mm) Wire No
1 ISO 7 3.2 1 6 ISO 12 1.0 6 10 ISO 16 0.4 10
2.5 2 0.8 7 0.3 11
2.0 3 0.61 8 0.25 12
1.6 4 0.5 9 0.2 13
1.25 5 0.4 10 0.15 14
1.0 6 0.3 11 0.12 15
0.8 7 0.25 12 0.1 16
Sensitivity calculation for wire type penetrameter
n = Diameter of smallest visible wire X 100

job thickness
Hole Type Penetrameter
This type of penetrameter is made of a rectangular small plate of different thickness. The plate
thickness is specified at left side of the penetrameter with lead number in thou (TH) unit.
1 inch = 1000 thou (TH)

or 1 mm = 40 thou (TH)
At the right side of the plate, three holes of different diameter are drilled in a straight line parallel to
the larger edge of the plate surface.
If the thickness of the plate is ‘T’ then diameter of the hole are to be 1T, 2T, 4T.
Please refer figure 12 for better understanding about Hole type penetrameter.
XX
In the
4T 1T 2T figure 12,
the digit
XX is
Figure 12
specifying the thickness of the penetrameter (T) in thou (TH) unit.
Page 20 of 52
When Hole type penetrameter to be used, two things are to be consider such as thickness of the
hole type penetrameter and the required hole diameter. The required sensitivity is designated by a
level. Example, if required level is said of 1-2T, that means the thickness of the hole type
penetrameter shall be of 1% of job thickness and 2T hole of that penetrameter must have to be
visible on radiograph.
Equivalent Penetrameter Sensitivity (SE)
The Equivalent Penetrameter Sensitivity which is achieved by a hole type penetrameter is a

combination of both plaque thickness and the diameter of the required hole. The specified hole
type IQI could be replaced by another size of IQI provided by the EPS of new IQI shall be less
than or equal to the EPS of specifies IQI.
______
SE = 100 * √ T h / 2
x
x= Material thickness
T = Penetrameter Thickness
H = Essential hole diameter
SE = Equivalent Sensitivity (percentage)
Note: x, T and h should be in same unit.
General condition for the use of IQI or penetrameter
Following points are to be considered while using a penetrameter.
1. Whenever accessible, the penetrameter shall be placed at the source side of the specimen to
be tested.
2. The penetrameter’s designated hole or wire to be placed at the extreme position of the
segment to be radiographed.
3. During panoramic exposure at least 3 penetrameters are to be placed at 1200 apart.
4. IQI Selection
The penetrameter shall be selected from the same alloy group or from an alloy material group
or grade with less radiation absorption than the material being radiographed.
The designated hole IQI or essential wire shall be selected based on the nominal thinner wall
thickness of parent metal including weld reinforcement. The actual requirement is given in the
relevant code section.
5. Condition for density variation (as per ASME sec V art 2)
The density through out the section to be radiographed should be in the range of -15% to +
30% of the density adjacent to the required hole or wire diameter on the weld. If shim is used
under hole type penetrameter, the condition for 30% is to be omitted. In case shim is used, the
shim thickness should not be more than the reinforcement. The shim plate size should be
bigger than penetrameter size in both the dimensions so that the image of the boundary of
penetrameter is formed on the radiograph.
6. The wire type penetrameter to be used vertical to the weld so that the wires should cover the
entire weld.
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7. While using hole type penetrameter, the penetrameter should be placed adjacent to the weld.
At least three boundaries of the penetrameter should be visible on the radiograph.
8. Every penetrameter must contain identification number and the identification number image is
mandatory on radiograph.
FACTORS INFLUENCING RADIOGRAPHIC SENSITIVITY
Sensitivity
Radiographic Contrast
Definition
Subject Contrast Film Contrast Geometric Factors Graininess

Factors
Affected by Affected by Affected by
Affected by
a. thickness difference a. Type of film a. Focal spot/ source a. Type of film

in specimen size.
b. Film processing b. Type of screen
b. Atomic number and parameters b. Source to film
density of specimen distance c. Film
c. Radiographic development
c. Radiation quality density c. Specimen to film
distance
d. Scattered radiation d. Activity of
developer d. Sudden change in
thickness
e. Temperature of
developer.
f. Screen film contact
SCATTER RADIATION
Therefore the earlier discussion says that for the greatest radiographic sensitivity, one should use
finest grain film and an X-ray or Gamma ray source with smallest available focal spot size, and a
higher source to object distance. If the energy level is 100 KeV or higher, one would use lead
screen in spring loaded or vacuum cassettes to ensure the otmost in screen – film contact.
In any event one should suppress the scattered radiation on the film in order to have a better
sensitivity. The aim is to allow only the primary beam on the job. In order to suppressed soft
bremsstrahlung energy, the X-ray machine port is fitted with filters. A thin piece of copper or other
suitable material can be used as a filter.
In addition the beam should be collimated to irradiate only that which is necessary. Collimators of
various types are commercially available; however even a simple lead cylinder will provide
significant improvement. Positioning of such a collimator can usually be done by trial and error
method.
While the X-ray or gamma ray travels through material under test, it interacts with materials
molecules and form secondary scatter radiation with low energy. This scatter radiation is
destroying the image on the radiographic film. Therefore this is necessary to prevent the scattered
Page 22 of 52
radiation to strike on the film. In order to achieve that goal the radiographic film can be sandwiched
in a lead screen. The lead screens absorb all the soft radiations and allow only the image forming
primary radiation beam. Sometimes the test specimens are placed nearer to concrete walls or
other materials with low atomic number which can produce back scatters on the film. The back
lead screen of the film prevents most of the back scatters from striking on the film. The other
function of the lead screen is to reduce the exposure time. While radiation falls on lead screen, its
photons interact with the lead atoms and liberates electrons through photoelectric effect. The
ionization of silver halide grains in the film is mostly happened by these electrons.
In general, 0.002” to 0.005” front lead screens are used to attenuate soft radiations. In compare to
front lead screen, rare screen can be used of higher thickness.
Sometimes the edges of the specimen scatter the beam under the true image of the edge. This is
called undercutting. The use of a thin front screen will improve this condition.
BACK SCATTER ‘B’
The back scatter ‘B’ is affixed at the back side of the film.
The size of back scatter ‘B’ – length ½ “ & width 1/16”
The purpose of back scatter ‘B’ is to identify the presence of any back scatter. If the image
of back scatter ‘B’ appears with lighter density on darker back ground, it signifies the
presence of back scatter on the film and it is not accepted.
In an effort to prevent back scatter, adequate lead shielding shall be affixed at the back
side of the job.
Lead Sheet
Concrete base which delivers back scatter The arrangement of lead sheet at opposite
site of the film reduces the chance of back
CHAPTER – 7 RADIOGRAPHIC EXPOSURE TECHNIQUES
INTRODUCTION
Radiography is having wide range of application in the field of construction. It is a common

inspection tool for the inspection of quality of welds, castings and forgings. Apart from that this is
also used for some special inspection purpose. End part of this chapter lightens on the special
application of radiographic method.
Page 23 of 52
BASIC PRINCIPLE
The prime requirement of radiographic inspection is a penetrating radiation energy which either
generated by a radio-isotope or by an X-ray instrument.
The radiation energy is directed on the part to be examined while the part is holding a radiographic
film at the reverse side of it. The radiation energy creates an latent image of the part on the
radiographic film. After exposure, the film is gone through a chemical process which turns the
latent image in visible image.
Different Techniques
1. Single Wall Single Image Technique (SWSI)
2. Double Wall Single Image Technique (DWSI)
3. Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)
1 SWSI Technique-
 SWSI technique is applicable to pipe diameter 6” and above for X-ray internal crawler and
above 6” for gamma ray technique.
 Whenever possible, the penetrameter shall be placed at source side.
 For panoramic exposure at least 4 penetrameters shall be placed at 90 degree to each
other
 For single exposure at least one penetrameter shall be placed at one end for film size
below 9” and for film size 9” and above, one penetrameter shall be placed at one end and
another penetrameter at the middle.
 Minimum 1 inch coverage shall be maintained at each side of the film.

 For high thickness job, the number of exposures shall be more.
Single Film Exposure (SWSI)

Panoramic Exposure (SWSI)
2. DWSI Technique
 DWDI technique shall be applied to the pipe diameter above diameter 3”.
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 For single exposure at least one penetrameter shall be placed at one end for film size
below 9” and for film size 9” and above, one penetrameter shall be placed at one end and
another penetrameter at the middle.
Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
3. DWDI Technique
 DWDI technique is sub-divided in two groups –

o Elliptical exposure
o Superimposed exposure
Elliptical exposure technique –
 Elliptical exposure shall be adopted for job diameter from 1’ to 3”.

 Al least two exposures are to be taken at 90 0 apart with marking A & B.
 One penetrameter shall be placed for each job. Penetrameter shall be placed at source
side.
Superimposed exposure technique-
 Whenever elliptical exposure is not possible due to high thickness or complicated joint
position, superimposed technique shall be applied with at least three exposures. Moreover,
only superimposed technique shall be adopted for job diameter below 1”.
 For superimposed technique, the job shall be marked as following

- The half circum of the job shall be equally divided in three divisions and each division shall
be marked by A, B, C
 One penetrameter shall be placed for each job. Penetrameter shall be placed at source
side.
B Page 25 of 52
C
MARKING FOR SUPERIMPOSED TECHNIQUE

The area of interpretation for both elliptical and superimposed technique
A
The film
shall be interpreted in the only
shaded area of the radiograph
The number of exposures shall be as given below
Number of exposure = outer circum

2 X ID
Note: if the value of number of exposures is coming 3.12 then three exposures are to be taken.
8. PROCESSING OF EXPOSED FILMS
Exposed films are to be processed under a controlled condition. The steps are as following –
8.1 Developing- Developer is basic in nature. The developing shall be done in between 18 0C to
220C temperature. The normal developing time is 5 minutes in 20 0C temperature. In case the
temperature of the developer is increased, the developing time shall be reduced and similarly, the
developing time shall be reduced if the developer temperature is increased. In general developing
time is recommended 4 minutes at 220C temperature and 6 minutes at 180C. In any circumstance,
the developing time shall not be beyond the limit of 3 minutes to 8 minutes. Moreover, the
continuous developing of the film reduces the activity of the developer solution. Therefore,
periodically replenisher is to be added in the developer for maintaining a uniform developing time.
It is recommended that the developer is be discarded after the adding of replenisher of to three
time the original volume of the developer or after two months whichever is earlier.
In regard to developing, the films shall be shaken for first 30 sec in order to dislogged the air
bubbles on the surface of the film. In addition, films shall be shaken for first 15 sec of each minute
of developing for the renewal of the fresh developer on the surface of the film. The developer tank
shall be kept closed while no developing takes place for preventing oxidation of the developer.
The developing agent gives up electrons to convert the silver halide grains to metallic silver.
Grains that have been exposed to the radiation develop more rapidly, but given enough time the
developer will convert all the silver ions into silver metal. Proper temperature and time control are
needed to convert exposed grains to pure silver while keeping unexposed grains as silver halide
crystals.
8.2 Stop Bath- After developing, films are to be transferred into stop bath tank before sending to
fixer bath. The purpose of stop bath is to stop developing action before dipping the films to fixer
Page 26 of 52
solution. Running water can be used as stop bath. In case there is a shortage of running water,
2% diluted acetic acid (CH3COOH) can be used for acting as stop bath. The film should be kept in
stop bath for 30 seconds. Stop bath is to be changes after washing of 23000 sq. inch of film.
8.3 Fixer Solution- After stop bath, films are to be transferred to stop bath. Unexposed silver
halide crystals are removed by the fixing bath. The fixer dissolves only silver halide crystals,
leaving the silver metal behind. The fixer solution works in two steps. First the unexposed silver
halide crystals are removed. By the end of this removal process, the milky appearance of the film
turns to black. The time is needed for this operation is called clearing time. After clearing of the
unexposed silver halide grains, the fixer fixes the image. The time needed to fix the image is called
fixer time. Generally, the fixer time is twice the clearing time. The dark room light can be switched
on after clearing stage of the film processing. The fixing time is not so critical. Normally films are
fixed with in 5 to 6 minutes. In case the fixer is wick, it may take longer time. However, the fixer
time should not be more than 15 minutes. The yellowish green appearance on film is a sign of
exhaust fixer. The metallic silver can be recovered from the exhaust fixer.
The temperature of fixer and stop bath solution should be in the range of + 30C of the temperature
of developer.
8.4 Washing- After fixing , the films are to be washed properly in order to eliminate all the traces
of fixer. The residual fixer may deposit thiosulphate on the film with due course of time which
further will effect the color of the radiograph. In a result, a brown strain will appear on the
radiograph. A thiosulphate test is recommended on each film to ensure the removal of fixer after
water wash.
THE THIOSULPHATE TEST IS AS FOLLOWING-
- CHEMICAL PREPARATION
Dissolve 10 gms Silver Nitrate in a solution of 30 ml Glacial Acetic Acid in 750 mm water. Add
water to that extent to dilute the solution to 1 litre and store in a dark coloured bottle to prevent
light exposure.
- TESTING PROCEDURE
Place a drop of silver nitrate solution on a clear spot of processing film. The test shall be
conduct on both side of the radiograph. After approximately two minutes blot off the excess
solution with a piece of absorbent paper and assess the result immediately.
A strain will appear if any residual thiosulphate is present. The intensity of the strain will
approximately the maximum amount of discoloration that one side of the radiograph will ever
reach during any kind of storage condition of temperature and humidity.
- RESULT
If the test generates a strain of any degree of intensity, the radiograph shall be re-washed and
re-tested following the same procedure.
- STORAGE CONDITION OF SOLUTION
The thiosulphate solution shall be kept in a dark coloured bottle and shall be stored in dark
area to prevent light exposure which in turn may spoil the solution. For achieving a satisfactory
result, the entire test shall be performed in the radiography darkroom.
- CHEMICAL LIFE
Page 27 of 52
After every 10 days interval the chemical shall be checked to confirm its stability. A small
amount of same chemical shall be taken out from its storage condition and the color shall be
visually checked.
The chemical shall be discarded if physically appear dark. A monthly record shall be
maintained for thiosulphate test
The water temperature should not be above 30 0C. After washing, the films should be dipped in
wetting agent before left for drying. The wetting agent prevents the water drop mark on the film.
In general all the processing chemical tanks are to be kept close at idle time for preventing the
contamination from dist and dirt. Usually the algee is formed on the water tank surface which may
stick on the film and after drying, appears as a mark. Therefore, the water tanks are to be cleaned
frequently to prevent the formation of algee. Similar to water tank, the contamination in other
processing tanks also may influence marks (artefacts) on the radiograph. Therefore, similar to
water tank, the other chemical tanks also to be cleaned periodically and the chemical solutions are
to be filtered for eliminating the contaminant.
8.5 REQUIREMENTS FOR DARK ROOM
The radiographic films shall be loaded in dark room under the red light environment. Similarly the
process of exposed film is also to be carried out under red light at dark room.
The dark room shall be free from any light leakage such as light leakage from A/C, door, ventilator
or exhaust fan.
The safe light shall be incorporated with filter and to be fixed to a distance of 4” (1.25 meter) from
the working table. The dark room lights need to be calibrated periodically (once in three month) as
following-
1. One recognized branded unexposed film of dimension 70 mm X 150 mm fully covered under
film wrapper shall be placed on film cutting table. The film should be imaginarily divided in five
approximately equal divisions. The first division shall be uncovered and kept under dark room safe
light for 2 minutes. Similarly next three divisions are also to be uncovered at the interval of 2
minutes. The fifth part of the film shall remain unexposed.
2. On completion of above said dark room light exposure, the film shall be processed in
accordance with recommended developing procedure.
3. The density difference between all the divisions kept for different duration under dark room
illuminator and uncovered part shall not be more than 0.05.
4. In the event, the density difference is more than 0.05, the dark room light intensity is not
accepted. In that case, either the light is to be replaced or the additional filters are to placed behind
the red light.
The red light calibration report along with radiograph shall be recorded.
9. ARTEFACTS
Artifacts on radiographs can reduce the quality of radiograph significantly and can cause
misinterpretation if not thoroughly understood. Most film artifacts can be caused by improper film
processing and careless handling of film, screens and cassettes. In addition the film can be
partially fogged or mottled because of improper storage. Commonly occurring film artifacts are
Page 28 of 52
Artifact Cause Radiographic Appearance
Pressure Severe localized application of Lower density compare to adjacent are

mark pressure to the film before exposure
Crimp mark Sharp bending of film after exposure Crescent shape indication that is darker
than the adjacent area
Crimp mark Bending of the film abruptly before Crescent shaped indication that is
exposure lighter in density than the adjacent area.
Static marks Rapid removal of films from the box Branch-like jagged dark lines to
irregular abrupt dark spot.
Poor Poor contact between screen and Unsharp image

definition film
Spotting - Splash of fixer on film before Lower density spots compared to the
Fixer development adjacent area
Spotting- Splash of developer on film before Higher density spots compared to the
Developer development adjacent area
Hair line Hair in between screen and film Appear as white line
Screen mark Foreign material in between film and Appear as a dark line
screen or scratches in film or
scratches in lead screen
Paper marks Paper between film and screen The area behind the paper is lower in
density
Black streaks Light leaks due to faulty film holders Black streak
or Blotches or cassette
Streaking Chemicals from the prior processing Black and white streak
not adequately removed from the
hanger
Pressure Foreign matter on rollers or Dark lines and spots

mark improper roller clearance
PI Lines Transfer of minute deposits on roller Dark lines at a distance from the leading
to film edge of the film to the roller
circumference
Random Due to foreign particles falling on Black comets with tail extending in
black spots film as it enters the processor direction of film travel
Page 29 of 52
10. INTERPRETATION AND EVALUATION OF RADIOGRAPHS
Interpretation and evaluation of radiographs shall be done in a proper place. Ambient light levels
should be low. Ambient light levels of less than 2 fc are often recommended, but subdued lighting
(rather than total darkness) is preferable in the viewing room. The brightness of the surroundings
should be about the same as the area of interest in the radiograph. Room illumination must be
arranged so that there are no reflections from the surface of the film under examination.
The viewer should be enough capable to read up to 4.0 density. Moreover, viewers with foot
switch and intensity adjuster also preferable.
The difference between interpretation and evaluation
The finding of discontinuities on the radiograph is called interpretation and the comparing of
discontinuities with the applicable acceptance criteria in regard to dimension and concentration for
giving the remark on acceptance and rejection is called evaluation.
The steps of interpretation
a. Check the radiograph is free from any film mark.

b. The joint number and location marker shall be checked as per NDT request
c. Check that proper radiographic technique is applied
d. Check that the Ug value is in acceptance limit.
e. Check that as per thickness and diameter of the pipe, radiograph has taken with adequate
number of segments.
f. Check the density to the entire weld and adjacent HAZ (Heat Affected Zone) in between location
markers.
g. Check the sensitivity achieved on the radiograph.
h. Before doing interpretation, take maximum information about the welding. The TIG, GTAW
welding dose not provide slag inclusion. Be careful about the tungsten inclusion. Sometimes
tungsten inclusions are looking similar to screen mark.
i. While doing interpretation, note down the length, width and location of all discontinuities on the
radiograph. Ensure the proper acceptance criteria.
j. Evaluate the radiographs as per given acceptance criteria.

k. In case any doubt arises, consult your level III for the advice.
Page 30 of 52
Page 31 of 52
11. Weld Defects
Cold lap is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with the base metal or
the previous weld pass material (interpass cold lap). The arc does not melt the base metal
sufficiently and causes the slightly molten puddle to flow into the base material without bonding.
Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal. Porosity can take many
shapes on a radiograph but often appears as dark round or irregular spots or specks appearing
singularly, in clusters, or in rows. Sometimes, porosity is elongated and may appear to have a
tail. This is the result of gas attempting to escape while the metal is still in a liquid state and is
called wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in the material and it will have a higher
radiographic density than the surrounding area.
Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated with moisture.
The moisture turns into a gas when heated and becomes trapped in the weld during the
welding process. Cluster porosity appear just like regular porosity in the radiograph but the
indications will be grouped close together.
Page 32 of 52
Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld and
base metal. In a radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical shapes within the weld or along the
weld joint areas are indicative of slag inclusions.
Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP) occurs when the weld metal fails
to penetrate the joint. It is one of the most objectionable weld discontinuities. Lack of
penetration allows a natural stress riser from which a crack may propagate. The appearance
on a radiograph is a dark area with well-defined, straight edges that follows the land or root
face down the center of the weldment.
Incomplete fusion is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with the
base metal. Appearance on radiograph: usually appears as a dark line or lines oriented in
the direction of the weld seam along the weld preparation or joining area.
Page 33 of 52
Internal concavity or suck back is a condition where the weld metal has contracted as it
cools and has been drawn up into the root of the weld. On a radiograph it looks similar to a
lack of penetration but the line has irregular edges and it is often quite wide in the center of
the weld image.
Internal or root undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the root of the weld. In the
radiographic image it appears as a dark irregular line offset from the centerline of the
weldment. Undercutting is not as straight edged as LOP because it does not follow a ground
edge.
External or crown undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the crown of the weld.
In the radiograph, it appears as a dark irregular line along the outside edge of the weld area.
Page 34 of 52
Offset or mismatch are terms associated with a condition where two pieces being welded
together are not properly aligned. The radiographic image shows a noticeable difference in
density between the two pieces. The difference in density is caused by the difference in
material thickness. The dark, straight line is caused by the failure of the weld metal to fuse
with the land area.
Inadequate weld reinforcement is an area of a weld where the thickness of weld metal
deposited is less than the thickness of the base material. It is very easy to determine by
radiograph if the weld has inadequate reinforcement, because the image density in the area
of suspected inadequacy will be higher (darker) than the image density of the surrounding
base material.
Excess weld reinforcement is an area of a weld that has weld metal added in excess of
that specified by engineering drawings and codes. The appearance on a radiograph is a
localized, lighter area in the weld. A visual inspection will easily determine if the weld
reinforcement is in excess of that specified by the engineering requirements.
Page 35 of 52
Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are propagating in a direction that
produces a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will appear as
jagged and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes appear as "tails" on
inclusions or porosity.
Discontinuities in TIG welds

The following discontinuities are unique to the TIG welding process. These discontinuities
occur in most metals welded by the process, including aluminum and stainless steels. The
TIG method of welding produces a clean homogeneous weld which when radiographed is
easily interpreted.
Tungsten inclusions. Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material used in the
electrode in tungsten inert gas welding. If improper welding procedures are used, tungsten
may be entrapped in the weld. Radiographically, tungsten is more dense than aluminum or
steel, therefore it shows up as a lighter area with a distinct outline on the radiograph.
Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of material being welded (especially
aluminum). Oxide inclusions are less dense than the surrounding material and, therefore,
appear as dark irregularly shaped discontinuities in the radiograph.
Page 36 of 52
Discontinuities in Gas Metal Arc Welds (GMAW)
The following discontinuities are most commonly found in GMAW welds.
Whiskers are short lengths of weld electrode wire, visible on the top or bottom surface of the weld
or contained within the weld. On a radiograph they appear as light, "wire like" indications.
Burn-Through results when too much heat causes excessive weld metal to penetrate the weld
zone. Often lumps of metal sag through the weld, creating a thick globular condition on the back of
the weld. These globs of metal are referred to as icicles. On a radiograph, burn-through appears
as dark spots, which are often surrounded by light globular areas (icicles).
RADIOGRAPH INTERPRETATION - CASTINGS
The major objective of radiographic testing of castings is the disclosure of defects that adversely
affect the strength of the product. Castings are a product form that often receive radiographic
inspection since many of the defects produced by the casting process are volumetric in nature,
and are thus relatively easy to detect with this method. These discontinuities of course, are related
to casting process deficiencies, which, if properly understood, can lead to accurate accept-reject
decisions as well as to suitable corrective measures. Since different types and sizes of defects
have different effects of the performance of the casting, it is important that the radiographer is able
to identify the type and size of the defects. ASTM E155, Standard for Radiographs of castings has
been produced to help the radiographer make a better assessment of the defects found in
components. The castings used to produce the standard radiographs have been destructively
analyzed to confirm the size and type of discontinuities present. The following is a brief description
of the most common discontinuity types included in existing reference radiograph documents (in
graded types or as single illustrations).
RADIOGRAPHIC INDICATIONS FOR CASTINGS
Gas porosity or blow holes are caused by accumulated gas

or air which is trapped by the metal. These discontinuities are
usually smooth-walled rounded cavities of a spherical,
elongated or flattened shape. If the sprue is not high enough to
provide the necessary heat transfer needed to force the gas or
Page 37 of 52
air out of the mold, the gas or air will be trapped as the molten metal begins to solidify. Blows can
also be caused by sand that is too fine, too wet, or by sand that has a low permeability so that gas
can't escape. Too high a moisture content in the sand makes it difficult to carry the excessive
volumes of water vapor away from the casting. Another cause of blows can be attributed to using
green ladles, rusty or damp chills and chaplets.
Sand inclusions and dross are nonmetallic oxides, which appear on the radiograph as irregular,
dark blotches. These come from disintegrated portions of
mold or core walls and/or from oxides (formed in the
melt) which have not been skimmed off prior to the
introduction of the metal into the mold gates. Careful
control of the melt, proper holding time in the ladle and
skimming of the melt during pouring will minimize or
obviate this source of trouble.
Shrinkage is a form of discontinuity that appears as dark spots on the radiograph. Shrinkage
assumes various forms, but in all cases it occurs because molten metal shrinks as it solidifies, in
all portions of the final casting. Shrinkage is avoided by making sure that the volume of the casting
is adequately fed by risers which sacrificially retain the shrinkage. Shrinkage can be recognized a
number of characteristic by varying appearances on radiographs. There are at least four types: (1)
cavity; (2) dendritic; (3) filamentary; and (4) sponge types. Some documents designate these types
by numbers, without actual names, to avoid possible misunderstanding.
Cavity shrinkage appears as areas with distinct jagged

boundaries. It may be produced when metal solidifies
between two original streams of melt coming from opposite
directions to join a common front. Cavity shrinkage usually
occurs at a time when the melt has almost reached
solidification temperature and there is no source of
supplementary liquid to feed possible cavities.
Dendritic shrinkage is a distribution of very fine lines or small elongated cavities that may vary in
density and are usually unconnected.
Filamentary shrinkage usually occurs as a continuous structure of connected lines or branches

of variable length, width and density, or occasionally as
a network
Page 38 of 52
Sponge shrinkage shows itself as areas of lacy texture with

diffuse outlines, generally toward the mid-thickness of heavier
casting sections. Sponge shrinkage may be dendritic or
filamentary shrinkage. Filamentary sponge shrinkage appears
more blurred because it is projected through the relatively thick
coating between the discontinuities and the film surface.
Cracks are thin (straight or jagged) linearly disposed discontinuities that occur after the melt has
solidified. They generally appear singly and originate at
casting surfaces.
Cold shuts generally appear on or near a surface of cast

metal as a result of two streams of liquid meeting and
failing to unite. They may appear on a radiograph as
cracks or seams with smooth or rounded edges.
Inclusions are nonmetallic materials in a supposedly

solid metallic matrix. They may be less or more dense
than the matrix alloy and will appear on the radiograph,
respectively, as darker or lighter indications. The latter
type is more common in light metal castings.
Core shift shows itself as a variation in section

thickness, usually on radiographic views representing
diametrically opposite portions of cylindrical casting
portions.
Hot tears are linearly disposed indications that represent fractures formed in a metal during
solidification because of hindered contraction. The latter may occur due to overly hard (completely
unyielding) mold or core walls. The effect of hot tears as a stress concentration is similar to that of
Page 39 of 52
an ordinary crack, and hot tears are usually systematic flaws. If flaws are identified as hot tears in
larger runs of a casting type, they may call for explicit improvements in technique.
Misruns appear on the radiograph as prominent dense areas of variable dimensions with a
definite smooth outline. They are mostly random in occurrence and not readily eliminated by
specific remedial actions in the process.
Mottling is a radiographic indication that appears as an indistinct area of more or less dense
images. The condition is a diffraction effect that occurs on relatively vague, thin-section
radiographs, most often with austenitic stainless steel. Mottling is caused by interaction of the
object's grain boundary material with low-energy X-rays (300 kV or lower). Inexperienced
interpreters may incorrectly consider mottling as indications of unacceptable casting flaws. Even
experienced interpreters often have to check the condition by re-radiography from slightly different
source-film angles. Shifts in mottling are then very pronounced, while true casting discontinuities
change only slightly in appearance.
RADIOGRAPHIC INDICATIONS FOR CASTING REPAIR WELDS
Most common alloy castings require welding either in upgrading from defective conditions or in
joining to other system parts. It is mainly for reasons of casting repair that these descriptions of the
more common weld defects are provided here. The terms appear as indication types in ASTM
E390. For additional information, see the Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Volume 3, Section 9
on the "Radiographic Control of Welds."
Slag is nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld material and base
metal. Radiographically, slag may appear in various shapes, from long narrow indications to short
wide indications, and in various densities, from gray to very dark.
Porosity is a series of rounded gas pockets or voids in the weld metal, and is generally cylindrical
or elliptical in shape.
Undercut is a groove melted in the base metal at the edge of a weld and left unfilled by weld
metal. It represents a stress concentration that often must be corrected, and appears as a dark
indication at the toe of a weld.
Incomplete penetration, as the name implies, is a lack of weld penetration through the thickness
of the joint (or penetration which is less than specified). It is located at the center of a weld and is a
wide, linear indication.
Incomplete fusion is lack of complete fusion of some portions of the metal in a weld joint with
adjacent metal (either base or previously deposited weld metal). On a radiograph, this appears as
a long, sharp linear indication, occurring at the centerline of the weld joint or at the fusion line.
Melt-through is a convex or concave irregularity (on the surface of backing ring, strip, fused root
or adjacent base metal) resulting from the complete melting of a localized region but without the
development of a void or open hole. On a radiograph, melt-through generally appears as a round
or elliptical indication.
Burn-through is a void or open hole in a backing ring, strip, fused root or adjacent base metal.
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Arc strike is an indication from a localized heat-affected zone or a change in surface contour of a
finished weld or adjacent base metal. Arc strikes are caused by the heat generated when electrical
energy passes between the surfaces of the finished weld or base metal and the current source.
Weld spatter occurs in arc or gas welding as metal particles which are expelled during welding.
These particles do not form part of the actual weld. Weld spatter appears as many small, light
cylindrical indications on a radiograph.
Tungsten inclusion is usually denser than base-metal particles. Tungsten inclusions appear most
linear, very light radiographic images; accept/reject decisions for this defect are generally based
on the slag criteria.
Oxidation is the condition of a surface which is heated during welding, resulting in oxide formation
on the surface, due to partial or complete lack of purge of the weld atmosphere. Also called
sugaring.
Root edge condition shows the penetration of weld metal into the backing ring or into the
clearance between the backing ring or strip and the base metal. It appears in radiographs as a
sharply defined film density transition.
Root undercut appears as an intermittent or continuous groove in the internal surface of the base
metal, backing ring or strip along the edge of the weld root.
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12.0 SPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
Apart from conventional technique, special techniques are developed for specific requirements.
a. “In-Motion” Radiography
The entire length of weld can be radiographed in single exposure either on a strip of film or on a
series of overlapping films by applying this method.
The X-ray beam is restricted to a narrow angle by means of a diaphragm at the tube. The tube is
then transversed the length of the weld, each segment of the length is being radiographed only
during the time that the beam is incident on it. If there is two or more longitudinal welds, all could
be radiographed at once using a rod anode tube giving a 360-degree radiation beam, the radiation
being restricted to a relatively thin “sheet” be lead disks concentric with the axis of the tube. In
each cases, it is essential; that the anode transverse along the axis of the specimen so that equal
distances are obtained on the radiographs of all the welds.
By small change in the technique, it can be economic for annular welds. The film shall be wrapped
at internal circumference of the annular weld. The annular substance shall be given a rotary
motion behind a lead sheet with narrow slit. The radiation source shall be static and the RPM of
the annular substance shall be adjusted so that sufficient exposure is fallen on the specific area of
the film through the slit for rendering required density.
b. Tomography
Tomography- in medical radiography, often termed “body section radiography”- is a technique that
provides a relatively distinct image of a selected plane in a specimen while the images of
structures that lie above and below that plane are blurred. It is fairly common in medical
radiography, and has a few specialized application in industrial; radiography.
c. Stereoradiography
The primary intention of applying this technique is to determine the location in depth of a flaw
within a specimen.
Objects viewed with a normal pair of eyes appear in their true perspective and in their correct
spatial relation to each other, largely because of man's natural stereoscopic vision; each eye
receives a slightly different view, and the two images are combined by the mental processes
involved in seeing to give the impression of three dimensions. Because a single radiographic
image does not possess perspective, it cannot give the impression of depth or indicate clearly the
relative positions of various parts of the object along the direction of vision. Stereoradiography,
designed to overcome this deficiency of a single radiograph, requires two radiographs made from
two positions of the x-ray tube, separated by the normal interpupillary distance. They are viewed in
a stereoscope, a device that, by an arrangement of prisms or mirrors, permits each eye to see but
a single one of the pair of stereoradiographs. As in ordinary vision, the brain fuses the two images
into one in which the various parts stand out in striking relief in true perspective and in their correct
spatial relation.
The radiograph exposed in the right-shift position of the x-ray tube is viewed by the right eye, and
the one exposed in the left-shift position is viewed by the left eye. In fact, the conditions of viewing
the radiographs should be exactly analogous to the conditions under which they were exposed;
the two eyes take the place of the two positions of the focal spot of the x-ray tube, and the
Page 42 of 52
radiographs, as viewed in the prisms or mirrors, occupy the same position with respect to the eyes
as did the films with respect to the tube during the exposures. The eyes see the x-ray
representation of the part just as the x-ray tube "saw" the actual part
Double-Exposure (Parallax) method is also applied for determining the depth of the flaw in a
specimen.
d. Flash Radiography/ High Speed radiography
Exposure times of one-millionth of a second, or even less, can be achieved by the use of specially
designed high-voltage generating equipment and x-ray tubes. Such exposure times are sufficiently
short to "stop" the motion of projectiles, high-speed machinery, and the like.
This apparatus differs from the usual industrial x-ray equipment in design of both the high-voltage
generator and the x-ray tube. The generator contains large high-voltage condensers that are
suddenly discharged through the x-ray tube, giving a high-voltage pulse of very short duration. The
x-ray tube has a cold cathode rather than the conventional heated filament. Emission from the cold
cathode is initiated by means of a third electrode placed near it. When electron emission has
started, the discharge immediately transfers to the target, which is of conventional design. The
tube current may reach a value as high as 2000 amperes (two million milliamperes), but because
of the extremely short times of exposure, the load on the focal spot is not excessive.
e. Autoradiography
An autoradiograph is a photographic record of the radioactive material within an object, produced

by putting the object in contact with a photographic material. In general, autoradiography is a
laboratory process applied to microtome sections of biological tissues that contain radioisotopes,
metallographic samples, and the like. Highly specialized techniques and specialized photographic
materials--including liquid emulsions--are usually required.
f. Fluoroscopy
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Fluoroscopy differs from radiography in that the x-ray image is observed virtually on a fluorescent
screen rather than recorded on a film. A diagrammatic sketch of an industrial fluoroscopic unit is
shown in Figure below.
Fluoroscopy has the advantages of

high speed and low cost.
However, fluoroscopy has three
limitations: (1) Examination of thick,
dense, or high-atomic number
specimens is impractical, because
the x-ray intensities passing through
them are too low to give a
sufficiently bright image on the
fluorescent screen. (2) The
sensitivity of the fluoroscopic
process is not as great as that of
radiography. This is caused in part
by the lower contrast and coarser
grain of the fluoroscopic screen as
compared to the film record, and in
part by the relatively short source-
screen distances that must be used
to obtain high screen brightnesses.
This latter factor also increases the
distortion of the fluoroscopic image.
(3) The lack of a permanent record
of the examination may be a further
disadvantage.
The main application for fluoroscopy is in the rapid examination of light, easily penetrated articles,
the unit value of which does not warrant the expense of radiography, or of items for which a highly
sensitive test is unnecessary. Fluoroscopy has been used, for example, in the inspection of
packaged foods for foreign objects and of molded plastic parts for the correct placement of metallic
inserts. In some cases, it is advantageous to sort parts fluoroscopically before they are
radiographed to save the expense of radiographing specimens that contain gross flaws.
g. Microradiography
Sometimes--usually with thin specimens of low x-ray absorption--the detail required for study is too
fine to be seen with the naked eye, and examination of the image through a low powered
microscope or enlargement of the radiograph by ordinary optical projection, is required to visualize
the available detail. This method, microradiography, generally employs soft x-rays generated in the
range of 5 to 50 kV. The photographic emulsion is usually single coated and finer grained than the
emulsion of ordinary x-ray films.
Commercial applications of microradiography have included such unrelated projects as studying

cemented joints in corrugated cardboard, and distinguishing between natural and cultured pearls.
Biological materials, such as tissue sections, insects, and seeds, have been examined. In
horticulture, the distribution of inorganic spray materials on foliage has been investigated by
means of microradiography. Of particular interest to the metallurgist is the demonstration of minute
discontinuities and the segregation of the constituents of an alloy in a thin section.
Page 44 of 52
h. Electron radiography
In electron radiography, electrons emitted by lead foil irradiated by x-rays pass through a thin
specimen of low atomic number. They are differentially absorbed in their passage and record the
structure specimen on a film. Specimens that can be examined by electron radiography are limited
by the range of the electrons to thin, light materials. Papers, wood shavings, leaves, fabrics, and
thin sheets of rubber and plastic have been examined by this method.
Page 45 of 52
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RADIOGRAPHIC STUDY MATERIAL

Page 46 of 52
13.0 RADIATION SAFETY
The ionizing radiation is hazardous to human body and other animals. It has the ability to damage
human body tissues. Commonly radiation hazard is occurring from X-ray generating equipment
and radioactive isotope which are used at various medical and industrial fields within our society.
Apart from industrial and medical radiation exposure, human being is constantly exposing to
natural environmental radiation. Ultraviolet ray and other many radiations are falling on earth
penetrating through ozonosphere from space. These are called “Cosmic ray”. There is other
natural radiation in the earth besides cosmic radiation. Example, radium is natural radioactive
material existing in the nature. Many rocks in the earth are also emitting natural radiation. Human
being can’t avoid this natural radiation. This is called back ground radiation. There is a threshold
value of radiation level below which it is not harmful to human body. Our intention should be
minimize the radiation level as low as possible to reduce the chance of damage.
13.1 RADIATION QUANTITIES AND UNITS
Units are necessary for quantitative description of any physical process or phenomena. In
radiological physics, units are required to measure
a. Radioactivity
b. Exposure
c. Dose
d. Equivalent Dose
Radioactivity
Radioactivity of a source is measured in terms of the number of transformations it undergoes in

one second.
The unit of radioactivity is Becquerel (Bq)
One Becquerel corresponds to one transformation per second. Formerly, the unit of activity was
Curie (Ci) corresponding to 3.7 X 1010 transformation per second.
1 Ci = 3.7 X 1010 Bq = 37 GBq.
Exposure
Exposure is giving the idea about the amount of radiation present at a point of interest. This is
basically based on the ability of radiation to produce ionization in air.
The unit of exposure is Coulomb per kg (C/Kg), which is defined as he quantity of charge
produced by ionizing radiation in one kg of air.
The earlier unit of exposure was Roentgen (R) which was used for X & gamma rays up to 3 Mev.
This was defined as the amount of exposure due to X and Gamma radiation of energy up to 3 Mev
which would cause ionization resulting in 1 electrostatic unit (esu) of charge of either sign in 1 cc of
air at STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure).
1R = 2.58 X 10-4 coulomb/ kg
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Dose
The dose from ionizing radiation is the energy imparted, to matter by the ionizing radiation, per unit
mass of the irradiated material at the place of interest.
The unit of dose is Joules/ kg (J/kg)

The special name for the unit of dose is Gray (Gy)
If one joule of energy is imparted by any radiation in one kg of any material, the dose is one gray.
The dose is a measure of energy deposited by radiation in the irradiated material. All effect of
radiation- physical, chemical and biological depends upon the dose.
Formerly the unit of dose was rad.
1 Gy = 100 rad
Equivalent Dose
The biological damage suffered by the tissue exposed to different radiations may be different. This
is because the energy loss per unit path length for different type of radiation is different. To
account for this variation among different types of radiations, a term used as radiation weighting
factor (WR) is used to modify the doses due to each type of radiation. Thus equivalent dose is
obtained by multiplying ‘dose’ by the radiation weighting factor corresponding to the radiation of
interest.
The unit of equivalent dose is also joules per kg. The special name of equivalent dose is Sievert
(Sv).
1 Sv = 100 rem.
13.2 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION
Cells are the basic units of living organisms. All tissues are made of cells. Adult human body
consists of about 1014 cells. When radiation passes through the body, it transfers some of its
energy to the cells in the form of ionizations and excitations, which in turn lead to a number of
chemical changes. These chemical changes are harmful to the cells. Depending on the
seriousness of harm, a cell either dies or gets modified. All the biological effects of radiation arise
from these two effects on cells – Cell death and cell modification.
Radiation can cause break in chromosomes. Majority of these breaks get repaired, but certain
breaks may lead to loss or rearrangement of genetic material which can be seen under a
microscope. Such events are called chromosome aberrations.
Biological effects of radiation can be classified into two groups, depending upon the type of cell
damaged. They are somatic effect and heredity effect. Somatic effect arise from damage to
somatic cells and they occur in the tissues of the exposed person (eg., effects on skin, blood, lung,
bone, thyroid etc.). Heredity effects arise from damage caused to the germ cells and occur in the
progeny of the irradiated person.
Early Somatic Effects
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Whenever body is exposed to radiation, some cells are killed and some are modified. At low dose,
since a few cells are killed, the body cope up with the loss and hence no immediate effects are
seen. However, as dose increases, more and more cells get killed and this results in radiation
sickness, nausea, vomiting, fatigue etc., within a few hours of irradiation. However these effects
are transient and disappear after a few hours. As dose increases further, the effects appear
quicker, are more severe and last longer. At sufficient high doses, the damaged caused to
important organs such as blood forming organs, intestine, etc., is so severe, the patient will not be
able to recover. Anemia, Infection and high fever would occur , leading to death. Fifty percent of
persons exposed to a dose in the range of 3 – 5 Gy, die within a period of 60 days. This known
as LD 50/60. At still higher doses, death occurs earlier.
Instead of whole body, if only a part of the body is exposed, the damage is confined to the
exposed part. Depending upon the part of the body exposed, different local effects at different
doses are produced.
In brief, radiation exposure may lead to various types of early somatic effects depending upon
whether whole or only part of the body is exposed. The characteristic of the early somatic effects
are:
a. they don’t occur below threshold dose

b. severity of the effect increases with dose
c. they appear within a short time after exposure
Late Somatic Effect
The most important late somatic effect is cancer. Unlike the case of early effects, the probability of
cancer, resulting from radiation increases with every increment of dose, probably without any
threshold.
Heredity Effect
Heredity effect may result when the irradiated germ cells are modified rather than killed and if it
also participates in reproductive As in the case of cancer, there is probably no threshold dose for
heredity effects.
13.3 DOSE LIMIT
The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) sets safety guidelines in the use
of radiation. The national Council on Radiation Protection (NCRP) defines permissible radiation
dose as “The dose of ionizing radiation, that in the light of present knowledge is not expected to
cause appreciable bodily injury to a person at any time during his lifetime.” The NCRP defines the
maximum permissible dose equivalent man values for personnel exposure.
The same values are adopted in both federal and state regulations. Personnel employed in
industrial radiography, using modern equipment and safe practices under normal working
conditions, should be able to maintain weekly whole body exposures well below 100 mrem (1
mSv) per week, 1250 mrem (12.5 mSv) per calendar quarter and 5 rem ( 50 mSv) per calendar
year. In addition, to evaluating and developing recommended weekly, quarterly and yearly doses,
the NCRP developed a whole body long term accumulated dose formula. This formula allows
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Page 49 of 52
exposure dose to exceed 5 rem/ year as long as the lifetime allowable dose for the individual’s age
has not been exceeded. The NCRP states “Long term accumulated whole-body dose equivalent
shall not exceeds 5 rems multiplied by the number of years beyond 18, ie., maximum
accumulated dose equivalent = (N- 18) X 5 where N is the age in years and above 18. The
concept is commonly referred to as the RADIATION BANKING CONCEPT.
13.4 RADIATION DETECTION PRINCIPLES AND INSTRUMENTATION
A radiation detection system has two essential components: the detector or detecting media and
the measuring device. The interaction of the radiation with the system occurs in the detector and
the measuring device takes the signal (audio, electromagnetic, optical, photographic etc.) and
converts it into a measurement with associated standard units such as rem, counts per minute,
photographic density units, or other usable units that can be related to a standard.
Imaging Detector
In radiography, various imaging detectors of ionizing radiation are used. The most widely known
detecting media is the photographic emulsion and probably the second most is fluoroscopic screen
or its advanced technology relative, the image intensifier. The lesser-used imaging detectors of
ionizing radiation includes xeroradiographic imaging, Polaroid imaging or solid state electronics
screen.
Non-imaging Radiation Detectors
The various types of non-imaging radiation detectors have one common denominator. In one from
or another, they depend on detection of the ionization produced when radiation interacts with
matter. Among the detector types commonly used in radiography are Ionization Chambers, Geiger
–Muller (GM) Tubes, Scintillation detectors, Semiconductor detectors and Thermoluminescent
detectors.
Methods of measuring the detected radiation fall into two general categories: Pulse or nonpulse
measuring devices. In the pulse type, the output of the detector is a series of pulses separated or
resolved in time, each pulse representing a single interaction with the detector. In the nonpulse
type, the quantity measured is the average effect due to many interactions with the detector. This
type is also commonly referred to as a current measuring verses pulse counting system.
Gas Filled Radiation Detectors – General
Gas filled detectors falls into three types:

Ionization Chamber
GM Tubes
Proportional Counter Chamber
Each of these methods uses a gas filled chamber and a central electrode insulated from the
chamber walls. A voltage is typically applied between the wall and the central electrode. The
principle for all three with regard to detection is the same radiation interacts with the chamber wall
and/or the gas and ionizes the gas. The number of ion pairs produced per unit of path length is
referred to as the specific ionization. The energy of the radiation to be detected and the type of gas
used in the detector will affect the specific ionization. To create an ion pair in the most gases
requires approximately 34 ev.
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Page 50 of 52
Ionization chambers
A typical ionization chamber consists of a cylindrical form with a central conductor located on the
cylinder’s axis and insulated from the outer walls. Photons interact with chamber wall and / or air in
the chamber and ionize the air. The negative ions are attracted towards the positively charged
central electrode and produce a minute current path between the outer wall and the central
electrode. When this type chamber is used in ion saturation region then the current produced is an
accurate measurement of the rate at which ion pairs are formed within the gas. Chamber wall
materials are important design consideration between the radiation to be detected must penetrate
he wall to ionize the gas. The wall materials are affect the energy response at energies typically
below 100 Kev: therefore this should be a particular consideration in low energy radiographic
application.
Geiger-Muller Tube Devices
GM detectors can be used to detect any radiation that will produce ionization within the chamber.
GM tube instrument is more sensitive and is capable of measuring lower radiation levels than the
typical ionization chambers.
GM tubes are manufactured in many shapes to accomplish specific detection tasks. Those tubes
used in radiography survey instruments are typically cylindrical and most are of the miniature
varieties.
Scintillation Detectors
For application in radiography solid organic or inorganic scintillators are used. In the detection of
high energy radiation, detector dimensions can be kept much smaller than an equivalent gas-filled
detector because solid densities are some thousand times greater than most gases. Scintillation
detectors are used in highly sensitive survey instruments and also as the detecting medium for the
radiographic process. Scintillation detectors are commonly used in real-time radiography and
computerized tomography.
Semiconductor Detectors
semiconductor detectors are another type of solid state detecting device. Scintillation detectors
have several limitations- the major one is their relatively poor energy resolution. The
semiconductors are enhancing the energy resolution of the system
Thermoluminescent Detectors
Thermoluminescent (TL), inorganic crystals are also used to detect ionizing radiation.
Thermoluminescent is the emission of light from materials when the materials are heated. If the
material has been exposed to ionizing radiation above a certain threshold, a measurable amount
of light will be emitted from the material when the materials are heated. If the materials has been
exposed to ionizing radiation above a certain minimum threshold, a measurable amount of light will
be emitted from the material when it is heated to the appropriate temperature in a controlled
manner.
The amount of light emitted is proportional to the amount of radiation to which the TL material was
subjected.
Page 50 of 52

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Photographic Films
Photographic films consists of a sensitive layer of silver halide crystals in gelatin spread on
cellulose acetate base. Radiation incident on the film causes ionization in the silver bromide
crystal. After processing the film shows blackening and the amount of blackening (Optical density)
is related o the quantity of radiation absorbed in the film.
Personnel Monitoring
Film badges and TLD badges are used for measuring the personnel dose received for a certain
period. Commonly film badges and TLDs are sent to laboratory at the end of the month for
processing and measuring the amount of radiation absorbed in that month. Film badges are
capable to evaluate any type of radiation with dose ranging from 0.1 mSv to 10 mSv. The film
serves a permanent record and if the film worn in chest, it gives a whole body dose under normal
working condition. Film can be used to access radiation dose received from exposure to beta rays,
X rays, gamma rays or thermal neutrons.
TLD badges consist of three CaSO4 : two TLD discs embedded in a metallic framework and
enclosed in a multifilter cassette. The TLD badge can be used to monitor beta, gamma and X-rays.
The TLD can cover a wide range of deses from 0.1 mSv to 10 mSv.
Radiation doses top personnel can also be assessed by using pocket dosimeter. Pocket
dosimeters are very useful in certain operations, where the radiation levels vary considerably and
may be quite hazardous. This gives an on the spot information about the amount of radiation
received for a certain time period. During handling radiation accident, pocket dosimeters are worn.
Pocket dosimeters used in the range of 0-200 mR, 0-500 mR, )-2000µSv. The pocket dosimeter
size is same a writing pen which can be clipped in the book pocket. It consists of a charger rod,
insulator ring, fixed quartz fiber, movable fime metal coated quartz fiber, transparent scale and
lens. Before every time use the dosimeter is to set at “0” . This operates in the principle of
Ionization chamber.
Area Monitoring
The assessment of radiation level in the vicinity of X or Gamma exposure is necessary to control
the radiation interaction to human being. Area monitors may employ radiation detectors using GM
tubes, ionization chambers or proportional counters. It gives an idea about the level of radiation at
a particular distance from a open radioactive source in a specific time period. In general it gives
the reading in mR/ H or R/ H. Most commonly area surveymeters are capable to give radiation
level up to 5 H/ R. The survey meters are needed to set in right scale for getting proper result
depending upon the radiation level present at that location. The scales are made starting from 0.1
up to 1R. The most commonly surveymeters Minirad and MR 4500 are working in the principle of
GN counter. Minirad can measure up to 5 R/H whereas MR 4500 can measure up to 50 R/H
making it useful to radiation emergencies.
These all instruments needed periodic calibration to confirm the measurement results are correct.
Radiation hazard Control
Several precautions are taken during radiography to control the radiation exposure to human
being.
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Page 52 of 52
Primarily effort is given to restrict the radiography in public area. When it is not possible to avoid
radiography near public is working, several precautions are taken
- The entire area is cordoned- off in order to prevent non-radiations workers enter the vicinity
of radiation. The cordon-ff distance depend on the type of radi0o-isotpe, activity and type of
occupancy. It is advisable whenever possible collimator to be used and the radiation to be
directed to the direction where there is public is less or compare to at far away from
radiation source. The radiation symbols are displayed at the cordon-off boundary for the
attention of public. Moreover, flush lights are used at the night time to alert public about the
radiation worker. Sometimes audible devices are used for radiation work alert.
Storage of Radioactive Source
Different nations are their own regulation and guidelines for the safe storage of radio-isotopes. In
general radio-isotope containing cameras are stored in pit room. The pit room is always kept
locked. Fencing is made around the pit room with sufficient height to prevent any unauthorized
entry to the pit room. The fencing door is also kept locked. The radiation warning symbols are
pasted on the fencing wall. Only authorized persons are allowed to handle radio-isotopes in and
out the pit room. A source movement log book is maintained by the authorized radiation officer.
Transportation of Radioactive Material
The radio-active material is transported from one place to another with special care. During
transportation the radio-isotope carrying camera should be kept in a specific box with lock
arrangement. Radiation danger boards are to be displayed at four sides of the vehicle. Radiation
Transportation Information (TREM CARD) including the type of radiation, activity, contact address
shall be ensured in the vehicle containing radio-isotope.
Page 52 of 52

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RADIOGRAPHY TESTING- STUDY MATERIAL

INDUSTRIAL NDT CONSULTANCY & TRAINING

TRAINING COURSE ON RADIOGRAPHY TESTING

201/3 Gopal Lal Tagore Road Kolkata – 700 035 India

CHAPTER -1 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

Three basic particles are

The number of protons inside a nucleus is called atomic number (Z).

The sum of proton and neutron is called mass number.

CHAPTER – 2 RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS

A number of radioactive isotopes (radioisotopes) are found in nature. Like radium.

‘Alpha’ s composed of two protons and two neutrons.

‘Beta’ is a very light particle – actually a chargeless high-speed electron.

To summarize the common modes or processes of radioactive decay, a radioactive atom,

1. Alpha emission only

In this equation E is energy, m is mass, and c is the speed of light.

Ie, 1 curie = 3.7 X 1010 disintegration / sec.

Half life of few radio-isotopes

Cesium 137 (Cs-137) 30 years

CHAPTER 3 – CHARACTERISTIC OF X RAYS & GAMMA RAYS

COSMIC X RAYS ULTRA- VISIBLE LIGHT INFRARED SHORT WAVE

Decreasing Wave length Increasing

The waves we are talking about may be represented like this

They are traveling in the speed of light.

ISOTOPE RAY ENERGIES (Mev)

Cobalt 60 (Co-60) 1.17, 1.33

Thulium 170 (Tm 170) 0.084 Mev, 0.052 Mev

Cesium 137 (Cs 137) 0.66 Mev

Voltage has little effect on the intensity of the X-ray.

The word “quanta” is also called as “photon”.

CHAPTER 4 – INTERACTION WITH MATTER – ABSORPTION AND SCATTER

High Energy Photon Excess Energy Ejected electron

----- New path

COMPTON EFFECT Figure 2

450 Kev – 12 Kev – 80 Kev = 358 Kev

I0 is the incident gamma intensity.

Inverse Square law:

This property is treated mathematically as

N0 is the original quantity

The decay constant is equivalent to

0.693 is the natural log 2, and T is the half-life.

CHAPTER V – X- RAY GENERATION

Minimum requirements for the generation of X-ray –

A heated wire filament will serve as a source of free electrons.

Bremsstrahlung (Continuous X-ray)

The energy of continuous X-rays is dependent upon three

1. The energy of the high-speed electron. The

LOW – ENERGY – HIGH

0 KEV SPEED OF ELECTRON ENERGY (KEV) 300 KEV Figure 5

CATHODE GLASS ENVELOPE FLOW OF ELECTRON

CHAPTER – 6 RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS

Radiographic Image Quality

Radiographic sensitivity is a combination of the factors of contrast and definition of the

Radiographic contrast is defined as the difference of densities of two areas of a radiograph.

Figure 7 Characteristic curve of a typical industrial X-ray film

The film density is defined by:

Where, D = Film density

At figure 8, the effect of same

LOG RELATIVE EXPOSURE

Calculation of Geometric Unsharpness

SOD = Source to object distance

IMAGE QUALITY INDICATOR (IQI)

2. Method of recording should be simple, unambiguous.