10 NUCLEAR 101

Nuclear Science and

Disaster Preparedness
 Nuclear 101
Nuclear Science and Disaster Preparedness

A Resource Material for Secondary Students and Science Teachers

This material was developed by PNRI in partnership with the Department of Energy -
Nuclear Energy Program Implementing Organization (DOE-NEPIO). This is intended for
general use and circulation. Appropriate citation is required for use of any information
contained in this publication.
For technical inquiries, please contact: (+632) 8929 6011 to 19 local 286
or email: information@pnri.dost.gov.ph.

Copyright Notice: Section 9 of the Presidential Decree No. 49 provides:

“No copy shall subsist in any work of the Government of the Philippines. However,
prior approval of the government agency or office wherein the work is created shall be
necessary for exploitation of such work for profit. Such agency or office may, among other
things, impose as a condition the payment of royalties...”

Published and distributed by:

Philippine Nuclear Research Institute
Diliman, Quezon City

in partnership with
Department of Energy
Manila

Printed by: Metamedia Information Systems Corp.

December 2020
 Table of Contents
What is environmental monitoring? 2

What is System for Online Monitoring of Environmental

Radiation (SOMER)? 6

What should we do in case of a widescale radiation

emergency? 10

What possible protective measures will be implemented

by the National Government in response to nuclear 14
emergencies?

Hi there! I’m Radia! In this booklet, you

will learn about :
1. Environmental radioactivity monitoring
and its importance in the detection and
assessment of radiation doses to the
public.
2. The PNRI’s System for Online
Monitoring of Environmental Radiation
(SOMER) and its significance in radiation
emergency preparedness.
3. The protective measures that the
national government will implement to
protect the public in the event of nuclear
or radiological emergencies.
what is environmental
RADIATION monitoring?
Environmental monitoring is conducted by measuring the concentration of
radionuclides or radiation dose rates in the environment. It is conducted
to ensure the protection of the public from radiation exposure due to
certain human activities that involve the release of radionuclides in the
environment. Data gathered from environmental radiation monitoring
enables the decision-makers to implement appropriate actions and
measures to protect the environment and the public from the harmful
effects of accidental exposure to radiation

Why is environmental radiation monitoring

important?
In addition to providing information for the assessment of radiation doses,
environmental monitoring also have other significance. Environmental
monitoring provides data to check if certain activities, such as normal
nuclear power plant operation, complies with the regulations.

During normal operations of nuclear power plants, regulated amounts of

artificial radionuclides are released to the environment as liquid and gaseous
effluents. These radioactive effluents can contribute to the radiation doses
received by the nearby population through a variety of exposure pathways.
Gaseous effluents disperse through the air, and may eventually deposit
on the ground surface with rain and/or as fallout. These radionuclides can
eventually end up in the drinking water, crops, and livestock. Meanwhile,
radionuclides from liquid effluents can be absorbed by the aquatic
organism and enter the food chain. Through the ingestion of contaminated
food or water and inhalation of radioactive fumes, residents living near
the contaminated site can be exposed internally. Also, external exposure
occurs through direct irradiation from the radionuclides deposited on the
ground (groundshine), in plume/cloud passing from above (skyshine), and
in the surrounding air (immersion). Through environmental monitoring,
compliance to regulations can be checked and the radiation doses received
can be assessed.

2 NUCLEAR 101
 Deposition Livestock Products
Gaseous effluents

Inhalation

Ingestion

Deposition
Agricultural
products
Ingestion
Public
Soil Drinking
water
Liquid Ingestion River
Nuclear effluents
facilities

: Radiation

Marine products Sea : Radionuclides

: Behavior of radionucllides

Fig. 1 Exposure pathways for radioactive release to the environment. Exposure can occur externally
through direct irradiation from radionuclides in the air or from radionuclides deposited on the ground.
Consumption of terrestrial crops and animal products, marine products, and drinking water can
cause internal exposure. Inhalation of radionuclides in the air can also cause internal exposure.
Adapted from JAEA (ND).

The radiation dose received due to the normal operation of nuclear power
plants is extremely low. It only contributes 0.0002 mSv/year on average
(UNEP, 2016) – about 10,000 times less than the dose received from
natural sources. However, serious accidents on nuclear power plants that
occurred in the past resulted in the extensive release of radioactivity to the
environment. Atmospheric releases of radioactive materials from nuclear
power plant accidents dispersed to wide areas and deposited on the surface
of the earth through precipitation and fallout.

The Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident occurred in April 1986 in

present-day Ukraine – part of the former Soviet Union. It is the most
severe accident that occurred for the civilian nuclear power industry. The
accident resulted in the largest uncontrolled release of radioactivity to
the environment, which lasted for about 10 days, from a civilian nuclear
operation. An estimated amount of 85 PBq cesium-137 and 1,760 PBq of
iodine-131 was released to the environment due to this accident (PBq means

NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND DISASTER PREPAREDNESS 3

Petabecquerel or ×1015 Bq). A large amount of radioactive material
from the accident contaminated extensive areas of Ukraine, Belarus,
and the Russian Federation – 150,000 km2 in total with more than
5 million inhabitants. The radioactive plume from the accident also
spread over the entire northern hemisphere. (UNSCEAR, 2010)

Fig. 2. Cesium-137 deposition in Belarus, Russian Federation, and Ukraine as of

December 1989 due to Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Accident. Image from UNSCEAR
(2010).

In March 2011, the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident occurred.
The estimated total radioactivity released to the atmosphere was estimated
at 100 to 500 PBq of iodine-131 and about 6 to 20 PBq of cesium-137. Due
to the prevailing direction of the wind at the time of the accident, a large
fraction of atmospheric radioactive release was blown towards the Pacific
Ocean and deposited on the surface waters. This was estimated to be about
60 to 100 PBq of iodine-131 and 5 to 8 PBq of cesium-137. Due to the power
plant being located near the coast, about 10 to 20 PBq of iodine-131 and
3 to 6 PBq of cesium-137 were directly released to the surrounding sea.
(UNSCEAR, 2014)

4 NUCLEAR 101
Natural sources | 2.4 mSv Artificial sources | 0.65 mSv

Nuclear power
0.0002 mSv
0.29 mSv plants
Food
Chernobyl
0.002 mSv
accident
Cosmic 0.39 mSv
Weapon
0.005 mSv
fallout
Soil 0.48 mSv
Nuclear 0.03 mSv
Medicine

Radon 1.3 mSv

Radiology 0.62 mSv

Fig. 3. World-wide average annual effective doses received from natural and artificial
(man-made) sources. Adapted from UNEP (2016).

In addition to nuclear power plant accidents, nuclear weapons detonations

conducted in the past also resulted in the uncontrolled release of large
amounts of artificial radionuclides to the environment. All of these events
resulted in widespread radioactive contamination in the environment.
Uncontrolled exposure to radiation through direct irradiation, inhalation,
and ingestion pathways occurred.

Through environmental monitoring, unexpected releases of radioactivity

in the environment, whether accidental or intentional, can be detected.
Radiation doses due to these events can also be assessed. The information
provided by environmental monitoring guides decision-makers in
implementing appropriate protective actions in response to radiation
emergencies.

How is environmental radiation monitoring

conducted?
Environmental monitoring can be conducted by collecting samples of various
environmental media, such as soil, water, air, and biota. The samples are
then processed and analyzed in the laboratories to measure the amount of
radioactivity. Environmental monitoring can also be conducted through on-
site measurement of radiation dose rates. The data collected can be used to
assess its hazard level and identify the contaminated areas by comparing it
to the baseline (normal) dose rate data.

NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND DISASTER PREPAREDNESS 5

What is SOMER?
The System for Online Monitoring of Environmental Radiation or SOMER is
an automated system for real-time environmental monitoring of radiation
dose rates established by the Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI).
SOMER simultaneously and continuously measures the ambient dose rates
at different strategic locations across the country. As of 2019, 11 SOMER
stations were already installed, and 3 more will be added by end of 2021.
SOMER stations provide real-time data that is monitored online by PNRI
researchers. The primary purpose of SOMER is for the immediate detection
of anomalous increases in environmental radiation levels that can be caused
by the widespread release of radioactivity. This ultimately leads to a timely
and appropriate radiation emergency preparedness and response.

How does SOMER work?

SOMER is composed of radiation monitoring stations installed across the
Philippines. Each radiation monitoring station has a thallium-doped sodium
iodide (NaI(Tl)) Crystal that detects gamma rays. The amount of gamma
rays detected by the NaI(Tl) crystal is proportional to the ambient dose
rate. The dose rate data continuously measured by the SOMER stations are
transmitted in real-time to the central data station server located at PNRI.
The PNRT researchers then access the data from the server for analysis.

Fig. 4 SOMER station installed at PNRI.

6 NUCLEAR 101
Radiation Monitoring Data Storage and Radiation Monitoring
Stations processing by server Stations

Fig. 5 . Basic illustration of how the environmental radiation levels measured from remote
stations can be monitored online and in real-time.

Artificial radionuclides released from a nuclear power plant accident or

nuclear weapon detonation typically include those that emit gamma rays
like cesium-137. Artificial radionuclides released can be present in the
surrounding air, passing cloud (radioactive plume), and/or deposited on
the ground. Depending on the amount of radioactivity, the ambient gamma
dose rate can increase above normal background levels in areas where
these are present. Because of its continuous real-time monitoring, SOMER
stations can detect the anomalous increases in radiation dose rates.

When radionuclides emit gamma rays, each photon has a discrete energy
value, typically within the range of kiloelectronvolts (keV or ×103 eV) to
megaelectronvolts (MeV or ×106 eV). For example, cesium-137 emits gamma
rays with an energy of about 662 keV, while cobalt-60 emits gamma rays
with energies of 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV.The energies of gamma rays
serve as a signature of the radionuclides used for identification. The
energies of gamma rays are also measured by the NaI (Tl) detector of the
SOMER stations. Detection of signature gamma-ray energies of artificial
radionuclides indicates the presence of the radionuclide in the surroundings
of the SOMER station. This technique is known as gamma-ray spectrometry.

NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND DISASTER PREPAREDNESS 7

 Fig. 6. Illustration of how the presence of radionuclides can be determined using gamma-ray
spectrometry. The energy and intensity of gamma rays measured by spectrometric detectors like
NaI(Tl) crystal is plotted on the x- and y- axes, respectively. Presence of peaks on the specific energy
region indicate presence of radionuclides. In this case, cesium-137 peak at 662 keV appeared due to
the check source placed on top of the detector.

Why is SOMER important?

The Philippines is in a region where the number of nuclear power plants
is increasing. As of 2019, there are 104 nuclear power plants in the Asia-
Pacific, and this is projected to grow more within the next decade. China
has the largest number of nuclear power reactors in the region as of 2019.
Japan and the Republic of Korea respectively follow the lead (WNA, August
2019). To-date, Taiwan has four nuclear power plants in operation, these
installations are the nearest to the Philippines (WNA, July 2019).

8 NUCLEAR 101
 33
JAPAN 2
1

47 SOUTH 24
CHINA KOREA 4
11
43 TAIWAN 4
2

LEGEND:

Operable

Under
Construction

Planned

Fig. 7 Numbers of operable, under construction, and planned nuclear power plants nearby the
Philippines as of 2019. Data from WNA (July 2019, August 2019).

SOMER provides several advantages in an event of a widespread radiation

emergency. With the increasing number of nuclear power plants in the
region, the Philippines must be well equipped for early detection and
monitoring. Conducting environmental monitoring through radiation survey
and collecting environmental samples in the entire country and subsequent
analysis will be logistically challenging, considering the archipelagic feature
of the country. Installing SOMER stations in strategic locations will provide a
means for continuously gathering real-time data on environmental radiation
levels across the Philippines. SOMER stations can provide early warning and
vital information to decision-makers to take appropriate actions to prevent
unnecessary radiation exposure of the public.

NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND DISASTER PREPAREDNESS 9

What should we do
in case of a widescale
radiation emergency?
A nuclear power plant accident, a nuclear explosion or a dirty bomb
containing radioactive materials are examples of radiation emergencies. If
something like this happens, you can take actions to protect yourself and
your loved ones. Keep in mind the most basic principles of reducing external
exposure to radiation - distance, time and shielding.

1. Increase your distance.

Increasing your distance from the radioactive source can effectively lessen
radiation exposure. To minimize the radiation dose that one receives,
carefully move away from radiation sources or contaminated areas.

Moving to point B, where distance Moving to point C, where

Initial Dose rate
at point A from the source is 2 times of point
A, will decrease the dose rate to
1/4 of initial dose rate
distance from the source is
10 times of point A, will
decrease the dose rate to
1/100 of initial dose rate

Increase your distance!

Point A Point B Point C

Initial 2x of the 10x of the
Distance initial distance initial distance

Fig. 8 Increase your distance from radiation sources

2. Limit your time.

You can effectively limit your
radiation exposure by spending Stay
inside
less time near radiation sources or
contaminated areas.

Fig. 9 Limit your time near radiation sources and

contaminated areas. Limit your time outside. Get
inside houses or building and stay inside.

10 NUCLEAR 101
3. Use shielding.
Houses and buildings made from steel and concrete provide significant
shielding from external exposure (direct irradiation) from passing radioactive
plume and from radioactive materials deposited on the ground. Staying inside
houses or buildings, with doors and windows closed, effectively prevents
exposure from contaminated air through inhalation and immersion.

Fig. 10 Stay
inside and stay
informed. Shelter
in place and get
information and
instructions only
from authorities.

4. Stay Informed.
During emergencies, everyone must stay informed of the present situation
as it happens.

• Stay tuned and follow only the instructions from the authorities.

• Avoid trusting and spreading unverified information or rumors

circulating through text messages and social media posts.

• Avoid intake or use of any unprescribed medicine or substances to

protect yourself, unless provided or as instructed by real experts.

• Upon getting the information, remain calm and careful in following the
protective measures that will be implemented by the government.

NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND DISASTER PREPAREDNESS 11

 U M E
PL

What is a plume?
Although nuclear power plants have safety and
security procedures in place and are closely
monitored by a regulatory body, an accident at
the power plant could release a radioactive cloud
or gaseous effluent over an area. This cloud or
gaseous effluent is also called a radioactive plume.
Radioactive materials in the plume can settle and
contaminate surface of buildings, water, food,
animals and people who are outdoors.

Difference between radiation contamination

and radiation exposure
A person exposed to ionizing radiation due to the presence of a radioactive
material is not necessarily contaminated with the radioactive material. For
example, if a person has undergone an x-ray procedure, he/she has been
exposed to ionizing radiation but is NOT contaminated. To be contaminated
means, some radioactive material must be on or inside the person’s body.

External contamination occurs when a radioactive material, in the form

of dust, solid particles, aerosols or liquid, becomes physically attached to
skin or clothes. Internal contamination occurs when people ingest, inhale,
or are injured by radioactive material. It can also occur when radioactive
material enters the body through an open wound. Different radioactive
materials can accumulate in different body organs. For instance, iodine-131
accumulates in the thyroid while cesium-137 can accumulate in the body’s
soft tissues.

12 NUCLEAR 101
 WHERE TO GO IN A RADIATION EMERGENCY
If a radiation emergency happens in your area, you should get inside
immediately.
No matter where you are, the safest action to take is to: GET INSIDE. STAY
INSIDE. STAY TUNED.
GET INSIDE
Ÿ Close and lock all windows and doors
Ÿ Go to the basement or the middle of the building. Radioactive material
settles on the outside of buildings; so the best thing to do is stay as far
away from the walls and roof of the building as you can.

STAY INSIDE Ÿ If possible, turn off fans, air conditioners, and forced-air heating units
that bring air in from the outside. Close fireplace dampers.
Ÿ Bring pets inside.
Ÿ Stay tuned for updated instructions from emergency response officials.
STAY TUNED

NOT SAFE

OK SAFER OK OK OK OK OK OK
OK OK

SAFEST

https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/emergencies/pdf/Infographic_Where_to_go.pdf

Getting inside a house or a building and staying

there is called “sheltering in place”. Staying inside
for at least 24 hours can protect you and your family
until it is safe to leave the area. Always listen for
additional instructions from emergency officials and
radiation experts.

Radiation Exposure Radiation Contamination You could be contaminated with

radioactive material if you are outside
Internal
Contamination in an area when a radiation emergency
happens. To lower your risk of harm,
it is important to get radioactive
material off your body as soon as
possible. The process of removing
radioactive material from a
person, object, surface
External
Contamination
or place is called
decontamination.

NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND DISASTER PREPAREDNESS 13

What possible protective
measures will be implemented
by the National Government
in response to nuclear
emergencies?
In case of a widescale radiation emergency such as a nuclear power plant
accident affecting the country, it is important for the public to remain
calm and rely on the official instructions from the government. Emergency
officials are trained to respond to disaster situations and will provide specific
instructions and actions to help keep the public safe. Depending on the
radiation levels detected, the government may implement protective actions
such as sheltering, evacuation and/or the prohibition on consumption of
local food and drinking water.

Sheltering refers to staying inside houses or buildings, especially made

of concrete and steel. Sheltering provides shielding and distance from
radioactivity coming from outdoors. It can also minimize exposure from
inhalation of radioactive air and skin contamination. If necessary, authorities
will advise to immediately and carefully go inside the house or building and
close the doors and windows to prevent the possibility of contaminated
air from entering. If contamination of skin or clothing possibly occurred,
immediately remove and place the clothing in a plastic bag and then take
bath to remove contamination. Keep the contaminated clothes contained
in the plastic bag and, as these can be checked by authorities to verify
contamination and estimate exposure doses.

In some instances, evacuation may be implemented by authorities if the area

has been contaminated with radioactive materials or has high radioactivity
levels. If environmental radioactivity monitoring results indicate significant
high levels of radioactive contamination in the samples, prohibition on the
consumption of crops, animal products, drinking water, and/or aquatic
products will be implemented by authorities.

14 NUCLEAR 101
Frequently Asked Questions about Radiation
Emergencies
1. The Philippines does not have a nuclear power plant in
operation, why bother preparing for radiation emergencies?
While the risk of having a radiation emergency due to a nuclear power
plant accident is low in the Philippines, it is still important to have a strong
radiation emergency preparedness and response in place. There is an
increasing number of operable nuclear power plants in countries near the
Philippines like Taiwan and China. A nuclear power plant accident in these
countries may affect the Philippines. Additionally, radiation emergencies
can also occur when dirty bombs and other nuclear weapons are detonated.

2. Is it possible for a nuclear power plant to explode like a

nuclear bomb?
It is impossible for a reactor of a nuclear power plant to explode like a
nuclear weapon or bomb. There are two main differences between the
design of a nuclear reactor used in nuclear power plants and a nuclear
bomb – (1) the way fission reactions are controlled and (2) the enrichment
of the fuel. Fission events in a nuclear reactor are monitored and controlled
closely while the fission chain reaction in a nuclear bomb is uncontrolled,
resulting to a release of huge amounts of energy quickly. While both fuel
for a nuclear reactor and for a nuclear bomb is enriched with Uranium-235,
a reactor’s fuel is only enriched around 4 to 5 % whereas, a nuclear bomb
is enriched to about 90%. This very low enrichment makes the reactor
incapable of causing an explosion.

3. Is a dirty bomb the same as a nuclear bomb or weapon?

A dirty bomb is not the same as a nuclear bomb or weapon. A dirty bomb
is a mix of explosives (e.g. a dynamite), and radioactive powder or pellets.
When the dirty bomb explodes, the blast carries radioactive material into
the surrounding area. A dirty bomb cannot create a mushroom-shaped
blast typical of nuclear bombs. The main danger of a dirty bomb comes
from the explosion, not the radiation. The explosion can cause serious
injuries and damage to property. Radioactive dust and smoke, however,
can spread with the explosion and could be dangerous if people breath in
the dust, eat contaminated food or drink contaminated water.

NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND DISASTER PREPAREDNESS 15

4. What is a nuclear weapon?
Nuclear weapons are devices that use a nuclear reaction to create an
explosion that is more powerful than conventional explosives. Nuclear
weapons can be in the form of bombs or missiles. Four types of energy are
given off when a nuclear weapon explodes – a blast wave, an intense light,
heat, and ionizing radiation. A large fireball is also created when a nuclear
weapon explodes. Everything inside of this fireball vaporizes and is carried
upward, creating a mushroom-shaped cloud. As the material in the cloud
cools into dust-like particles, it drops back to the earth as fallout. Fallout is
radioactive and can contaminate anything it lands on. It can also be carried
by wind and can end up far away from the site of the explosion.

FALLOUT

5. What are the IMMEDIATE health effects of exposure to

ionizing radiation?
The health effects of ionizing radiation depend on the amount of radiation
absorbed by the body (also called the dose), the type of radioactive material
and how it got in or on the body, and the length of time a person was exposed.
Exposure to large amounts of ionizing radiation over a short period of time
can cause Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS) Symptoms of ARS may include
skin burns, nausea, and/or vomiting. These symptoms start within minutes
to days after the exposure, can last for minutes up to several days, and may
come and go. Exposure to a small amount of radiation will not cause any
immediate health effects, but may appear later in life.

6. Are there medicines available for radiation exposure or

contamination with radioactive materials?
Some medical treatments are available for limiting or removing internal
contamination depending on the type of radioactive material involved.
Medical professionals will determine if treatments are needed.

16 NUCLEAR 101
7. What should I do if I am injured during a radiation
emergency?
Unless you have a life-threatening situation, you should not leave your
building or place of shelter until emergency officials say it is safe to do so.
Treat non-radiation related cuts, bruises, or injuries with first aid. Keep cuts
and abrasions covered when washing to keep radioactive material out of
the wound. The best way to prevent radiation injuries and illness is to get
inside as soon as possible, away from radioactive material outside and
shower or wash once inside.

8. Why should I stay inside during a radiation emergency?

The walls of a building can block much of the harmful ionizing radiation.
Because radioactive materials become weaker over time, staying inside for
at least 24 hours can protect you and your family until it is safe to leave the
area. Always listen for additional instructions from emergency officials and
radiation experts.

9. How should I prepare for a radiation emergency?

Your community should have a plan in place in case of a radiation emergency.
Check with community leaders to learn more abut the plan. At home, put
together an emergency kit that would be appropriate for any emergency.
A battery-powered radio is important to have for any emergency situation.
Bottled water and non-perishable food is also important.

NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND DISASTER PREPAREDNESS 17

 REFERENCES

1. [JAEA] Japan Atomic Energy Agency, [No Date]. Radiation Safety Management of
Nuclear Facilities and other elements.https://www.jaea.go.jp/english/04/ntokai/
houkan/houkan_02.html (accessed 15.10.2020).

2. [CDC] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Radiation Emergencies. https://
www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/emergencies/index.htm (accessed 30.11.2020)

3. [UNSCEAR] United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation,

2010. Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation. UNSCEAR 2008 Report Volume II:
Effects. United Nations, New York.

4. [UNSCEAR] United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation,

2014. Sources, Effects and Risks of Ionizing Radiation. UNSCEAR 2013 Report Volume
I. United Nations, New York.

5. [UNEP] United Nations Environment Programme, 2016. Radiation Effects and

Sources. http://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/7790.

6. [WNA] World Nuclear Association, July 2019. Nuclear Power in Taiwan. https://www.
world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/others/nuclear-power-in-
taiwan.aspx (accessed 04.08.2020).

7. [WNA] World Nuclear Association, August 2019. Asia’s Nuclear Energy Growth.
https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/others/asias-
nuclear-energy-growth.aspx (accessed 04.08.2020).
 Nuclear 101
Nuclear Science and Disaster Preparedness

AUTHOR DOE-NEPIO Human Resource

Technical Working Group
Ryan Joseph Aniago
Philippine Nuclear Research Institute
Angelina V. Manga, CESO IV
Former Administrative Service Director and Head
REVIEWER / EVALUATOR
NEPIO HR-TWG
Chitho P. Feliciano, Ph.D.
Ma. Cecilia P. Baldos
Philippine Nuclear Research Institute
Chief Administrative Officer
Human Resource Management Division (HRMD)
EDITORIAL TEAM
Josefina D. Nuestro
Jasmine Angelie V. Albelda, Ph.D. Administrative Officer V
Hans Joshua V. Dantes HRMD
Rissa Jane V. Amper
Salve P. Orcine
LAY-OUT, DESIGN & ILLUSTRATION Supervising Administrative Officer
HRMD
Metamedia Information Systems Corp.
Daisy D. Raguini
Administrative Officer V
HRMD

Rosalina T. Rapi
Supervising Administrative Officer
HRMD

Kathleen T. Regala
Administrative Officer V
HRMD

DISCLAIMER
The information and activities presented in this book have been carefully reviewed and edited
for accuracy and are intended for their instructional value. However, the publisher makes no
representation or warranties of any kind, nor are any representations implied with respect to the
material set forth herein, and the publisher takes no responsibility with respect to such material. The
publisher shall not be liable for any general, special, consequential or exemplary damages resulting,
in whole or in part, from the reader’s use of, or reliance upon, this material.

DEVELOPED BY FUNDING AGENCY

Department of Science and Technology Department of Energy

Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (Philippines)
https://www.pnri.dost.gov.ph
https://www.doe.gov.ph