IONIZING RADIATION

ILKKM Sg Buloh
What it is and How We Measure?
Environmental Health Program
Learning Discuss (C3)
01 Discuss scientific principles for exposure assessment of

Objectives ionizing radiation and their health effects in workplace or

environment (C3)

CONDUCT (P2)
02 Conduct measurement of selected ionizing radiation hazards in
selected scenarios and their appropriate control measures
(P2).
 Time, Distance and Shield
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Health Effects of Ionizing

HEALTH
effects
Exposure
Ionizing
radiation
 Dosimeter

Measure direct reading of

the exposure

Measure in month,
evaluate later in
laboratory

Measure the organ dose of the skin

ACTIVE PASSIVE RING

 SOURCE

INDUSTRY MEDICINE
- Energy - Therapeutic
- Non – destructive IN
DU
ST
- Diagnosis
RY
examination CIN
E
DI
ME

MINING

MINING
- Natural occur (Radon) – Lung Cancer
- Specific source (Uranium)
Radiation
• It is the transfer of energy in the form of waves or
particles
• Covers a large range of electromagnetic radiation
• Examples: radio waves, microwaves, infrared (heat),
visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays

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Presentation

• Electromagnetic radiation (EM)

can be further divided into two (2)
types namely
• ionizing radiation
• non-ionizing radiation
• All these radiations
have similar
characteristics such
as being able to
radiate through
(travel) a vacuum and
at the speed of light

• Different from each

other in terms of the
length or shortness of
the wave and the
intensity of the energy
produced.
 Ionizing Radiation
ELECTRON
A condition in which the gain or loss of an
electron from an originally uncharged atom

ENERGY

TY
PE
This ionization process requires high energy.

ATOM G Y
E R
EN
This atom will then turn into a positive or
negative charge.

AT
APPLICATION

OM
Ionization plays an important role in health
ON physics. The most common form of ionizing
ATI radiation is X-Rays (X-Rays).
IC
L
APP
 Ionizing Radiation
• Ionizing Radiation
• Particles and electromagnetic radiation released by the
decay of unstable atoms
1. Alpha particles
Particles
2. Beta particles (Radionuclides)

3. Neutrons
4. Gamma rays Elecromagnetic
radiation
5. X rays
 Sinar-X (X-Ray)
▪ Almost similar to light waves or radio
waves, but it has the characteristic that it
IONIZING can lead to the ionization of the atoms of
RADIATION the material it passes through.
▪ Produced in an X-Ray tube where high
voltage is applied.
▪ The higher the voltage the deeper
▪ These X-rays will penetrate a material.
Source of Radiation
 Source of Radiation
SKY SKY
cosmic rays 3 3 High-energy photons and particles from
outer space

PHARMA NATURAL/ SOIL

Exposure in the body to radionuclide 2 2 Gamma rays from rocks and soil
radiation (K-40)

EXPOSURE RADON
Exposure to radiation from natural
1 START 1 Exposure to radon and decay products
sources gives a rough exposure dose (in uranium mines and also in poorly
figure of between 1 to 2.5 mSv in a year ventilated brick houses)
for the population.
 Man Made Source
Medical
Medical procedures – diagnostic
radiology is the single highest
contributor
Occupation Energy
Occupational exposure Nuclear fission - the process
used in nuclear reactors
releases a wide range of
radioactive isotopes such as
iodine, strontium and cesium
Disaster Waste
Disposal of radioactive waste
Contamination (fall-out) from
nuclear research
Pharma Community
Iodine - used by the body and Strontium or cesium - content
a lot (concentrated) stored in in plants - grass - eaten by
the thyroid cows and then cows are eaten
by humans.
 Unit of Measurement
Exposure Absorption Equivalent Activity
Dose Dose

Exposure Rate -
Coulomb/kg. - Equivalent Dose -
Activity - becqurel -
measure the effect of Sievert (Sv) - Using
Absorbed Dose - Gray Measures the activity
ionization in air by the fact that the
(Gy) - Measures of a radioactive
X-rays and gamma scales are taken into
energy deposited in substance
rays. It measures the account - neutrons,
tissue
amount of energy 'alpha particles' which
transferred from are more harmful
X-rays to a unit mass when compared to
of water. X-ray photons. Becqurel (Bg)
gray (Gy)

CKg Sievert (Sv)

Unit of Measurement

Unit Baru Unit Lama

Kuantiti Fakta Pertukaran
(tanda) (tanda)

rontgen
Pendedahan CKg 1 CKg ~ 3876 R
(R)

Dos Serapan gray (Gy) rad (rad) 1 Gy = 1000 rad

Dos Persamaan sievert (Sv) rem (rem) 1 Sv = 100 rem

Becqurel 1 Bg ~ 2.7 x 10
Aktiviti Curie (Ci)
(Bg) C1-11

Unit pengukuran radioaktiviti

 Ionizing Radiation

Radiation from radioactive materials

• Cause changes to the structure of radioactive nuclei to allow them to become more
stable.
• At the same time radiation will be released in the form of:
• Alpha Ray (Alpha Ray) - which is a particle that has 2 protons and 2 neutrons
• Beta Particles (Beta Rays) – electron particles produced when neutrons turn
into protons
• Gamma Rays – very similar to X-rays, although the way they are produced is
quite different. When gamma rays are emitted, excess energy in the nucleus is
also released.
• neutrons - a beam of neutron particles.
Dose Allowed

Orang
Pekerja
Awam

Had ‘Non-stochastic’ bagi

500 mSv 50 mSv
mana-mana organ

Had ‘Stochastic’ 50 mSv 5 mSv

Kanta mata 150 mSv 15 mSv

Tahap Maxima Dos Sinaran Yang Dibenarkan

Exposure Standard
Purata pendedahan perubatan 200 mSv/y

Sinaran latar belakang (Background) 1 mSv/y

Pendedahan individu perubatan 10 – 20 mSv

Pendedahan pekerja yang didedahkan 2 – 3 mSv/y

Dos minima bagi kesakitan sinaran serius 1.5 Sv

Dos minima kematian 3.5 Sv
Dos maxima hidup 8 – 9 Sv

Tahap Sinaran Yang DiKesan (Typical Radiation Level)

 Exposure assessment of ionizing radiation
❖ Radiation assessment:
1. Hazard – radioactive material
2. Exposure
1. Hazard
• Class 7 element
• Radionuclides (or radioactive materials) are a class of chemicals where the nucleus of the atom is
unstable. They achieve stability through changes in the nucleus (spontaneous fission, emission of
alpha particles, or conversion of neutrons to protons or the reverse).
• This process is called radioactive decay or transformation, and often is followed by the release of
ionizing radiation (beta particles, neutrons, or gamma rays).
• Example:
Cesium, Cobalt, Iodine,Ionizing Radiation, Plutonium, Radium , Radon, Strontium, Thorium,
Uranium.
• Hazard information can be obtained from various sources. A complete Material Safety Data Sheet
(MSDS) provides useful information such as the hazard description, the toxicity data, and the acute
and chronic health effects.
Health effect determination for ionizing radiation
 Stochastic and non-stochastic effects

• There are 2 types of health effects due to exposure to radiation:

• stochastic
• non-stochastic.
• Stochastic effects are chronic effects of long-term, low-level radiation
exposure.
• Stochastic means the probability (likelihood) something will happen. An
increase in the level of radiation will cause the probability of health
effects to occur but does not affect the type of health effects
• For example cancer, genetic mutation
Stochastic and non-stochastic effects

• Non-stochastic effects are acute effects due to

short-term and high-level radiation exposure.
• Increased exposure to high levels of radiation will
cause health effects to worsen.
• Health effects are other than cancer or effects that
can be seen quickly.
• For example vomiting, hair loss, weakness, burning
skin
Stochastic and non-stochastic effects

▪ From a single high dose

▪ Cells that are sensitive to radiation such as skin
cells, blood, sperm, gut lining, nerves, liver,
bones and muscles, will receive the effects
▪ The minimum dose at which clinical signs can
be observed - 0.5 Sv
▪ White blood cells will decrease
Acute Effect of Ionizing Radiation
▪ 1.3 Sv the person is anemic
▪ 3.5 Sv hair will fall out, experience vomiting,
diarrhea and lethargy
▪ > 3.5 Sv may be death – the body has no more
white blood cells
▪ 8.5 Sv – death is certain
▪ > 8.5 Sv – immediate death when nerve cells are
involved.
EXPOSURE
ASSESSMENT

IONIZING
 Exposure Assessment

PROTECTION METHOD ROE

ROE
• Shield • Inhalation
• Time • Ingestion
Exposure assessment of the
• Distance radiation
• Skin Absorption

PROTECTION EA WORK

ROE + EXTERNAL + ENERGY/DOSE +

METHOD
EXTERNAL
ENERGY/ DOSE • airborne radioactive material (such as
dust, liquid, or aerosols) is deposited
Depends on the intensity of on skin or clothes
ENERGY/ DOSE
the energy given/ work • medical radiation exposure from
condition X-rays
 Exposure assessment of ionizing radiation
Estimation of the degree of exposure is primarily based on these
parameters:
a) Frequency of exposure, F
b) Duration of exposure, D
c) Intensity or magnitude of exposure, M
 Control of Exposure To
Radiation Jumlah pendedahan tahap
sinaran akan bertambah
As Low As Reasonably Achievable (Time) jika tempoh masa
pendedahan lebih lama.
(ALARA)
• Basic principle of Ionizing radiation
exposure
Apabila jauh daripada

(Distance) sumber sinaran, semakin

kurang tahap
pendedahannya

Penghadang yang tebal

digunakan di sekeliling
sumber radiasi, akan
(Shielding) mengurangkan
pendedahannya pada
persekitaran
Masa Penghadang/shielding

Jarak
 Instrument / dosimeter

People who work with radiation wear film badges,

A Geiger counter (Geiger-Muller tube) is a device used for the which are checked regularly to monitor the levels of
detection and measurement of all types of radiation: alpha, radiation absorbed.
beta and gamma radiation.
 Measure Type of Exposure
radiation from the
machine/ source Community &
(primary beam)
Worker

Secondary
radiation, escape
the tube
(leakage)/ source Absorb in patient/
specific community

Absorb by the
radiographer/
handler
 Quantification of Ionizing
Exposure Air KERMA (Kinetic Energy Release per unit Mass)
Coming from equipment Can be use for detecting the leakage

ue in
ea Ai

ss re
su r

Ti su
re

ea
in

M
Effective Dose
Evaluate LONG – TERM, not use in Absorbed
energy and detect short term (skin burn)

E. En igh e
g. er t,
as le
t

M gy,
tb p
ke

as
ui m

H olu
e m

s,
fr Exa

V
Absorbed Dose Equivalent Dose
How much absorb worker/ client – detect Calculated measurement
SHORT TERM
 PRIME EXPOSURE FACTORS:
1) Tube Current (mA) – current pass
2) Exposure Time (second)
3) Tube Potential (kVp) – kilo voltage peak
4) Distance (SID) – source to image distance

Equation of
Exposure
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 Nature
• It is possible to explain many atomic scale phenomena by
assuming that all atoms are made up of three fundamental
particles. These are called electrons, protons and neutrons.
• The simplest atomic combination is formed by one electron and
one proton ‑ the hydrogen atom.
• In general, however, a number of negatively charged electrons
rotate in certain allowed orbits around a central nucleus which is
composed of an equal number of positively charged protons and
some neutrons.
Hydrogen Isotopes
Different Types of Ionising Radiation
Type Symbol Nature Charge Relative Range in Penetration
Mass Air

alpha α particulate ++ 4 0.4 - 2 cm None

(helium nucleus)

beta β particulate - 1/1800 5-20 cm Slight

(electron)

neutron n particulate 0 1 long High

(neutron)

gamma γ electro-magnetic 0 0 v.long High

x-ray χ electro-magnetic 0 0 v.long High

 Radionuclides
• Ionising radiation is emitted from
unstable nuclei which are decaying,
with the emission of energy.
• These are known as radioactive nuclei
(radionuclides).
• A radionuclide loses its
radioactivity by decay.
The trefoil symbol is used to
indicate radioactive material.
 Units of Ionising Radiation
• Most countries now use the International System of Units
(abbreviated SI from the French le Système International
d'Unités) which is the modern form of the metric system.
• The US continues to use an older system for some
regulatory purposes.
 Units for Measuring Radiation – Part 1

Activity (Becquerel)
• The SI unit of for the activity of a radioactive material is
the becquerel (Bq), where one Becquerel = 1
disintegration per second.
• The traditional unit of activity has been the Curie (Ci),
where one Curie = 3.7 x 1010 disintegration's per second.
 Units for Measuring Radiation – Part 2

• Absorbed Dose (Gray)

• This is a measurement of the energy imparted to matter
by ionising radiation per unit mass of the material. The SI
unit of absorbed dose is the gray (Gy), which is equal to
an energy absorption of 1 joule/Kg.
• The traditional unit of absorbed dose is the rad, where 1
Gray = 100 rads.
 Units for Measuring Radiation – Part 3

Dose Equivalent (Sievert)

• Equal absorbed doses may not always give rise to equal risks of any
biological effect. The relative biological effectiveness of a particular absorbed
dose may be affected by the type of radiation or the radiation conditions.
Accordingly the equivalent dose can be expressed as:
– Dose equivalent (Sievert) = Absorbed dose (Gray) x Modifying Factor.
– The modifying factor depends on both the 'quality' of the radiation (which is 1.0 for the
lower energy radiations but rises to 20 for high energy fission fragments) and the part of
the body affected.
– The traditional unit is the rem where 1 sievert = 100 rem.
 External Radiation
The effects of external exposure can be
summarised as:
• α Minimal hazard
• β Skin and eyes at risk
• γχ Whole body at risk (penetrating radiation)
 Internal Radiation
The internal effects of exposure are:

• α Very serious hazard

• β Serious hazard
• χγ Not normally applicable
 Levels of Radiation
The Los Alamos National Laboratory in the US
provides an online tool which enables you to
calculate your annual radiation dose. This takes into
account:
• Cosmic radiation which increases with height
above sea level
• The material which your home is made from.
• Time spent on aircraft
• Smoking
• Medical x–rays
• Other lifestyle factors.
Biological Effects of Ionising Radiation

Acute Effects Chronic Effects

Erythema Cancer

Blood change Hereditary defects

Sterility

Death
 Uses of Radiation – Part 1
Industrial
• Gauges - radiation (α, β, χ, neutrons) can be used to measure
thickness, density and moisture level
• Industrial Radiography - checking the integrity of welds (γ, χ)
• Laboratory analytical techniques - X-ray diffraction and
fluorescence
• Tracers - Radionuclides are used in yield determination, wear
tests, water and oil reservoir investigations.
 Uses of Radiation – Part 1
• Medical
• Diagnostic X-rays
• Medical imaging - radionuclides are sometimes used as
markers.
• Cancer treatment - using radionuclides to destroy
tumours.
 Measurement of Radiation – Part 1

• Emitted radiation: Geiger counters and scintillation

counters can be used to measure the levels of radiation
from particular sources. The devices are often specific to
the type of radiation being measured.
 Measurement of Radiation – Part 2

• Radiation dose: Various devices can be used to measure

personal dose. It is important to differentiate between
internal dose (that which a person takes into their body by
routes such as breathing) and external dose (received
simply by virtue of being in an environment where
radiation is present).
 Radiological Protection – Part 1
• Time: Limiting or minimizing the amount of time to which
people are exposed to radiation will reduce the dose
which they receive.
• Distance: Radiation intensity decreases sharply with
distance, according to an inverse square law. In addition
even air attenuates alpha and beta radiation.
 Radiological Protection – Part 2
• Shielding: Alpha particles may be completely stopped by a sheet
of paper, beta particles by aluminum shielding. Gamma rays can
only be reduced by much more substantial barriers. Barriers
composed of lead, concrete or water give effective protection from
energetic particles such as gamma rays and neutrons. Some
radioactive materials are stored or handled underwater or by
remote control in rooms constructed of thick concrete or lined with
lead.
 Radiological Protection – Part 3
• Containment: Radioactive materials may be used in
"sealed sources" to prevent them spreading. The use of
small working spaces, segregated areas and controlled
ventilation are also used to contain the release of
radioactive materials
Radiological Protection
 Health Surveillance
Employees working in controlled areas
would typically be subjected to:
• Completion of a questionnaire
• A blood test
• Urine test
• Blood Pressure check
• Height and Weight Check
• General discussion about health.