CHAPTER 1: THE PSUnians
• PSU PRESIDENT: DR. ELBERT M. GALAS
• 9 Campuses of PSU System
• 6 Independent College PSU Lingayen
• PSU STUDENT HANDBOOK: location of the duties
and responsibilities of PSUnians.
PSU MISSION: The Pangasinan State University shall provide
a human-centric, resilient, and sustainable academic
environment to produce dynamic, responsive, and future ready
individuals capable of meeting the requirements of the local
and global communities and industries.
PSU VISION: To be a leading industry-driven State University
in the ASEAN region by 2030.
NEW STRATEGIC GOALS
SG1: Industry-Focused and Innovation-Based Student
Learning and Development
SG2: Responsive and Sustainable Research, Community
Extension, and Innovative Programs
SG3: Effective and Efficient Governance and Financial
Management
SG4: High-Performing and Engaged Human Resource
SG5: Strategic and Functional Internationalization Program
PSU CORE VALUES Accountability and Transparency
Credibility and Integrity
Competence and Commitment to Achieve
Excellence in Service Delivery
Social and Environmental Responsiveness
Spirituality
PSU QUALITY POLICY
The Pangasinan State University shall be
Recognised as an ASEAN premier state
University that provides quality education
And satisfactory service delivery through
Instruction, research, extension, and
Production.
We commit our expertise and resources
To produce professionals who meet the
Expectations of the industry and
Other interested parties in the national
And international community.
We shall continuously improve our
Operations in response to the
Changing environment and in support
Of the institution’s strategic direction.
CHAPTER 2: The Study of Personality
PERSONALITY- it’s who we are. Our personalities determine
how we act and react, as well as how we interact with and
respond to the world.
• Personality is how people affect others and how they
understand and view themselves
• How people affect others depends primarily on their
external appearance (height, weight, facial features, color,
and other physical aspects) and traits.
1. Parents
2. Friends
3. Genetics
4. Work
5. Culture
6. Environment
PERSONALITY - derived from the Latin word ‘persona’
meaning ‘mask’.
✓ The relatively stable feelings, thoughts, and behavioral
patterns a person has.
✓ If personality is stable, does this mean that it does not
change? It does. Changes occur.
✓ Enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking
about the environment and oneself, and are exhibited in a
wide range of important social and personality context.
Personality Development
• Converting negative to positive personalities, acquiring
new, improving what you already have.
• An improvement in all spheres of an individual’s life, be it
with friends, in the office or in any other environment.
IMPORTANCE:
✓ Personality development grooms an individual and helps
him make a mark of his/her own. (Help us to be unique.
Sometimes, we wear mask in order to fit in the
society/peers.)
✓ Personality development goes a long way in reducing
stress and conflicts.
✓ Personality development helps you develop a positive
attitude in life.
Understanding Today’s Generation
What shapes our PERSONALITY?
 Gen X
 Gen Y
 Gen Z
 Alpha
How do we understand Today’s Generation?
1. Today’s generation is a product of several factors that
shape their personalities and identities.
2. These factors may include heredity, environmental
influences as well as cultural influences.
3. We are living in a world characterised by constant
changes hence; each generation is also a product of
these changes.
SHAPING OF PERSONALITY
→ GENETIC INFLUENCES - The early appearance of such
characteristics suggests that they are determined in part by
genetic factors and are inherited from the parents.
→ ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES - Most psychological
theories of development assume that forces acting early in
life have more influence in shaping our personalities than
do later.
→ CULTURAL INFLUENCES - Western culture is
independent, self-assertive and motivated to achieve.
Non-Western culture is the interdependence of persons
with others in the community. Children are encouraged to
be part of functioning community
GENETICS
 Research shows that reliable differences can be observed
among infants beginning at about 3 months of age.
 Such characteristics are activity level, attention span,
adaptability to changes in the environment & general mood.
 Such mood related personality characteristics, called
temperament, are building blocks for the individual's later
personality.
Types Of Child Rearing Practices. / Individual (child)
Personality
1. Authoritative - Increase level of control, warmth & able to
use 2-way communication.
2. Authoritarian - Competent & capable individual BUT might
lack spontaneity & social withdrawal.
3. Indulgent - Accepting, responsive, have a positive mood BUT
too much indulgent will create immature individuals, lack of
impulse control, lack of social responsibility & self-reliance.
4. Neglecting - Neurotic, abuse substances.
➢ 01 Child differ from one another in the degree to which they
form secure attachments to their primary caregivers in the
1st year of life.
➢ 02 Those who form such attachments are observed in later
childhood to approach difficult problems with enthusiasm
and persistence, to be self- directed and eager to learn & to
be social leaders among their peers. In contrast, children
who are less securely attached at the end of their first year
are more easily. frustrated, are more dependent on adults
and tend to be socially withdrawn.
➢ 03 The failure to form secure attachments in the early years
has been related to an inability to develop close personal
relationships in adulthood.
PARENTS in non- Western culture punish wrong behaviours &
do not explicitly praise or reward good behaviour.
1. Western culture
 independent
 self-assertive
 motivated to achieve
2. Non-Western culture
 Interdependence of persons with others in
the community
 Children are encouraged to be part of
functioning community
Basic PERSONALITY Traits “Big Five” - OCEAN
The English vocabulary contains nearly 20,000 trait terms. But
there is a lot of redundancy among them (sociable, outgoing).
Decades of research on similarities between traits have yielded
five clusters:
 Openness
 Conscientiousness
 Extroversion
 Agreeableness
 Neuroticism
These tendencies mix in different proportions to create different
personalities.
1. OPENNESS- The degree to which a person is curious,
original, intellectual, creative, and open to new ideas.
→ People high in openness are highly motivated to learn new
skills, and they do well in training settings. They also have
an advantage when they enter into a new organisation.
 Their open-mindedness leads them to seek a lot of
information and feedback about how they are doing and to
build relationships, which leads to quicker adjustment to
the new job.
2. CONSCIENTIOUSNESS- The degree to which a person is
organised, systematic, punctual, achievement oriented,
and dependable.
→ Conscientiousness is the one personality trait that
uniformly predicts how high a person’s performance will
be, across a variety of occupations and jobs.
→ In addition to their high performance, conscientious people
have higher levels of motivation to perform, lower levels of
turnover, lower levels of absenteeism, and higher levels of
safety performance at work.
3. EXTROVERSION- The degree to which a person is
outgoing, talkative, and sociable, and enjoys being in social
situations.
→ Extraverts do well in social situations, and as a result they
tend to be effective in job interviews. They have an easier
time than introverts when adjusting to a new job. They
actively seek information and feedback, and build effective
relationships, which helps with their adjustment.
4. AGREEABLENESS- The degree to which a person is nice,
tolerant, sensitive, trusting, kind, and warm.
→ People who are high in agreeableness are likeable people
who get along with others. Not surprisingly, agreeable
people help others at work consistently, and this helping
behaviour is not dependent on being in a good mood. They
are also less likely to retaliate when other people treat
them unfairly.
5. NEUROTICISM- The degree to which a person is anxious,
irritable, aggressive, temperamental, and moody.
→ These people have a tendency to have emotional
adjustment problems and experience stress and
depression on a habitual basis. People very high in
neuroticism experience a number of problems at work.
What Is Personal Branding?
 Personal branding is the process of creating a brand
identity for a person or a company. As the name
suggests, this is a brand for you or your business.
✓ Personal branding is not just about marketing but about
being your marketer. It is about standing for yourself and
your business to command respect and confidence from
your peers and customers. The word “branding” can have
a negative connotation when used in the context of
businesses.
However, applying the correct principles and strategies will
help you create a brand identity for your business and help you
stand out from your competition.
Why Is Personal Branding Important?
In an era where people’s attention spans are getting
shorter by the minute, the need to make an impression is more
important than ever. And the best way to do this is by creating a
solid and memorable brand identity.
4 Reasons for Personal Branding
1. Helps One Stand Out from The Crowd
✓ A personal brand results from what others think and
say about you when you’re not in the room. It is your
reputation, and it can make or break your career.
So, why is personal branding so important?
 For starters, it helps you stand out from the crowd. In a
world where everyone has a degree, employers are looking
for candidates with something extra that makes them
unique.
 By developing a solid personal brand, you can make
yourself the one they remember. In addition, personal
branding can help you command a higher salary.
 It starts with knowing who you are and what you want to
be known for.
2. Leads to Opportunity
✓ A personal brand is the unique combination of skills
and experiences that make you who you are. It’s what
makes you unique and sets you apart from everyone
else.
 By developing a personal brand, you’re giving yourself a
competitive advantage. People will remember you and
your brand when they look for someone with your particular
skills and expertise.
 In addition, a strong personal brand can lead to new
opportunities. When people see that you’re an expert in
your field, they’ll be more likely to give you opportunities to
collaborate or work on new projects.
3. Your Audience Will Trust You More
✓ Personal branding is the process of creating an identity
for yourself as an individual or business. This involves
developing a well-defined and consistent look,
message, and presence online and offline.
 There are many psychology-based reasons why you might
want to work on your personal brand.
 For one thing, it can help you build trust with your
audience. When people feel like they know who you are and
what you stand for, they’re more likely to trust you.
 They know what to expect from you and that you’re an
authority in your field. Finally, personal branding can help
you attract opportunities.
4. People Will Always Screen You Online
✓ With social media and Google, it’s easy for anyone to
find out information about you with just a few clicks. As
a result, it’s essential to be aware of how you are
presented online.
 Personal branding can help you control the narrative about
yourself and introduce yourself in the best light possible.
It’s also a way to stand out from the competition.
 In a world where everyone has a website and an online
presence, personal branding can help you make yours
stand out from the rest.
 Personal branding can also help you build trust with
potential customers and clients. Therefore, personal
branding is essential for anyone who wants to succeed in
today’s digital world.
How To Get Started Developing Your Brand
✓ One good place to start is by cleaning up your social media
accounts. You can control what your reputation is online.
✓ Use your website not only to build your brand but to add
value to your audience. This is your platform to showcase
your skills and experience, and also to share valuable
advice with your audience.
✓ Create a logo and theme for yourself, and keep it
consistent throughout all your social media profiles.
✓ Publish compelling content that will draw in your
audience and keep them coming back for more because
your content adds value to their lives.
✓ Consider creating specialized, personal content that you
can give your audience in exchange for their email address;
this is a great way to build your email list.
A business is nothing without a personal brand behind it.
However, this does not mean you must forsake your business
for your brand. Instead, it would be best to have a clear and
purposeful strategy for the two.
Personal branding can only be successful if backed by a strong
business strategy. If your plan is weak, your brand is already
defeated before it has even begun. When you integrate your
business and personal brands, you have a powerful branding
combination that can help you reach your goals faster and
easier.
10 Golden Rules of Personal Branding
One of the easiest ways to get lost in the process is to
not know where to start. Even Oprah Winfrey began by going
through several style iterations on a small local show before
defining her voice into one of the most influential personal
brands in the world.
In both our look-at-me cultural shift and evolving job
market, it’s both helpful and necessary to stand out when
applying for a job or starting your own company. A personal
brand is for (almost) everyone.
1. Have a focus.
✓ “Too many people are unfocused when it comes to
press and coverage, trying to be “everything to
everyone.” Decide what your key message is and stick
to it,” says Cooper Harris, founder and CEO of
Klickly.
Her personal brand has undergone a dramatic shift—from
working actress to respected tech entrepreneur and she has
handled this shift by only focusing on one message at a time.
Keeping your message focused for your target demographic will
make it that much easier to both create content around your
personal brand and have others define you.
In fact, Adam Smiley Poswolsky, millennial workplace expert
and author of The Breakthrough Speaker, takes it one step
further when he’s advising speakers: “Carve a niche, and then
carve a niche within your niche. The best personal brands are
very specific.”
And Juan Felipe Campos, VP of tech and partner at Manos
Accelerator, goes one step further to focus on communities
that he targets with his large-scale clients. “Keep your message
and content consistent to one niche topic to become
memorable within a targeted community.”
The narrower and more focused your brand is, the
easier it is for people to remember who you are. And when it
comes time to hire a speaker or a new employee, your
narrowed-down brand will be what they remember.
2. Be genuine.
✓ There’s an easy way to have an original personal
brand—and that is to be genuine and authentic.
Millennial influencer and head of marketing at Popular
Demand, Monica Lin, says “People can see right through a
disingenuous act.”
The more obviously a brand is a copycat, the more the
audience will call out the perpetrator for it. Monica’s personal
brand experienced a huge amount of growth after she began
engaging with her audience more meaningfully on Twitter.
“Be genuine. It will make it much easier to manage your
personal brand on a daily basis,” - William Harris, Facebook
ads expert at Elumynt.
Your personal brand should be an easy daily filter that
you create content and reach out to your audience with.
Justin Wu, founder of CoinState says “Be a master of
your craft, skillset or industry before starting a personal brand.
Then your content will help amplify who you are.”
When initially building his personal brand, he garnered
a reputation of being an expert in his field while simultaneously
amplifying on social media that same renown. If you’re deeply
skilled in one area, your reputation alone will help you build the
brand you want.
3. Tell a story.
✓ If your personal brand isn’t telling a story, you’ve
already lost half of your potential audience.
Allen Gannett, chief strategy officer at Skyword and author
of The Creative Curve explains it best:” The most effective
personal branding strategy these days is to build a true narrative
– single character monologues are boring in Tinseltown, and
even more boring for your personal brand.”
No one wants to hear you shout about your brand into
the social media void, so create a story around your brand that
your audience can engage with. Allen regularly meets and chats
with his audience in airports around the world, further
developing his warm and friendly personal brand.
One of the best ways to tell that story is through written
content or video. For Pelpina Trip, social video strategist, this
is definitely the case. Her own video channel on LinkedIn sees
some of the highest levels of engagement across the platform.
“The most personal way to communicate online is with video.
Simply use your smartphone to video message your clients,
make a personal connection with prospective clients and
connect with co-workers. After all, you always have your
smartphone on you!”
4. Be consistent.
✓ Being consistent is very similar to having a narrow
focus—it’s much easier to get recognized for one topic
if you consistently create content and brand voice
around it.
“Ensure that your personal brand promise stays consistent,
both online and offline,” explains Fyiona Yong, director and
millennial leadership coach (ICF ACC).
She regularly works with millennials in a corporate
context to help them define their more conservative work goals.
“You have to demonstrate consistency across your
communication, gravitas, and appearance. Don’t
underestimate how tiny inconsistencies can derail personal
brand effectiveness.”
On the opposite, creative side, CyreneQ, a top storyteller on
Snapchat, suggests “something consistent either visually or
personality wise. Something unique that people can associate
with your brand and know it’s you. For example, a sidekick
mascot or having a catchphrase you say after every video –
something people can fall in love with.”
Her sidekick mascot, Ele, has garnered millions of
views per Snap for brand work, allowing her fun personal brand
to represent big box brands like Walmart and DC. So, whether
you’re creating a wild, incredibly out-there fun brand or one
that’s a bit more on the conservative, corporate side,
consistency is key.
5. Be ready to fail.
✓ Failure is tough, and all of us generally want to avoid it
– that’s human nature. However, to have a personal
brand that rises above the rest, you need to have a
failure.
Walt Disney spoke of this often when he reminisced about his
failed first attempts at creating an animation brand. “I think it’s
important to have a good hard failure when you’re young. I
learned a lot out of that. Because it makes you kind of aware of
what can happen to you.” And what can happen is never as
frightening as not trying at all.
When Timothy Hoang, CEO of Stories By Tim, Inc.
Develops his influencer clients, he likes to tell them: “You’ll
never achieve the best branding until you fail a couple times
while pushing past your comfort zone.” The very best brands
always come from repeated trial and error, mistakes and
failures and not from instant perfection.
6. Create a positive impact.
✓ After you’ve developed your personal brand over a
period of time, there are generally two ways to
continue to build your brand – hop over others and
burn bridges or steadily grow a community around
your brand.
Jacob Shwirtz, head of social partnerships at WeWork, who
has worked with many of the top influencers in the world,
including makeup personality, Michelle Phan, gives us this
wisdom.
My quick tip on personal branding is to remember you
are your brand, no matter what your current job is, what project
you happen to be working on at any one time or whatever the
priority happens to be today... always keep in mind the impact
you leave on others and remember all we have is our own
reputation and that’s our brand, so be awesome to each other!
Keeping a positive attitude and helping others will only help
healthily grow your brand in the long run.
7. Follow a successful example.
“People interested in personal branding need to start marketing
themselves like the celebrities and influential people that they
look up to every day,“explains Jason Wong, CEO of Wonghaus
Ventures.
His own personal brand has gone viral several times,
over subjects like ice cream in Japan, inflatable pool toys and
memes, earning him the title of the “Meme King.” His success
often comes from studying trends and popular individuals on
different social media platforms and then implementing them
with a twist. Creatively dissecting social analytics and
establishing the next big trend can be within your grasp too, if
you pay attention across all social media platforms and not
simply focus narrowly on one of them.
8. Live your brand.
✓ As mentioned before, one of the ways you can make
building a personal brand difficult on yourself is to
separate your brand from your personal life. While
certainly doable, it’s easier when initially creating a
personal brand to have your actual lifestyle and brand
be one and the same.
Tim Salau, community builder and founder of Mentors &
Mentees, who works with college students to help them build
brands that will get them hired, believes in this idea as well.
“Your personal brand should follow you everywhere you go. It
needs to be an authentic manifestation of who you are and
amplify what you believe.”
With this in mind, your personal brand is not only a
reflection of a series of job functions like marketing, finance or
creative but also ideals like giving back, thoughtful leadership
or mentorship.
9. Let other people tell your story.
✓ The best PR is by word of mouth. Creating a personal
brand in the public sphere is no exception to this rule.
Aaron Orendorff, editor in chief at Shopify Plus, tells his
personal story through lively videos and the occasional bunny
co-host or two and his audience remembers. They’re able to
recall the bright outfits and the animal friends and tie those
pieces of the story to their interpretation of his brand.
As he eloquently states: “Personal branding is the
story people tell about you when you’re not in the room.” Jessie
Maltin, co-host of Maltin on Movies works with her father,
renowned film critic Leonard Maltin and has watched him
build his career over the past several decades. “All you have in
your life is your name and the reputation you garner.”
10. Leave a legacy.
✓ Once you’ve built your personal brand with a
reputation and community behind it, the next step is
to think about the legacy that you’ll leave behind.
What are the keywords and actions that you want to be
known for?
Blake Jamieson, artist at Blake Jamieson LLC, who
paints pop art portraits of famous tech and sports heroes
reminds us that: “Building a personal brand is much bigger than
building a business. The only exit strategy is legacy.”
A personal brand is a lifelong project that constantly evolves
and changes. Even the experts who build or enhance the biggest
brands in the business know that there are no hard-set rules for
creating a personal brand.
 THE PSUnians 1979
 PSU PRESIDENT: DR. ELBERT M. GALAS
 9 Campuses of PSU System
Alaminos, Binmaley, San Carlos City,
Asingan, Infanta, Santa Maria,
Bayambang, Lingayen Urdaneta City.
 6 Independent College PSU Lingayen
1. College of Arts, Sciences and Letters
2. College of Business and Public Administration
3. College of Computing Sciences
4. College of Hospitality and Tourism Management
5. College of Teacher Education
6. College of Industrial Technology
 PSU STUDENT HANDBOOK: location of the duties and
responsibilities of PSUnians.
Chapter 3&3.1: The Developing Personality
→ “Personality” originated from the Latin persona, which referred to a
theatrical mask worn by Roman actors in Greek dramas. These ancient
Roman actors wore a mask (persona) to project a role or false
appearance. This surface view of personality, of course, is not an
acceptable definition. When psychologists use the term
“personality,” they are referring to something more than the role
people play.
→ Personality is a pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique
characteristics that give both consistency and individuality to a
person’s behavior (Roberts & Mroczek, 2008).
Traits contribute to individual differences in behavior, consistency of
behavior over time, and stability of behavior across situations.
Traits may be unique, common to some group, or shared by
the entire species, but their pattern is different for each individual.
Thus, each person, though like others in some ways, has a unique
personality.
Characteristics are unique qualities of an individual that include such
attributes as temperament, physique, and intelligence.
A person’s personality should be seen as on-going
development process. Every person has a different personality and set
of traits. That is to say, no two people, not even identical twins, have
exactly the same personalities.
Determinants of Personality
1. Heredity(Genetic Factor)
 Is human behavior shaped more by heredity or by environment?
 (“nature”) refers to genetically passing characteristics from
parents to children. An incredible number of personal features
are set at conception, when a sperm and an ovum (egg) unite.
 The hold that human beings enter the world with innate/ inborn
store of knowledge and understanding of reality.
These factors not only affect the physical features of a person,
but the intelligence level, attentiveness, temperament, various
inherited diseases and energy level, all get affected by them.
One of the earliest human debates in psychology which is still raging
today centers whether human capabilities are inborn or acquired
through experience. The biggest debate being the nature vs. nurture.
Heredity plays an important role in the nativist view. The hold
that human beings enter the world with innate/inborn store of
knowledge and understanding of reality.
The example of how heredity factors determine such a huge
and significant part of an individual’s personality can easily be observed
in children. Many children behave exactly how their parents do.
Similarly, twin siblings also have a lot of things in common.
However, heredity can never be considered as charting a fixed
and definite course of anyone’s personality. At the best, what anyone
inherits are the potentialities such as manual skills, intelligence and
sensory discriminations which appear more highly developed in some
family lines.
2. Environment (Surroundings/Social and Cultural Factor)
 Social factors also play a vital role in determining one’s
personality. The things that revolve and evolve around us on a
regular basis determine our personality. The society that we live
in, the cultural environment that we face daily, the community we
get interacted to, all are included in this factor.
Relationships, co-ordination, cooperation, interaction,
environment in the family, organizations, workplaces, communities,
societies all contribute in way or another as personality determinants.
The culture in which one lives in, that may involve traditional
practices, norms, customs, procedures, rules and regulations,
precedents and values, all are important determinants of personality.
Moreover, the creed, religion and believes are also very important
factors of personality determinants.
3. Situational Day-to-Day Events Repeated)
 The situational factors can be commonly observed when a person
behaves contrastingly and exhibits different traits and
characteristics.
For example, a person’s behavior will be totally different when he is in
his office, in front of his boss, when compared to his hangout with old
friends in a bar.
In this way, situational factors impact a personality in a
significant way. They often bring out the traits of a person that are not
commonly seen.
Major Perspectives on Personality
One of the primary functions of scientific theory is to describe
and explain how the world works. Psychologists attempt to explain
how human thought, emotion, motivation, and behavior work. Yet
human personality is so complex that many different perspectives have
developed on how to best explain it. These perspectives make different
assumptions and focus on different aspects of behavior.
1. Psycho-Dynamic Perspectives
✓ Beginning with Freud, psychoanalytic and then the more general
psychodynamic approaches It focuses on the importance of early
childhood experience and on relationships with parents as guiding
forces that shape personality development. Additionally, this view
sees the unconscious mind and motives as much more powerful
than the conscious awareness.
Psychoanalysis traditionally used dream interpretation to uncover
the unconscious thoughts, feelings, and impulses as a main form of
treatment of neurosis and mental illness.
After Freud, these theorists moved away from the importance
of sexuality and more toward social and cultural forces.
✓ From the “phallus” which means “penis”
✓ The focus of pleasure shifts to the genital area as the child
discovers self-manipulation is enjoyable.
1. Oedipus Complex is the rivalry between the son and the father to
get the attention of the mother.
2. Castration Anxiety - The fear the son that his penis will be cut off
by the father if his desires for the mother continues. This
effectively crushes the boy’s incestuous desire for their mothers,
which are then repressed to into the unconscious.
3. Penis Envy The lack of penis of the girls. Blaming the mother for
such “shortcoming”. Resulting to the girl’s desire for their father.
4. Electra Complex The rivalry between the daughter and the
mother to get the attention of the father. Named after Electra, a
Greek character who conspired to kill her mother.
2. Humanistic Existential Perspectives
✓ The primary assumption of the humanistic (“positive
psychology”) approach is that people strive toward meaning,
growth, wellbeing, happiness, and psychological health. States of
positive emotion and happiness foster psychological health and
prosocial behavior.
Understanding these evolved positive aspects of human behavior
provides just as much insight into human nature as does understanding
the pathological aspects.
Existential theorists assume that not only are we driven by a
search for meaning, but also that negative experiences such as failure,
awareness of death, death of a loved one, and anxiety, are part of the
human condition and can foster psychological growth.
3. Dispositional (Trait) Perspectives
✓ Trait Theory, also known as Dispositional Theory, is an approach
to study human personality and behavior. It is the measurement
of steady patterns of habit in an individual’s behavior, thoughts
and emotions.
Dispositional theorists argue that the unique and long-term
tendencies to behave in particular ways are the essence of our
personality. These unique dispositions, such as extraversion or anxiety,
are called traits.
The field has converged on the understanding that there are five
main trait dimensions in human personality. Traits serve the function of
making certain behaviors more likely in some people.
Trait theorists focus on the measurement of ‘traits’, which lead to a
better understanding of human personality. Over a period of time, traits
become relatively stable, depending on the individual and his social
and environmental surroundings, which influence behavior.
4. Biological Evolutionary Perspectives
✓ Behavior, thought, feelings, and personality are influenced by
differences in basic genetic, epigenetic, and neurological systems
between individuals. The reason some people have different
traits, dispositions, and ways of thinking stems from differences
in their genotype and central nervous system (brain structures and
neurochemistry).
Because they are based on evolved brain systems, human thought,
behavior, and personality have been shaped by forces of evolution
(natural and sexual selection) over millions of years.
The body, brain, and environment co-exist and coevolve,
and so more than any other psychological perspective, this one
emphasizes that what we think, feel, and do is always an interaction
between nature (biological) and nurture (environment).
5. Learning Social Cognitive Perspectives
✓ If you want to understand behavior, then focus only on behavior,
not on hypothetical and unobservable internal states such as
thoughts, feelings, drives, or motives. All behaviors are learned
through association and/or its consequences (whether it is
reinforced or punished). To shape desired behavior, we have to
understand and then establish the conditions that bring about
those particular behaviors.
The cognitive perspective argues that how we think about
ourselves and other people, as well as the assumptions we make and
the strategies we use for solving problems, are the keys to
understanding differences between people. Whether we believe we
can do something successfully or not influences our behavior as well
as our personality. In short, what personality we have is shaped by how
we think and perceive the world.
Chapter 3.2-Major Perspective in Personality Development
Psychodynamic Perspective - Beginning with Freud, psychoanalytic
and then the more general psychodynamic approaches have focused
on the importance of early childhood experience and on relationships
with parents as guiding forces that shape personality development.
1. The Psychosexual Theory of Development (Sigmund Freud)
Personality involves negotiating the tensions between our
biological, sexual drives and the expectations and standards of the
society. Individuals go through five psychosexual stages.
Sexual or libidinal energies are focused on the different parts of the
body (Erogenous Zones) during each stage. Fixation occurs when the
need during each stage is not met.
 Freud’s theory of psychosexual development claims that as we
grow up, we pass through five critical phases.
 Our sex drive, which Freud called the libido, focuses in a different
erogenous zone at each phase. The phases are called: oral, anal,
phallic, latency, and genital.
 If our experience during any of these phases was traumatic, we
might develop fixations later in life, such as neurosis,
dependencies, addictions, or depression.
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
1. Oral Stage (From Birth to 12-18 Months)
 The mouth is the center of pleasure.
 Infants derives comfort from sucking, chewing and biting.
When needs are not met [i.e., early weaning] or are
overindulged [i.e., prolonged thumb sucking], personality and
behavioral problems occur. Oral fixation may be manifested by
gossiping and talking too much and overeating, smoking and
alcoholism.
a. Oral Phase, Age 0-1 - In the first year of our lives, we discover the
world through our oral senses. Our main pleasure comes from sucking
our mother’s breast or a bottle. The conflict that occurs now is the
weaning from our primary caregiver.
2. Anal Stage (Between 12-18 Months to 3 Years)
 The child’s greatest pleasure involves the anus or the
eliminative functions associated with it. The idea of toilet
training. If toilet training is too harsh or demanding, or begun too
early or too late, problems may occur.
 Anal fixation results to:
✓ Being controlling, stingy, stubborn, and excessively
concerned with cleanliness and orderliness.
✓ Being messy, disorganized, extravagant and impulsive.
b. Anal Phase, Age 1-3: The primary focus of our libido at this age is the
control of the bladder and bowel movements. We have to learn how to
use the potty. Competent personality and a good and balanced
relationship with authority.
 Anal-retentive personality- becomes an over-controlling
and stingy adult, with disgust for his own body and a
tendency to obey authority.
 Anal-expulsive personality- becomes messy, disorganized,
inconsiderate of other people’s feelings, and rebellious
against authority.
3. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 Years)
 From the “phallus” which means “penis”
 The focus of pleasure shifts to the genital area as the child
discovers self-manipulation is enjoyable.
• Oedipus Complex- Rivalry between the son and the father to get the
attention of the mother.
• Castration Anxiety- The fear the son that his penis will be cut off by
the father if his desires for the mother continues. This effectively
crushes the boy’s incestuous desire for their mothers, which are then
repressed to into the unconscious.
• Penis Envy- The lack of penis of the girls. Blaming the mother for
such “shortcoming”. Resulting to the girl’s desire for their father.
• Electra Complex- The rivalry between the daughter and the mother
to get the attention of the father. Named after Electra, a Greek
character who conspired to kill her mother.
c. Phallic Phase, Age 3-6: Our libido now turns to the genitals as we
discover the differences between the female and the male gender.
The boys' conflict in this phase occurs as a rivalry with their
father. Also called the “Oedipus Complex”. Ernst and Hans desire to
possess their mother and fantasize about getting rid of their father. But
they know that their father is stronger and fear being punished for their
desire. Freud called this “castration anxiety”. “penis envy”- penis is the
key to power and domination and also wants one.
4. Latency Stage [6 to 11 Years]
 Sexual desires and impulses from the phallic stage are
repressed during this stage.
 The child channels all his energies toward developing social,
intellectual, and moral skills. Focus on peer relationships and
school.
d. Latent Phase, Age 7-13: In this phase, our libido is suppressed as our
sexual energy is being sublimed into developing life skills. Our superego
strengthens and we strongly identify with social values, same-sex
heroes, and friends. There is no real conflict in this phase.
5. Genital Stage [11 Years to Adulthood]
 Puberty age. Individual’s sexual drives return and once again
focused on the genitals.
 However, the object of the sexual desire is the opposite sex,
and the needs are gratified through mature, genital love
relationships.
e. Genital Phase, Puberty to Death: Once we reach puberty our libido
starts to become active again and we develop an interest in sexual
partners. The needs of the “superego”’ to obey social norms.
Freud claimed that our mind operates in 3 spheres, which we
can imagine as a submarine. The unconscious level operates the Id.
The preconscious level operates the Superego. The conscious and
preconscious level operate our Ego.
Young children are driven by the Id and demand immediate
satisfaction. At around age seven, we begin to develop a Superego and
want to become good moral citizens and please others. The Ego is
formed with adolescence to balance the two forces.
Sigmund Shlomo Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of
Psychoanalysis. Freud theorized that the unconscious would
remember and store all our experiences, later they pop up from time to
time through dreams and associative thoughts.
By revealing traumatic memories and desires through
conversation we can free ourselves from our neurosis and live a
healthier and fulfilled life. He recommended: “we should not strive to
eliminate our complexes but to get into accord with them: they are
legitimately what directs our conduct in the world.”
2. Psychosocial Theory of Development (Erik Erikson)
Focused on the individual’s social relations than sexual
motivations. Different challenges people face throughout their lives
have more to do with their relationships with other people and societies
demand.
Two major events at each stages of development:
→ Development of individuals competencies
→ Performing according to societal demands
• Struggle between the two leads to CRISIS.
Erikson's theory of psychosocial development identifies eight
stages in which a healthy individual should pass through from birth to
death. At each stages we encounter different needs, ask new questions
and meet people who influence our behavior and learning.
8 Stages of Development
1. Trust VS. Mistrust (Birth to 12-18 Months)
▪ Infants need sensitive, responsive care from the caregiver. Each
time the needs are adequately provided – whether these are food,
diaper change etc. – the infant develops a sense of trust and
security.
Hopeful and optimistic that his needs will be met by others
as well. If the care is inadequate, insensitive or inconsistent, the child
is likely to develop a sense of mistrust. He may withdraw from other
people for the belief that they cannot fulfill his needs. He may feel
insecure and unworthy of responsive care from others.
a. Basic Trust vs. Mistrust, Infancy (1-2 years) - As infants, we ask
ourselves if we can trust the world and we wonder if it's safe. We learn
that if we can trust someone now, we can also trust others in the future.
If we experience fear, we develop doubt and mistrust. The key to our
development is our mother.
2. Autonomy VS. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood- Between 12-
18 Months to 3 Years)
▪ Child assert his growing his growing independence and sense of
self.
If the adult’s set a balanced limit with the adequate
opportunities for the child to explore and do things on his own, then the
child develops a healthy sense of accomplishment, self-control and
self-esteem. If the child is overprotected, he may develop a sense of
doubt regarding his ability to do things on his own or shame over his
lack of control.
b. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt, Early Childhood (2-4 years) - In
our early childhood, we experience ourselves and discover our body.
We ask: is it okay to be me? If we are allowed to discover ourselves,
then we develop self-confidence. If we are not, we can develop shame
and self-doubt. Both parents now play a major role.
3. Initiative VS. Guilt (Preschool Age, or Between 3 and 6 Years)
▪ Greater challenges due to the expansion of social world including
peers and other relationships outside the family.
Greater sense of responsibility for themselves – cleaning up
their toys and brushing their teeth. When the adult support such
initiative, the child develops a greater sense of purpose and
responsibility. Feelings of guilt and inadequacy about initiating
activities may develop, for fear that these may be met with disapproval
by their parents and teachers.
c. Initiative vs. Guilt, Preschool Age (4-5 years) - In preschool, we
take initiative, try out new things, and learn basic principles like how
round things roll. We ask: Is it okay for me to do what I do? If we are
encouraged, we can follow our interests. If we are held back or told that
what we do is silly, we can develop guilt. We are now learning from the
entire family.
4. Industry VS. Inferiority (Middle Childhood-Between 6 & 11 Years)
▪ School, learning and developing knowledge and skills. More
serious hobbies, extracurricular activities.
▪ +develops a sense of competence and motivation to learn and
improve himself further.
▪ -If the child’s effort are frequently met with criticism and failure,
then he is vulnerable to feeling inadequacy and inferiority.
d. Industry vs. Inferiority, School Age (5-12 years) - Now we discover
our own interests and realize that we are different from others. We
want to show that we can do things right. We ask if we can make it in
this world? If we receive recognition from our teachers or peers, we
become industrious, which is another word for hard-working. If we get
too much negative feedback, we start to feel inferior and lose
motivation. Our neighbors and schools now influence us the most.
5. Identity VS. Identity Confusion (Adolescence- Between 11 & 20s)
▪ Central task of the adolescent is to establish an identity or a sense
of self in which her past, present and future are integrated. Main
question is “Who I am?”
▪ Identity crisis – characterized by the intense experimentation with
possible roles and alternative values and lifestyles.
▪ Moratorium. “time-out”-freely exploring various lifestyles, roles, or
career possibilities without having to make any premature
commitments.
▪ + Sense of fidelity or commitment to one’s value, vocation,
ideology, sexuality. - Identity confusion, or a sense of not knowing
who one is or where one headed.
e. Identity vs. Role Confusion, Adolescence (13–19 years) - During
adolescence, we learn that we have different social roles. We are
friends, students, children, and citizens. Many experience an identity
crises. If our parents now allow us to go out and explore, we can find an
identity. If they push us to conform to their views, we can face role
confusion and feel lost. Key to our learning are our peers and role
models.
6. Intimacy VS. Isolation (Young Adulthood, From the 20s to 40s)
▪ Considered sharing his unique self with other individual. Intimacy
in a mature heterosexual relationship characterized by genitality, or
self-sacrifice and compromise.
▪ + loving and committed relationship. - cannot commit at risk to be
lonely, isolated and withdraw.
f. Intimacy vs. Isolation, Early Adulthood (20-40 years) - As young
adults, we slowly understand who we are and we start to let go of the
relationships we had built earlier in order to fit in. We ask ourselves if
we can love? If we can make a long-term commitment, we are
confident and happy. If we cannot form intimate relationships, we
might end up feeling isolated and lonely. Our friends and partners are
now central to our development.
7. Generativity VS. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, or 40s to the 60s)
▪ Most adults are preoccupied with raising a family, and /or
establishing themselves in their vocation or career.
▪ Adults develop a concern for the welfare of the future generation or
younger generations, and the need to pass on or leave a “legacy”
regarding what they have learned.
▪ Generativity take the form of parenting, mentoring, teaching or
engaging in sociocivic work.
▪ Stagnation may stem from the inability to establish intimacy in the
previous developmental stage.
▪ Without the experience of true mutuality and selfgiving in the
context of a personal relationship, an individual would find it
difficult to share himself with the bigger society.
▪ Midlife crisis – period of reassessing his life and the decisions he
has made.
g. Generativity vs. Stagnation - Adulthood (40-65 years) - When we
reach our forties, we become comfortable, use our leisure time
creatively and maybe begin contributing to society. Our concern is
Generativity. If we think that we are able to lead the next generation into
this world, we are happy. If we did not resolve some conflicts earlier,
we can become pessimistic and experience stagnation. People at
home and at work are now who influence us most.
8. Integrity VS. Despair (Late Adulthood - 60s And Beyond)
▪ Marked by gradual decline in physical and cognitive abilities.
▪ Psychosocially, this is the time when the elderly, confronted with
their morality, look back on their lives.
▪ When an individual feels that he has lives well, coped satisfactorily
with life’s struggle, he develops a sense of integrity and wholeness,
the virtue of wisdom, and the readiness to face death.
▪ However, if a person looks back at his life and sees a series of
missed opportunities and failures, he will live his final years in
despair. Fear of death.
h. Ego Integrity vs. Despair, Maturity (65-death) - As we grow older,
we tend to slow down and begin to look back over our lives. We ask:
how have I done? If we think we did well, we develop feelings of
contentment and integrity. If not, we can experience despair and
become grumpy and bitter. Time to compare us with mankind.
❖ Erik Erikson was a German-American psychologist who together
with his wife Joan, became known for his work on psychosocial
development. He was influenced by Sigmund and Anna Freud and
became famous for coining the phrase "identity crisis." Although
Erikson lacked even a bachelor's degree, he served as a professor
at Harvard and Yale.
Humanistic Perspective - The primary assumption of the humanistic
(currently known as “positive psychology”) approach is that people
strive toward meaning, growth, well -being, happiness, and
psychological health.
States of positive emotion and happiness foster psychological
health and pro -social behavior.
 Abraham Maslow Hierarchy of Needs - believed that
people strive for a positive view of the self to realize their own
potentials fully. Believed these needs were innate but without a
supportive, nurturing environment, this essential striving for full
potential could not take place.
In other words, he believed we all strive to work at our fullest
potential. We all want to become “self-actualized” that is reaching and
using our full potential in our vocational and personal life
He believed a person must satisfy the needs at the lower levels before
moving on to tackle the ones at the top. For example, if you don’t have
enough to eat, or scared you may lose your house, you probably won’t
strive as much for personal accomplishment.
➢ This is very difficult to test. Also, some of the most creative people have
lived in poverty. Edgar Allen Poe for example.
 Self-actualization- desire to become the most that one can be
 Esteem- respect, self-esteem, status, recognition, strength,
freedom
 Love and belonging- friendship, intimacy, family, sense of
connection
 Safety needs- personal security, employment, resources,
health, property
 Physiological needs- air, water, food, shelter, sleep, clothing,
reproduction
Humanistic Perspectives
Hierarchy of Needs by Abraham Maslow - Maslow's Hierarchy of
Needs is a theory in psychology. It argues that there are five stages of
human needs that motivate our behavior.
Abraham Maslow proposed his theory in 1943 after studying
what he called exemplary people such as Albert Einstein or Eleanor
Roosevelt.
Stage 1 - First, there are physiological needs, such as the need to
breathe, eat, drink or sleep. The moment we got enough of that and we
feel awake and our bellies are full, we get motivated by the next thing.
Stage 2 - Now we want safety. We try to earn money, build up
resources and look for shelter that protects us against dangers. Once
we are satisfied and feel safe, we have time to think about what we
want next.
Stage 3 - At stage three we seek love and belonging. We desire to be
close to family and friends, belong to a society or join a gang. But the
moment we feel completely part of a group we already wish to be a
little different than the rest.
Stage 4 - At stage four we look for esteem, self-confidence, and
respect from our peers. We want to be someone. If we have money, we
buy a fancy watch. If we have a brain, we write or think or work a lot.
Motivation to perform and compete is now at its highest. Students,
sportsmen, and inventors excel. Neil Armstrong even flew to the moon.
Stage 5 - Only if we breathe and drink and eat and sleep enough and
we feel safe and part of a group and still special, only then we can reach
level five: self-actualization. Now we can relax, be creative, accept
facts for what they are, give back or do whatever we want. No more
pressure, unless of course there is trouble below.
Motivation Theory - need for achievement, affiliation and power. In the
early 1960s, McClelland built on Maslow’s work-described three
human motivators.
 Learned Needs Theory- McClelland (Arnold et al., 2005) claimed
that humans acquire, learn their motivators over time
 McClelland affirms that we all have three motivating drivers, and
it does not depend on our gender or age.
 One of these drives or needs will be dominant in our behavior.
 McClelland’s theory differs from Maslow’s and Alderfer’s, which
focus on satisfying existing needs rather than creating or
developing needs.
 This dominant motivator depends on our culture and life
experiences (but the three motivators are permanent).
 Prioritization and importance of these motivational needs
characterizes a person’s behavior.
Three Motivators
1. Achievement Motivation
• It is a need to accomplish and demonstrate competence or
mastery.
• It pertains to a person’s need for significant success, mastering of
skills, control or high standards.
• It is associated with a range of actions.
• Individuals seek achievement, attainment of challenging and
realistic goals, and advancement in the school or job.
• This need is influenced by internal drivers for action (intrinsic
motivation) and the pressure used by the prospects of others
(extrinsic motivation).
• Low need for achievement could mean that individuals want to
minimize risk of failure, and for this reason, people may choose
very easy or too difficult tasks, when they cannot avoid failure.
• In contrast, high need for achievement means that humans try to
choose optimal, sufficiently difficult tasks, because they want to
get the chance to reach their goals, but they have to work for it,
they need to develop themselves. Individual with high need for
achievement like to receive regular feedback on their progress and
achievements; and often like to work alone; seek challenges and
like high degree of independence.
• Sources of high need for achievement can be praise for success,
goal setting skills, one’s own competence and effort to achieve
something, and it does not depend only on luck; of course, positive
feelings and also independence in childhood.
• McClelland said that training, teaching can increase an
individual’s need for achievement. For this reason, some have
argued that need for achievement is not a need but a value.
2. Affiliation Motivation
• It is a need for love, belonging and relatedness.
• These people have a strong need for friendships and want to
belong within a social group, need to be liked and held in popular
regard.
• They are team players, and they may be less effective in
leadership positions.
• High-need-for-affiliation persons have support from those with
whom they have regular contact and mostly are involved in warm
interpersonal relationships.
• After or during stressful situation, individuals need much more
affiliation. In these situations, people come together and find
security in one another.
• There are times when individuals want to be with others and at
other times to be alone—affiliation motivation can become
increased or decreased.
• Individuals do not like high risk or uncertainty.
3. Power Motivation - It is a need for control over one’s own work or
the work of others.
Self-Determination Theory: 3 Basic Needs that drive our behavior.
 Self-determination theory was developed by the two American
psychologists, Richard Ryan and Edward Deci, in the 1970s.
 Self-determination theory argues that we do what we do, because
we are motivated by three basic needs that drive our behavior
more than anything else.
1. Autonomy- We desire to have freedom of making our own choices
and not be forced to do something we don’t want.
2. Competence- We want to feel that we have the skills required to do
the work ourselves, and not confronted with tasks that we don’t
understand.
3. Connection- We want to experience a sense of belonging, of being
needed, and not useless or like an outsider.
• We can think of motivation ranging from “non-self-determined to
self-determined”. (quality: lower forms to higher forms)
Amotivation - It refers to the lack or absence of volitional drive to
engage in any activity
Extrinsic Motivation- is when someone feels motivated to do
something to gain a reward or avoid a punishment.
a. Externally Regulated. It occurs when an individual performs a
task or behavior to receive some type of external reward.
b. Introjected Regulation. It refers to performing an action due to a
sense of obligation rather than an internal desire or for enjoyment.
c. Regulation through Identification. The person has identified with
the personal importance of a behavior and has thus accepted its
regulation as his or her own.
d. Integrated Regulation. Integration occurs when one has fully
taken in the reason for action, i.e., a person has examined the
cause and found it compatible with their own values and needs.
Intrinsic Motivation - It is defined as the doing of an activity for its
inherent satisfaction rather than for some separable consequence.
Dispositional Perspectives
Trait Theory-History of Personality Psychology
What is Trait? (Traits of Traits)
• It describes meaningful differences among individuals. (Genetics,
Culture and Personality)
• It must be stable and consistent. (Culture, Rules and Context of a
Situation)
• These are usually displayed as dimensions or spectrums with
extremes at both ends.
• It relies on language. Lexical Hypothesis Theory- there is a
behavior that is so prominent in human behavior throughout time.
• These are objective behavior.
• These aren’t good or bad.
• These can be positive or negative depending on goals, values and
beliefs.
Trait Psychology (Organization of Traits into a central group of
terms or spectrums)
1. Gordon Allport - 4500 words that could be considered personality
traits. Nowadays, 18000 traits descriptive adjectives
Three Types of Traits
a. Cardinal Traits - These traits and behaviors rule how you
approach things you’re passionate above.
 Punctual
 It is usually influenced by some desire to impress or to
be ready to get work.
 Machiavellian, Freudian, Christ-like
b. Central Traits - These traits are found to a certain degree in
almost every person.
 Honesty, agreeableness, or jealousy
c. Secondary Traits - These traits may apply to different situations
depending on the context of that situation.
2. Cattell - 1960s-4500 words to 171 traits to 16 most influential traits
➢ 16 most influential traits: Warmth, Reasoning, Emotional
Stability, Dominance, Liveliness, Rule-Consciousness, Social
Boldness, Sensitivity, Vigilance, Abstractedness, Privateness,
Apprehension, Openness to Change, Self-Reliance,
Perfectionism and Tension.
1. Eysenck- First personality traits (PEN)
a. Psychoticism- Whenever an individual engages in risky and
irresponsible behavior. People with high psychoticism are usually
more aggressive.
b. Extraversion- When an individual engages in a lot of social
activities. Extrovert is considered under aroused, and their
cortical arousal can be measured with skin conductance.
c. Neuroticism- When an individual’s mood and emotions fluctuate
more than normal.
• Our personality traits come from our genetics.
Learning (Social Cognitive) Perspective
If you want to understand behavior, then focus only on
behavior, not on hypothetical and unobservable internal states such as
thoughts, feelings, drives, or motives.
All behaviors are learned through association and/or its
consequences (whether it is reinforced or punished). To shape desired
behavior, we have to understand and then establish the conditions that
bring about those particular behaviors.
B. F. Skinner’s / Behavioral Analysis
 Emerged from Laboratory Studies of Animals and Humans
 Minimized Speculation
 Focused on Observable Behavior
 Avoided All Hypothetical Constructs
 Behavior Is Lawfully Determined
 Behavior Is Product of Environmental Stimuli
Precursors of Skinner’s Scientific Behaviorism
 E.L. Thorndike- Law of Effect
 John B. Watson
✓ Behavior can be studied objectively
✓ Consciousness and introspection must play no role in the
scientific study of behavior
✓ Goal of psychology is the prediction and control of behavior
✓ Best reached through study of stimulus-response connections
 Scientific Behaviorism Philosophy of Science
➢ Scientific behaviorism allows for interpretation of behavior, not an
explanation of its causes.
➢ Characteristics of Science
 Cumulative
 An attitude that values empirical observation
 Science is a search for order and lawful relationships
Two Types of Conditioning
2. Classical Conditioning- which Skinner called respondent
conditioning. A response is drawn out of the organism by a specific,
identifiable stimulus. In classical conditioning, behavior is elicited from
the organism, whereas in operant conditioning, behavior is emitted.
An elicited response is drawn from the organism, whereas an
emitted response is one that simply appears. Because responses do
not exist inside the organism and thus cannot be drawn out, Skinner
preferred the term “emitted.”
Emitted responses do not previously exist inside the organism; they
simply appear because of the organism’s individual history of
reinforcement or the species’ evolutionary history.
➢ A response is drawn out of the organism by a specific,
identifiable stimulus
➢ Behavior is elicited from the organism.
Both reinforcement and punishment, can either be positive or
negative.
 If reinforcement is positive, we add something pleasant to
increase the likelihood of a behavior.
 If reinforcement is negative, we still want to increase the
desired behavior, this time by removing something
unpleasant.
 If punishment is positive, we add an unpleasant response to
decrease behavior.
 When punishment is negative, we also want to decrease
behavior, now by removing something pleasant.
 If we stop any sort of manipulation, the conditioned behavior
will eventually disappear again. This is called extinction.
Skinner believed that organisms are doing what they do naturally until
they accidentally encounter a stimulus that creates conditioning,
which results in a change in behavior.
Conditioning happens in a three-term contingency, today
known as The ABCs of Behavior:
• A stands for Antecedent.
• B stands for Behavior and refers to the response.
• C stands for Consequence.
The strength of the response to the conditioning depends on the
schedule of reinforcement.

A neutral (conditioned) stimulus is paired with an unconditioned Skinner, born in 1904, was a professor of Psychology and subscribed
stimulus a number of times until it is capable of bringing about a to Behaviorism. He argued that you can only study behavior that is
previously unconditioned response visible and that anything happening only within the mind is either a
➢ Simplest of all forms of learning. An organism learns that one misconception or irrelevant to science.
event follows another.
➢ When the pairing of these two is repeated it creates a CS and He thought free will was an illusion because behavior is
CR. either random or a reaction to the environment. His work became the
foundation for behavioral therapy, military drills, and animal training.
Stimulus Response
Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response
Neutral Stimulus No Response
Neutral Stimulus, Unconditioned Response
Unconditioned Stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response

Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

➢ Classical conditioning is a way of learning where a stimulus that
triggers a biological response is paired with a new stimulus that
then results in the same reaction.
➢ The most famous work in classical conditioning was done by Ivan
Pavlov in the 1890s.

3. Operant Conditioning - also called Skinnerian conditioning. A

behavior is made more likely to recur when it is immediately
reinforced.

The behavior the animal or individual in the learning situation has

everything to do with receiving the reinforcing reward. The behavior is
instrumental for the reward. The individual gets nothing until he emits
the proper response.

➢ Four Kinds: Primary Reward Conditioning, Escape Conditioning,

Avoidance Conditioning, Secondary Reward Conditioning

Operant conditioning is based on the idea that we can increase or

decrease a certain behavior by adding a consequence. Operant
conditioning was first studied by Edward L. Thorndike and later made
famous by the work of B.F. Skinner.
 Chapter 4.1-Social and Emotional Development
EQ (Emotional Quotient) - Also referred to as Emotional Intelligence
Quotient (EIQ)
 Emotional Intelligence is the capacity to reason about emotions,
and of emotions to enhance thinking (Mayer & Salovey, 1997)
 According to Mayer and Salovey’s 1997 model, it comprises four
abilities:
✓ to perceive and appraise emotions accurately;
✓ to access and evoke emotions when they facilitate cognition;
✓ to comprehend emotional language and make use of
emotional information;
✓ and to regulate one’s own and others’ emotions to promote
growth and well-being.
Common questions asked about EQ/EI
 Can EI be operationlised as an ability?
 Do EI test have a “right” answer?
 Does EI affect our personality?
 Does EI affect our productivity?
Some Misconceptions (Emotional Quotient)
1. First, emotional intelligence does not mean merely “being nice,” but
rather, for example, bluntly confronting someone with an
uncomfortable but consequential truth they have been avoiding.
2. Second, emotional intelligence does not mean giving free rein to
feelings. Rather, it means managing feelings so that they are expressed
appropriately and effectively, enabling people to work together
smoothly toward their common goal.
3. Lastly, levels of emotional intelligence are not fixed genetically, nor
does it develop in early childhood. Unlike IQ, which changes little after
our teen years, emotional intelligence seems to be largely learned, and
it continues to develop through life and learn from our experiences.
Context for the EI Concept: Cultural Influences
❖ The ancient Greek Stoic idea that reason was superior to emotion
(described in Payne, 1986; Solomon, 2000, p.5)
❖ The European Sentimentalist movement's idea that there
existed innate, pure, emotional knowledge (Reddy, 2001)
❖ The Romantic movement's emphasis on emotional expression in
the arts (Solomon, 2000), and
❖ The political turmoil of the 1960s and the public discussion it
elicited of the proper balance between feeling and thought.
❖ Debates as to the relative importance and rationality of emotion
and cognition were carried on within modem psychology and
philosophy (DeSousa, 1987; Nussbaum, 2001)
Theory of Emotional Intelligence - The term emotional intelligence
itself was used in the 1960s in an incidental fashion in literary
criticism (Van Ghent, 1961) and psychiatry (Leuner, 1966).
 To address the concept of El seriously, one must understand
something about both intelligence and emotion.
Intelligence - The study and measurement of El has its roots in the
work of such psychometric pioneers as Binet, Thorndike, and
Wechsler, among (Fancher, 1985).
→ Intelligence can be viewed as representing, primarily, the capacity
to carry out abstract thought, as well as the general ability to learn
and adapt to the environment (Sternberg & Detterman, 1986;
Terman, 1921; Wechsler, 1997).
Emotions is defined as a state characterized by physiological arousal,
changes in facial expression, gestures, posture and subjective feelings.
→ An example of physiological changes (or arousal) are a pounding
heart, sweating palms, “butterflies in the stomach”, and other
bodily reactions.
→ Eight Primary Emotions: Fear, Surprise, Sadness, Disgust, Anger,
Anticipation, Happy, and Trust.
SQ (Social Quotient)/ Social Intelligence (SI) - It is "the ability to
understand and manage men and women, boys and girls, to act wisely
in human relations (Thorndike, 1920)".
 Social intelligence refers to the ability to read other people and
understand their intentions and motivations. It is basically the
capacity to effectively negotiate complex social relationships and
environments.
SI develops from experience with people and learning from
success and failures in social settings. It is more commonly referred to
as “tact,” “common sense,” or “street smarts.”
 Psychologist Nicholas Humphrey believes that it is social
intelligence, rather than quantitative intelligence, that defines
humans.
 Social scientist Ross Honeywill believes social intelligence is an
aggregated measure of self- and social-awareness, evolved
social beliefs and attitudes, and a capacity and appetite to
manage complex social change.
 According to Sean Foleno, social intelligence is a person’s
competence to understand his or her environment optimally and
react appropriately for socially successful conduct.
Social Intelligence Hypothesis - The social intelligence hypothesis
states that social intelligence, that is, complex socialization such as
politics, romance, family relationships, quarrels, collaboration,
reciprocity, and altruism,
 was the driving force in developing the size of human brains and
 today provides our ability to use those large brains in complex
social circumstances.
 That is, it was the demands of living together that drove our
need for intelligence generally.
Chapter 4.2-Transactional Analysis and Ego States
Ego States
 Parent: caring, protective, critical, telling off
 Child: excitable, curious, petulant, genuinely friendly
 Adult: logical, rational, neutral, problem- solving
Parent, Child, Adult
1. Parent: collection of recordings of external events experienced as
a child – be nice to others, sit properly at the table, don’t tell lies.
2. Child: recordings of internal events associated with external
events experienced as a child – emotions and feelings – the horse
made me feel scared, the car journey made me feel sick.
3. Adult: weighs up both experiences and emotions from Parent and
Child to come to conclusions about the world – I saw the dog bite
the postman so I’m not going to pat that dog.
Ego States in a Nutshell
 Parent: Taught concepts (external)
 Child: Felt concepts (internal)
 Adult: Learnt concepts (observed and reasoned)
Dealing With Emails:
 Take your time in replying
 Break it down - find the Adult
 Ask other people how they would respond
 Be careful not to misinterpret the email - cultural differences /
CAP LOCK SHOUTING
 There isn't a font called Sarcastica
Dealing With Face-To-Face Conflict:
 Own up to a mistake if you made one--apologies go further than
arguing
 If relevant, go find a quiet place to have the conversation so it's not
in the middle of the office
 Ask your colleague to take a seat (this changes the body language
and the dynamic of the confrontation)
 Use silence and let them talk (show you're listening)
 Make notes of what's being said
 Find the Adult--this is very hard as the compulsion is to react and
to defend but remember that solving the problem is the priority
Conclusion
 Be aware of your ego states and those of others
 Identify the right time to use / respond to / ignore certain ego states
 Find the Adult and respond to the Adult in difficult situations
Chapter 4.3-Analysis of Strokes and Life Position
Transactional Analysis (TA) is the theory of personality,
communication and treatment system, which was founded by Berne
in the 1950s. One of the purposes of TA is to control emotions,
thoughts, and actions by noticing the ego state at any time.
Analysis of Strokes - People always have certain relationship with
others. In the transactional analysis, its behavior has been called a
‘stroke’.
People are growing up with various process and situation since
they were born. In other words, relationship with parents in infancy, and
interaction with people during child could make the foundation of
communication ability.
After that, important relationship would be formed during
adolescence for school classmates and various people in extra-
curriculum social activities.
Time Structuring in Transactional Analysis
 It is the kind of communication that people use in day-to-day while
performing various strokes with many people in their lives.
 This content varies from person to person. Several factors are
involved in time structuring, such as environment, education,
character, and how to acquire strokes so far.
Six Categories of Time Structuring
1. Withdrawal- Fancying alone, drinking alone, not having any
relationship with others. In other words, it intercepts strokes with other
people. Although it is not psychologically hurt by strokes from others,
there may be behavior problems and/or physical symptoms.
2. Ceremony- Simple form of engagement, such as regular greetings
with others. It is an easy and safe way to get a stroke from outside
without deep relationship from other people. However, the degrees of
the stroke are low.
3. Activity- Involvement with superiors and subordinates for those who
work outside. Housekeeping charge includes information exchange
with local people. Each activity has a specific purpose associated with
exchanges stroke.
4. Chat- Light conversation without purpose or productivity for
workplace and community. It has a distraction and stress relief effect,
low risk, superficial and light stroke exchange.
5. Psychological Game- Exchange of words repeated under certain
conditions. In addition to superficial language interactions, negative
emotions always exist in “backward exchanges”. With repeated
psychological conflicts, unpleasant feelings and endings are
characteristic.
6. Friendship- Ideal exchange pattern in TA. It is mutual affirmation
with trust and respect each other. There are various patterns of love,
such as love emotions with young couple, affection between married
couple, compassion of parents to children.
Physical Mental Conditional Unconditional
Direct Indirect Behavior/ Presence/
Attitude Character

Positive Strokes - People can grow up through various experience and Positive pat the head, good job,
listen to the nice guy, I love
acquire strokes in any opportunity. Among them, there are positive Stroke hold hands, brave
talk, praise you, happy with
strokes, such as love, praise, evaluation, reward and so on. hold behavior,
prize you
shoulders thank for work
Through these experiences children grow up with much
affection and care from their parents. Furthermore, many adults can
live everyday associated with evaluation and remuneration from the You must
Negative let’s divorce, leave
people around them. Clap, pinch, Scold despise study, you
Stroke the company, let
thrust away frown broke again,
him disappear
bad attitude
Negative Strokes - On the other hand, there are negative strokes, such
as anger, rebuke, accusation and so on. Some people live on negative
strokes as if food nourishments. Chapter 4.4-Developing EQ and SQ
For example, there are cases as follows: a child is scolded
because of mischief, a young person is accused of doing bad affairs, an Working with Emotional and Social Intelligence
adult is despised by intentional tampering. Such a person has  Emotional intelligence or EQ is increasingly becoming a popular
continued such a negative stroke with accumulation of various strokes skill to have in the professional world.
since childhood.  Emotional Competence is a learned capability based on
In the transactional analysis, the word ‘stroke’ means and emotional intelligence that results in outstanding performance at
includes several key words, such as attachment, intimacy, warmth, work.
tender loving care, need to belong, contact, closeness,  Our emotional intelligence determines our potential for learning
relationships, social support, and love. Berne proposed that not only the practical skills that are based on its five elements: self-
positive stimulation, but also negative painful stimulation might be awareness, motivation, self-regulation, empathy, and adeptness
instrumental in maintaining health. in relationships.
Emotional Competence
 Our emotional competence, on the other hand, shows how much
of that potential we have translated into on-the-job capabilities.
 For instance, being good at serving customers is an emotional
competence based on empathy.
 Likewise, trustworthiness is a competence based on self-
regulation, or handling impulses and emotions well. Both
customer service and trustworthiness are competencies that can
make people outstanding in their work.
 Simply being high in emotional intelligence does not guarantee a
person will have learned the emotional competencies that matter
for work; it means only that they have excellent potential to learn
them.
Enhancing One’s Emotional Intelligence
1. Emotional Awareness: Recognizing One’s Emotions and Their
Feelings- People with this competence:
 Know which emotions they are feeling and why
 Realize the links between their feelings and what they
think, do and speak
 Recognize how their feelings affect their performance
 Have a guiding awareness of their values and goals
➢ Accurate Self-Assessment - People with the ability to self-
assess are:
 Aware of their strengths and weaknesses
 Reflective, learning from experience
 Open to candid feedback, new perspectives,
continuous learning, and self-development
 Able to show a sense of humor and perspective about
themselves
➢ Self-Confidence - People with this competence:
 Present themselves with self-assurance; have
“presence”
 Can voice views that are unpopular and go out on a limb
for what is right
 Are decisive, able to make sound decisions despite
uncertainties and pressures.
2. Self-Regulation means managing impulse as well as distressing
feelings.
 Handling impulse and dealing with upsets – are at the core of five
emotional competencies:
1. Self-control: Managing disruptive emotions and impulses
effectively
2. Trustworthiness: Displaying honesty and integrity
3. Conscientiousness: Dependability and responsibility in
fulfilling obligations
4. Adaptability: Flexibility in handling change and challenges
5. Innovation: Being open to novel ideas, approaches, and new
information.
3. Motivation
➢ Motivation (Achievement Drive) - People with this
competence:
 Are results oriented, with a high drive to meet their
objectives and standards
 Set challenging goals and take calculated risks
 Pursue information to reduce uncertainty and find ways
to do better
 Learn how to improve their performance
➢ Motivation (Commitment) - People with this competence:
 Readily make sacrifices to meet larger organizational goal
 Find a sense of purpose in the larger missions
 Use the group’s core values in making decisions and
clarifying choices
 Actively seek out opportunities to fulfill the group’s mission.
4. Empathy - Sensing what others feel without their saying so
captures the essence of empathy.
 Others rarely tell us in words what they feel; instead, they tell
us in their tone of voice, facial expression, or other nonverbal
ways.
 The ability to sense these subtle communications builds on
more basic competencies, particularly self-awareness and
self-control.
 Empathy is our social radar.
 Lacking such sensitivity, people are “off.”
 Being emotionally tone-deaf leads to social awkwardness,
whether from misconstruing feelings or through a
mechanical, out-of-tune bluntness or indifference that
destroys rapport.
 One form this lack of empathy can take is responding to other
people as stereotypes rather than as the unique individuals
that they are.
➢ Empathy (Understanding Others) - People with this
competence:
 Are attentive to emotional cues and listen well
 Show sensitivity and understand others’ perspectives
 Help out based on understanding other people’s needs
and feelings
➢ Empathy (The Art of Listening) - Listening well and deeply
means going beyond what is said by asking questions, restating
in one’s own words what you hear to be sure you understand.
 This is “active” listening. A mark of having truly heard
someone else is to respond appropriately, even if that
means making some change in what you do.
5. Adeptness in Relationships
➢ Developing Others - People with this competence:
 Acknowledge and reward people’s strengths and
accomplishments
 Offer useful feedback and identify people’s needs for future
growth
 Mentor, give timely coaching, and offer assignments that
challenge and foster a person’s skills.
➢ Influence - People with this competence:
 Are skilled at winning people over
 Fine-tune presentations to appeal to the listener
 Use complex strategies like indirect influence to build
consensus and support
 Orchestrate dramatic events to effectively make a point
➢ Communication: Listening Openly and Sending Convincing
Messages - People with this competence:
 Are effective in give-and take, registering emotional cues in
attuning their message
 Deal with difficult issues straightforwardly
 Listen well, seek mutual understanding, and welcome
sharing of information fully
 Foster open communication and stay receptive to bad news
as well as good
 ➢ Conflict Management: Negotiating and Resolving
Disagreements - People with this competence:
 Handle difficult people and tense situations with diplomacy
and tact
 Spot potential conflict, bring disagreements into the open,
and help deescalate
 Encourage debate and open discussion
 Orchestrate win-win solutions

➢ Resolving Conflict – Creatively - Here are some classic moves

for cooling down conflicts:
 First, calm down, tune in to your feelings, and express them
 Show a willingness to work things out by talking over the
issue rather than escalating it with more aggression
 State your point of view in neutral language rather than in an
argumentative tone
 Try to find equitable ways to resolve the dispute, working
together to find a resolution both sides can embrace

➢ Leadership: Inspiring and Guiding Individuals and Groups -

People with this competence are:
 Articulate and arouse enthusiasm for a shared vision and
mission
 Step forward to lead as needed, regardless of position
 Guide the performance of others while holding them
accountable
 Lead by example

➢ Building Bonds: Nurturing Instrumental Relationships -

People with this competence:
 Cultivate and maintain extensive informal networks
 Seek out relationships that are mutually beneficial
 Build rapport and keep others in the loop
 Make and maintain personal friendships among work
associates

➢ Collaboration and Cooperation - People with this competence:

 Balance a focus on task with attention to relationships
 Collaborate, sharing plans, information and resources
 Promote a friendly, cooperative climate
 Spot and nurture opportunities for collaboration

Conclusion
✓ Emotional intelligence can be learned. Individually, we can
add these skills to our tool kit for survival at a time when job
stability seems like a quaint oxymoron.
✓ For businesses of all kinds, the fact that emotional
competencies can be assessed and improved suggests
another area in which performance – and so competitiveness
– can be upgraded.
✓ What’s needed amounts to an emotional competence tune-
up for the corporation.