Introduction to the Study of Cell and Molecular

Biology

What is a Cell?

 The cell is the basic unit of structure and function of

living organisms. 
 All organisms are made up of one or more cells. 
 Because cells are so small, they were not discovered until
the invention of the microscope in the 17th century.

Contributors in the Study of Cell

1. Robert Hooke (1635-1703)

 Confirmed the work of Leeuwenhoek.
 He was the first to use the term “cell”, naming the
shapes he saw in cork as cellulae which means “small
rooms”
2. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
 The first to build a microscope with one lens for
observation of tiny things.
 His examination of tiny things led him to describe the
first human cells and bacteria
 He named the first cells (and microorganisms) as
animalcules which means “little animals”.
 Most cells are relatively small for reasons related to the
diffusion of substances into and out of cells. The rate of
diffusion is affected by the number of variables,
including surface area available for diffusion,
temperature, concentration gradient of diffusing
substance and the distance over which diffusion might
occur.
 As the size of a cell increases, the length of time for
diffusion from the outside membrane to the interior of
the cell increases as well. As a result, larger cells are less
efficient because of their need to synthesise more
macromolecules, have correspondingly higher energy
requirements, and produce a greater quantity of waste.

3. Matthias Schleiden
 Stated that all plants “are aggregates of fully
individualized, independent, separate being namely
the cells themselves.

4. Theodor Schwann
 Stated that all animal tissues also consist of
individual cells.

5. Rudolf Virchow
 The advantage of small cell size is readily apparent in
 He concluded that all cells come from pre-existing
terms of the SURFACE AREA-TO-VOLUME
cells.
RATIO. As the cell’s size increases, its volume
increases much more rapidly than its surface area. A
Schleiden, Schwann and Virchow’s ideas led to the
cell’s surface area must be large enough to meet the
development of the cell theory.
metabolic needs of its volume. For this reason, an
organism made up of many relatively small cells has an
Cell Theory
advantage over one composed of fewer, large cells.
 Cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
 All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
 All cells arise from preexisting cells.
CELL SIZE - Cells are characteristically microscopic in size.
Although there are exceptions, a typical eukaryotic cell is 10
to 100 micrometers (um) in diameter.
 Cells that line the
Columnar Taller than wide
intestine
Spheroid Spherical
Ovum
(Ovoid) (oval)
Discoid Disc shaped Red blood cells
Thick in the middle
Smooth muscle
Fusiform and tapered toward the
cells
ends
Skeletal muscle
Fibrous Threadlike shape
cells
Irregularly angular
Polygonal shapes with four, five, Brown fat cells
or more sides
Stellate Starlike Nerve cells

 The surface area of a cell is proportional to the square

of its diameter, while volume is proportional to the
cube of its diameter. Thus, for a given increase in
diameter, volume increases much more than the surface
area.
 As a cell doubles in diameter, its volume increases
eightfold, but its surface area increases only fourfold. A
cell that is too large may have too little plasma
membrane to serve the metabolic needs of its increased
volume of cytoplasm.

Types of Cells
1. Prokaryotic Cells

 Prokaryote comes from the Greek words for pre-nucleus.

It is typically 0.2 um-2.0 um in diameter.
 Prokaryotic cells are structurally simple. These cells lack
true nucleus.
 They are generally unicellular/single-celled organisms.
Organisms under the Domains Bacteria and Archaea are
prokaryotes. Bacteria (pathogen/nonpathogen) are
examples of prokaryotes.

2. Eukaryotic Cells
 Eukaryote comes from the Greek words for true
Cell Shape - There are about 200 types of cells in the human nucleus. It is typically 10 um to 100 um.
body, and they vary greatly in appearance.  Eukaryotic cells are structurally very complex.
Shape Appearance Example/s Eukaryotic cells are characterized by the presence
Cells that line the of nucleus.
Thin, flat and often  These cells possess a variety of other organelles,
Squamous esophagus and
have a bulge.
cover the skin many of which are surrounded by membranes.
Squarish and  Plants, animals, fungi and protists are all
Cuboidal approximately as tall Liver cells eukaryotes. They belong under the Domain Eukarya
as they are wide
 Basic Properties of All Cells

● All cells share four common properties namely the

plasma membrane, DNA, cytoplasm and
ribosome.

4. Protoplasm
 It is a fluid, semi-
transparent, viscous,
elastic material
which includes all
the living materials
of the cell.
Protoplasm is either:
Eukaryotic Cell: Parts and Function
1. Cell Wall a. Cytoplasm- substance inside the cell membrane and outside
 Present in plants, algae and fungi. Most plant cells the nucleus. The cytosol is the fluid portion of the cytoplasm.
contain both primary and secondary cell walls.
 The primary cell wall is mainly composed of a b. Karyoplasm/ Nucleoplasm- substance inside the nucleus
polysaccharide known as cellulose while the secondary
cell wall contains lignin. 5. Organelles (Membrane-bound)
 In fungi, cell walls are composed of chitin, glucans and  Nucleus, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
glycoproteins. Lysosome, Vacuole, Mitochondrion, Chloroplast,
Peroxisome, Flagella and Cilia.
 Cell walls functionally supports and protects the cell.
5.2 Endoplasmic Reticulum
2. Plasma/Cell Membrane  Folds of membrane forming sheets and canals
 Structurally characterized as a phospholipid bilayer with
 Surface for chemical reactions and intracellular
embedded proteins.
transport network system
 It surrounds all living cells and is surrounded by a cell
wall in the cells of plants, bacteria, fungi and most algae.  Rough ER- synthesis of membrane proteins and
 It is selectively permeable which allows and regulates secretory proteins
the passage of some molecules into and out of the cells.  Smooth ER- Lipid synthesis, carbohydrate
metabolism, detoxification in liver cells, testosterone
production, calcium iron storage in muscle cells, fat
metabolism, produce vesicles that are transported to
the Golgi apparatus

5.3 Golgi Apparatus

3. Nucleus
 Stores the genetic material, DNA. DNA governs the
characteristics of the cell and its metabolic
functioning.
 Every cell in the individual contains the same DNA,
but in each cell type, certain genes are turned on and
certain others are turned off.
 Membranous stacks of 3-20 slightly curved sacks
 Involved in the collection, sorting, packaging and
processing of proteins and lipids for secretion and for
delivery to other cellular components. It is also
involved in the formation of lysosomes.
 5.9 Flagella
 Membrane bound cylinder with 9+2 pattern of
5.4 Lysosome microtubules (nine microtubule doublets arranged in
 Organelle produced by the Golgi apparatus; contains a circle around two central microtubules). Flagella
hydrolytic digestive enzymes. Lysosomes are are long and whip-like.
numerous in white blood cells.  For movement such as the flagellum in sperm cell.
 Cell’s waste disposal system and can break up
anything. Used from the digestion of macromolecules
from phagocytosis and endocytosis.

5.5 Vacuoles
 Large membranous sac that are much more
prominent in plant cells.
 Stores substances such as water, sugars and salts. In
plant cells, pigments and toxic molecules are also
stored. In protozoans, vacuoles have the ability to
expel excess water (contractile vacuole) and break
down nutrients (digestive vacuole)

5.6 Mitochondrion
 Double membraned organelle containing inner fluid 5.10 Cilia
filled space (matrix) and where its inner membrane
is folded inwards (cristae).  Membrane bound
 Powerhouse of the cell where cellular respiration cylinder with 9+2 pattern
takes place and chemical energy in the form of ATP of microtubules (nine
is produced. Heart muscle cells contain large number microtubule doublets
of mitochondria. All mitochondria come from the arranged in a circle
maternal through the egg and father’s sperm has no around two central
contribution. microtubules). Cilia are
short and hairlike.
 For movement such as
the cilia in paramecium.

6. Organelles (Non-Membrane bound)

5.7 Chloroplast 6.1 Ribosome

 Double membraned organelle containing inner fluid  site of protein synthesis using mRNA as template
filled space (stroma) and flattened sacs (thylakoids).  Ribosomes can be found in cytoplasm (individual or
Thylakoids are stacked up in structure to form polyribosomes) or attached to the endoplasmic
granum. Chloroplasts belong to a group of reticulum.
organelles known as plastids. 6.2 Cytoskeleton
 Site of photosynthesis among plants and algae.  an organelle with three different types of protein
fibers: actin filaments (microfilaments),
5.8 Peroxisome intermediate filaments and
 Membrane bound organelle with oxidative enzymes. microtubules
 Breaks down very long chain of fatty acids through  Cytoskeleton maintains cell
beta oxidation, production of bile acids which are shape and allows the movement
important for the absorption of fats and fat-soluble of cells and organelles.
vitamins such as Vitamins A and K. In leaves, 6. 3 Centrosome
peroxisomes carries out a reaction opposite to
photosynthesis.
  is the major microtubule organizing center of the cell.
Before a cell divides, microtubules disassemble and
then reassemble into a structure called spindle.
 In animal cells, a centrosome contains two
centrioles.
 Centrioles have 9+0 pattern of microtubule triplets.
Prokaryotic Cell: Parts and Function
1. Glycocalyx
 Is a “sugar coat” produced by the plasma membrane
and secreted outside the cell wall. It is a thick layer of
slimy, gelatinous material which envelopes some
prokaryotic cells. There are two important types of
glycocalyx: the capsule and slime layer.
 Highly organized
glycocalyx is termed
as “capsule” while a
less organized layer
that can be washed off
easily is termed as
“slime layer”. Both
serve as protection of
bacteria from toxic compounds and desiccation and
allow bacteria to adhere on surfaces or to escape from
phagocytosis.
2. Cell Wall
 Provides the overall strength and shape to the
bacteria. It protects the cell from osmotic lysis as the
cell moves from one environment to another or
transports nutrients from its surroundings. Since
water can freely move across both the cell membrane
and the cell wall, the cell is at risk for an osmotic
imbalance, which could put pressure on the relatively
weak plasma membrane. The cell wall can also
contribute to the pathogenicity or disease –causing
ability of the cell for certain bacterial pathogens.
3. Plasma/Cell Membrane
 Thin semi-permeable membrane that separates the
rigid cell wall from cytoplasm. It is a phospholipid
bilayer embedded with peripheral and integral
proteins.
 Being selectively permeable, it controls which
substances may enter or leave the cell. It is the site of
cellular respiration in bacteria.
4. Cytoplasm
 Sticky fluid rich in RNA and bacterial enzymes. It
provides the site for many biochemical reactions of
the cell.
5. Nucleoid
 A non-membrane bound and irregularly shaped
region of the cell where the bacterial chromosomes
are found. It is largely composed of DNA and small
amounts of RNA and protein. The DNA of a
prokaryote is called a genophore.
 Control site of various bacterial activity, including
reproduction.
6. Ribosome
 Small cytoplasmic and non-membranous particles
containing RNA and proteins. Site of protein
synthesis.
7. Chromosome
 Consists of singular strand of DNA molecule. It lacks
definite shape and contains little to no protein
material. It serves as the control center of the
bacterial cell.
8. Cytoplasmic Inclusions
 Non-membranous structures. Cytoplasmic Inclusions
may appear as volutin granules (from inorganic
phosphates), granulose (from polymers of glucose)
and sulfur granules.
 Stores nutrients, secretory products and pigment
granules.
9. Flagella
 Thread like protein appendages which originate from
the cell membrane.
 They enable bacteria to move through self-propelling,
whip-like motion.
10.11 Pili and Fimbriae
 Hair-like structures often observed from gram
negative bacteria.
 Fimbriae- short bristle-like appendages which are
made of protein that may cover the cell surface. They
allow attachment of bacteria to tissues.
 Pili- used for conjugation (the transfer of DNA from
one bacterial cell).
Comparison Between Prokaryotic, Animal and Plant Cell

PROKARYO ANIMA PLANT

FEATURES
TE L CELL CELL
Present
Present
Cell Wall (Protein- Absent
(Cellulose)
polysaccharide)
Cell
Present Present Present
Membrane
Absent
except in
May be sperm of
Flagella may be Present few
Flagella/Cilia
present (9+2 species
structure) (aquatic;
9+2
structure)
Endoplasmic
Absent Present Present
Reticulum
Ribosomes Present Present Present
Microtubules Absent Present Present
Centrioles Absent Present Absent
Golgi
Absent Present Present
Apparatus
Nucleus Absent Present Present
Mitochondri
Absent Present Present
a
Chloroplasts Absent Absent Present
Multiple; Multiple;
Single; DNA- DNA-
Chromosome
circle of DNA protein protein
complex complex
Usually,
Lysosomes Absent Present
Present
Usually, a
Absent or large
Vacuoles Absent
small single
vacuole