Journal Pre-proof

Effect of drying temperature and drying method on drying rate and

bioactive compounds in cassumunar ginger (Zingiber montanum)

Busarakorn Mahayothee, Thipharat Thamsala, Pramote

Khuwijitjaru, Serm Janjai

PII: S2214-7861(20)30023-1
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmap.2020.100262
Reference: JARMAP 100262

To appear in: Journal of Applied Research on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Received Date: 14 September 2019

Revised Date: 20 June 2020
Accepted Date: 21 June 2020

Please cite this article as: Mahayothee B, Thamsala T, Khuwijitjaru P, Janjai S, Effect of drying
temperature and drying method on drying rate and bioactive compounds in cassumunar
ginger (Zingiber montanum), Journal of Applied Research on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
(2020), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmap.2020.100262

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Effect of drying temperature and drying method on drying rate and bioactive compounds in cassumunar ginger

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(Zingiber montanum)

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Busarakorn Mahayothee1,*, Thipharat Thamsala1, Pramote Khuwijitjaru1, Serm Janjai2

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1
Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Industrial Technology, Silpakorn University, Nakhon Pathom 73000, Thailand

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2
Solar Energy Research Laboratory, Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Silpakorn University, Nakhon Pathom 73000, Thailand

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*Corresponding author.

E-mail: mahayothee_b@su.ac.th (B. Mahayothee)

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Graphical abstract
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Highlights
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 Drying of Zingiber montanum was done by hot air oven, greenhouse solar, and sun drying
 64 and 85% of curcumin losses were observed for solar and sun drying, respectively
 Volatile oil contents reduced after drying but their compositions were unchanged
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Abstract

In this study, influences of drying of cassumunar ginger (Zingiber montanum) slices using a hot air dryer at 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80°C, a

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large-scale greenhouse solar dryer, and sun drying on drying kinetics, color, bioactive compounds, and antioxidant capacities were investigated.

The Page model was adequate for describing the drying kinetics and increasing of the temperature accelerated the drying rate, therefore the

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drying time at 80°C was shortest (1.5 h). The hot air drying effectively preserved curcumin content and color of the dried products. Drying at

higher temperatures, however, resulted in losses of essential oil yield. In contrast, solar and sun drying significantly degraded curcumin and

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therefore adversely affected the color of dried products. Although, all conditions of drying resulted in volatile oil losses of 18-36%, different

drying conditions did not affect the obtained oil compositions. In addition, it was found that the dried sample from the hot air dryer and the
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greenhouse solar dryer exhibited slightly higher antioxidant capacities than those from sun drying.
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Keywords: Zingiber cassumunar, medicinal plant, solar drying, volatile oil

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1. Introduction

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Cassumunar ginger (Zingiber montanum (Koenig) Link ex Dietr.) is one of the most beneficial herbs in traditional medical treatment in

several Asian countries including India, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand. It is listed in the Thai Herbal Pharmacopoeia (https://bdn.go.th/thp)
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as anti-inflammatory, counter-irritant, and mosquito repellent herb. It belongs to the same family as a common ginger (Z. officinale). The

rhizome of cassumanar ginger is bright yellow with strong camphoraceous smell (Sanatombi and Sanatombi, 2017). The clinical effects of
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cassumunar ginger have been recently reviewed (Chongmelaxme et al., 2017). The main bioactive compounds found in cassumunar ginger are

phenylbutanoids including (E)-4-(3',4'-dimethoxyphenyl)but-3-en-1-ol (2.39%w/w) and (E)-1-(3',4'-dimethylphenyl) butadiene (Kaewchoothong

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et al., 2012), curcuminoids (Masuda et al., 1995), and essential oil (Sukatta et al., 2009). These bioactive compounds showed various

bioactivities, particularly anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities (Jeenapongsa et al., 2003; Masuda and Jitoe, 1994; Masuda et al., 1995;

Verma et al., 2018).

 Drying is a simple food preservation method by removing water from perishable agricultural raw materials to a level that inhibits the

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growth of microorganism as well as retards undesirable enzymatic and non-enzymatic biochemical reactions results in prolonged shelf-life of

fresh produces. Prior to drying, crops at suitable maturity are generally prepared by cleaning, sanitizing, sorting, peeling, trimming, and cutting

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(Mühlbauer and Müller, 2020). Thermal energy input through convection, solar radiation, or combined mode at ambient pressure is widely

employed such as cabinet drying, sun drying or solar drying due to their uncomplicated technology. Drying of medicinal plants in Thailand is

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mostly done at the farm level using an open-air sun drying where the plant is spread in a thin layer and directly exposed to the solar radiation.

While at small enterprise, a parabolic greenhouse solar drying system covered with polycarbonate sheets and a convection hot air dryer are more

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widely used before processing of cassumunar ginger rhizome into various medical preparations. However, a number of studies showed that

degradation of bioactive compounds was affected by the drying methods and conditions (Lachowicz et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2018; Wu et al.,
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2019). Curcumin, a major curcuminoid compound in cassumunar ginger is well known to be labile to light and temperature (Lestari and

Indrayanto, 2014). In terms of aroma, Ding et al. (2012) reported that volatile compounds profiles of dried ginger (Z. officinale) obtained from
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various drying methods were different from those of fresh slices. Air drying at 60C gave preferable profile compared to those at 50 and 70C.

Lower temperature resulted in oxidative reaction and the formation of new compounds, while higher temperature caused the degradation and
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loss of some compounds. Moreover, various studies indicated that drying temperature significantly influenced the changes in essential oils

contents and compositions in aromatic plants such as lemon balm (Argyropoulos and Müller, 2014), thyme (Dehghani Mashkani et al., 2018),
and ginger (An et al., 2016). An et al. (2016) also presented the impact of drying methods on antioxidant activities of ginger. The air drying

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ginger possessed the lowest free radical scavenging capacity compared to infrared drying, freeze drying, and microwave drying.

However, the study on influences of drying conditions on qualities, essential oil and bioactive compounds in dried cassumunar ginger

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was limited, particularly for air drying and solar drying which are general preservation techniques applied in Asia and able to provide cleaner

products than traditional sun drying. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the effect of drying temperatures and drying

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methods on the drying kinetics, color, curcumin content, essential oil, and antioxidant capacity of cassumunar ginger slices. A large-scale

greenhouse solar dryer was employed because of its advantage of fuel cost saving.

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2. Materials and methods

2.1 Materials
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Cassumunar ginger rhizomes with the age of 2 years, which is the suitable maturity for essential oil production, were purchased from a

farm in Sa Kaeo province, Thailand. They were transported to the laboratory in Nakhon Pathom by car within 6 h. Then, they were cleaned to
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remove soil from the surface and kept at 25±2C with a relative humidity of 68.1±1.5%. Two lots of rhizomes were purchased separately in

October, 2017 and June, 2018. The first lot was used for hot air drying, while the second lot was used for comparing sun drying and solar drying.
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2.2 Sample preparation

 The rhizomes were washed, soaked in 100 ppm of peroxyacetic acid solution for 10 min to reduce the microbial load, and then air dried for

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15 min before transversely sliced into a thickness of 2 mm. The slices were placed on trays as a single layer for all drying experiments.

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2.2 Drying experiments

Cassumunar ginger slices were dried using 3 different methods, i.e. the convective hot air drying (Electric dryer with 24 trays, Kluay

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Namthai Trading Groups, Bangkok, Thailand), the solar drying using a large-scale greenhouse solar dryer with 8.2 m width × 20 m length × 3.5

m height covered with UV light-resistant polycarbonate sheets (Kaewkiew et al., 2012), and the sun drying. For the hot air drying, 5 drying

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temperatures were conducted at 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80°C. Samples were dried to constant weight for the study of drying kinetics, while the

samples were dried to a final moisture content of 10% w.b. (Medicinal Plant Research Institute, 2019) for the study on bioactive compounds
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changes. The same procedures were applied for the sun drying and the solar drying, in which each experiment was started at 8.00 a.m. All drying

experiments were conducted in duplicate. The solar radiation was measured by a pyranometer (model CM 11, Kipp & Zonen, West Sussex, UK)
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inside and outside the solar dryer. Temperature was measured by K-type thermocouples at the same position. The relative humidity of an

ambient air and the drying air were measured by hygrometers (model EE23, E+E Elektronik, Engerwitzdorf, Austria). All data were collected
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every 10 min using a data logger (model DC 100, Yokogawa, Tokyo, Japan).

2.4 Determination of moisture content and water activity

 The moisture contents of fresh and dried samples were analyzed by an oven drying method at 105°C (AOAC, 2005). Water activity was

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measured using a water activity meter (AQUALAB 4TE, Pullman, WA, USA).

2.5 Drying kinetics in hot air dryer

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The samples were weighed every 15 min in the first hour of drying, then every 30 min in the second and the third hour, and every 60 min

until the weight of samples was constant. The initial and final moisture contents of the samples were determined. The drying rate is expressed as

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the amount of evaporated moisture over time. It is calculated by using an equation (1):
𝑀𝐶1 −𝑀𝐶2
Drying rate = (1)

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𝑡1 −𝑡2

where MC1 and MC2 are moisture contents of sample (kg water/kg dry matter) at time t1 and t2 (h), respectively (Akpinar and Toraman, 2016).

The Newton, Page, and modified Page models (equations 2-4), which are simple and widely used mathematical models for thin layer
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drying (Onwude et al., 2016), were fitted to describe the drying kinetics of cassumunar ginger by a non-linear regression method using the

Solver function in the Microsoft Excel version 2013.

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MR = 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 (2)
𝑛
MR = 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 (3)
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𝑛
MR = 𝑒 −(𝑘𝑡) (4)

where k and n are empirical parameters of model and t is drying time. Moisture ratio (MR) was calculated from recorded mass using an equation

(5):
 MCt -MCe
MR = (5)

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MCi -MCe

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where MCi is initial moisture content (dry basis, d.b.), MCt is moisture content (d.b.) at different drying times and MCe is moisture content (d.b.)

at an equilibrium which was defined as final moisture content (d.b.) from each drying condition. The best mathematical model was determined

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by the coefficient of determination (R2) and the root mean square error (RMSE).

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2.6 Color measurement

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Twenty-five slices of fresh or dried samples from each treatment were taken for a color measurement in the CIE color coordinates (L*,

a*, b*) using a colorimeter (Colorflex EZ spectrophotometer, HunterLab, Reston, VA, USA). Two sides of each slice were measured. Chroma

(C*) and hue angle (h°), were calculated by equations (6) and (7):
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C* = √𝑎∗2 + 𝑏 ∗2 (6)

𝑏∗
h˚= tan-1( ) (7)
𝑎∗
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2.7 Determination of curcumin and compound D contents

Curcumin and (E)-4-(3',4'-dimethoxyphenyl)but-3-en-1-ol (so called ‘compound D’) contents were analyzed as described by Li et al.

(2011) and Tangyuenyongwatana (2017), respectively with some modifications. Fresh sample (3 g) or dried sample (1 g) was ground using a

mortar and pestle. The ground sample was mixed with 7 mL of methanol and extracted in an ultrasonic bath (model 360D, Advance Ceramics
Technology, Penang, Malaysia) for 30 min. The temperature of water in a bath was controlled at 30  2°C. After that, the mixture was filtered

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through a Whatman no. 4 filter paper. The crude extract was collected in a 25 mL volumetric flask. The residue was re-extracted under identical

conditions for another two times and then the pooled extract was adjusted to 25 mL with methanol. All extractions were done in triplicate.

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Determination of curcumin and compound D contents was performed using a high performance liquid chromatography which comprised

an LC20AD pump, a CTO-10Asvp column oven, a CBM-20A system controller, and an SPD-M20A diode array detector (Shimadzu, Kyoto,

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Japan). Chromatographic separation was done on a Luna C18 column (4.6 mm i.d. × 250 mm, Phenomenex, Torrance, CA, USA). Mobile phase

was a mixture of acetonitrile and 1% acetic acid (57:43 v/v) at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min. Curcumin was detected at the wavelength of 425 nm

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while compound D was detected at the wavelength of 254 nm. The curcumin content was calculated from curcumin standard (5 - 300 mg/L) and

expressed as mg curcumin/g dry matter. Confirmation of compound D was conducted using a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-
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MS) (Agilent, Waldbronn, Germany) consisting of an Agilent 1100 auto-sample, 1100 Quaternary Pump, Agilent 1100 Diode Array Detector,

Agilent MSD Trap SL with an ESI source and Agilent 1100 Column Thermostat. Separation of compound D was performed using the column
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and condition mentioned above. Compound D content was reported as relative peak area to the total peak area.
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2.8 Hydrodistillation of essential oil

Essential oil was extracted by a hydrodistillation method using a Clevenger-type apparatus. Fresh and dried samples were ground and

then 50 g of fresh or 30 g of dried samples was weighed and put in a 3000 mL round bottom flask containing 1000 mL of water. The distillation
was performed by boiling the mixture for 3 h. The oil yield was presented as mL/100 g dry matter. The collected essential oil was dehydrated

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using an anhydrous Na2SO4 and kept in an amber glass bottle at -18°C until analysis. All distillations were done in triplicate.

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2.9 Identification of chemical compositions in essential oil

Essential oil constituents were analyzed as described by Bua-in and Paisooksantivatana (2009) with some modifications. A gas

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chromatography (GC-2010, Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) with a flame ionization detector (FID) was used. A DB-5MS capillary column (30 m ×

0.25 mm inner diameter, 0.25 μm film thickness, J&W Scientific, Folsom, CA, USA) was used for chromatographic separation. The essential oil

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sample was dissolved in a hexane (1:10 v/v) and then 1µL of the solution was injected into the machine using 1/100 split ratio. The column

temperature was set at 50°C for 2 min and then programmed to increase from 50 to 240°C at a rate of 4°C/min and kept at 240°C for 5 min. The
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injector temperature was kept at 230°C and the detector temperature was set at 300°C. High purity nitrogen was used as a carrier gas at a flow

rate of 1.2 mL/min.

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The peaks of essential oil compositions were identified by comparing their retention indices (RI) to n-alkane standards (C7-C40, Sigma-

Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) on DB-5MS capillary column and those values reported in published literatures (Adams, 2017; Verma et al.,
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2018). The compositions were reported as relative percentages of the total peak area of identified compounds (26 compounds).

2.10 Determination of antioxidant capacity

 Sample extraction was performed as described by Wojdylo et al. (2007) with some modifications. The ground samples (1.5 g for fresh or

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0.5 g for dried samples) was mixed with 7 mL of 70% methanol and extracted using an ultrasonic bath (360D, Advance Ceramics Technology,

Penang, Malaysia) for 30 min. The temperature of water in a bath was controlled at 30 ± 2C. After that, the mixture was filtered through a

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Whatman no. 4 filter paper. The crude extract was collected in a 25 mL volumetric flask. The residue was re-extracted under an identical

condition for another two times and then the pooled extract was adjusted to 25 mL with 70% methanol. All extractions were done in triplicate.

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Antioxidant capacities of fresh and dried samples were determined using two electron transfer reaction methods, namely 2,2 diphenyl-1-

picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay according to the method of Brand-Williams et al. (1995) and 2,2′‐ azino‐ bis(3‐ ethylbenzothiazoline‐ 6‐

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sulfonic acid) (ABTS) assays according to the method of Re et al. (1999). For the DPPH assay, 0.1 mL of the crude extract was mixed with 3.9

mL of 0.06 mM DPPH solution and kept for 100 min in the dark. The absorbance of the mixture was measured using a UV-Vis
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spectrophotometer (UV-1800, Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) at the wavelength of 517 nm. Trolox (Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, USA) was used for

preparing a calibration curve (25, 50, 100, 150, 200, and 250 ppm). The antioxidant capacity was expressed as μmol Trolox/g dry matter.
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For the ABTS assay, 7 mM of ABTS solution was mixed with 2.6 mM potassium persulfate to obtain ABTS radical cation (ABTS▪+)

and incubated in the dark for 16 h. ABTS radical solution was diluted with 70% methanol to obtain an absorbance of 1.100±0.02 at the
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wavelength of 734 nm. The crude extract (0.15 mL) was mixed with 2.85 mL of the ABTS radical solution and allowed to stand for 120 min in

the dark. The absorbance of the mixture was measured at 734 nm. Trolox was also used for preparing a calibration curve (20, 40, 60, 80, 100,

and 150 ppm). The antioxidant capacity was expressed as μmol Trolox/g dry matter.
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2.11 Statistical analysis

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to identify the significance of treatment condition on each response and the Duncan’s multiple

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range test was used for mean comparison at the 0.05 significant level. All statistical analyses were performed using the PASW Statistics for

Windows version 18.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).

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3. Results and discussion

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3.1 Drying curves and drying rate

Drying curves of cassumunar ginger slices with a thickness of 2 mm at different temperatures using a convective hot air dryer are
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presented in Fig. 1. Typical drying characteristics that the drying rates increased with the drying temperatures were observed. The higher

temperature led to the faster drying process particularly at the first hour of drying (Fig. 1A). The initial moisture content of the slices was in the
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range of 78.03 - 80.96% w.b., while the final moisture content of the dried products was in the range of 5.76 - 12.25% w.b. The falling drying

rate period occurred from the beginning and through the whole drying process at every temperature except at 40C, in which the constant rate
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period was also observed for the first two hours of drying then followed by the falling rate period. The results indicated that at the temperatures

higher than 40C, the surface water was evaporated faster than the diffusion of water inside the sample to the surface and there was no saturated

water surrounding the sample surface. Therefore, diffusion is the mechanism describing the removal of water in this process (Akpinar and
Toraman, 2016; Murthy and Manohar, 2014). In addition, compared to the Newton and modified Page models (data not shown), the Page model

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was found to be the best model for defining drying kinetics of the cassumunar ginger slices at every temperature with the R2 values higher than

0.999 and the RMSE values lower than 0.001%. The drying rate constants (k) from the Page model were 0.4503, 0.8347, 1.5970, 2.1949, and

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3.0809 for the drying at 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80C, respectively. The drying times required to obtain the dried products with moisture contents

lower than 10% w.b. are presented in Table 1. The result showed that increasing the drying temperature significantly decreased the drying time.

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The drying time for a hot air dryer was 1.5 h at 80C while the drying time was about ten times longer at 40C.

The drying curves and drying rates of cassumunar ginger slices dried in the greenhouse solar dryer and those directly exposed to the sun

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are shown in Fig. 2. Variations of solar radiation, temperature, and relative humidity during the drying experiments are shown in Fig. 3. The

drying experiments were normally started at 8 a.m. and ended at 4.00 p.m. The solar radiation widely varied in a range of 75 - 1,141 W/m2.
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During the 4 days of these experiment, solar radiation increased sharply from 8 a.m. up to noon and then gradually decreased in the afternoon

and there were fluctuations due to clouds. Due to the nature of this type of dryer, separate data from each replication were reported. The
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greenhouse solar dryer has a higher drying temperature than the sun drying and the highest temperatures of the two methods were gained at

different times of the day varied from 12.00 p.m. to 2.00 p.m. The highest, lowest, and average temperatures of the greenhouse solar dryer and
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the sun drying from both replications were 58.0, 32.3, and 50.9C and 39.6, 27.6, and 34.6C, respectively. The relative humidity for the

greenhouse solar dryer was also lower than the sun drying. The total time of drying using the greenhouse solar dryer was 8 h while the total time

of drying by sun drying was 30 h (including night time) (Fig. 2A). Clearly, the drying rates of samples in the greenhouse solar dryer were higher
than those of the sun drying (Fig. 2B) and the drying time for the sun drying was the longest among the three methods because the temperature

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of the sun drying was the lowest and the relative humidity was the highest. In addition, natural air convection was occurred in the open sun

drying while in the other methods, their systems are closed and applied forced air convection using circulation fans accelerated the water

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removal process. Moreover, in the greenhouse solar drying system, solar radiation was transmitted and absorbed by the air and the concrete

floor then collected in the system rather than reflected to the environment due to the parabolic shape and double layer of the polycarbonate sheet.

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The drying rates of the solar dryer were in between the drying rates of the hot air dryer at 40 and 50C.

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3.2 Color parameters

Appearances of fresh and dried cassumunar gingers from different conditions are illustrated in Fig. 4. The dried samples from the
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convective hot air drying at all temperatures were yellow with slightly browner compared to the fresh samples. This agreed with the C* values of

the dried samples which were lower than those of the fresh samples (Table 2). Drying temperature of the hot air drying did not significantly
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affect the color parameters. On the other hand, the dried samples from both sun drying and solar drying were obviously pale yellow (Fig. 4). This

could be also illustrated by much lower b* and C* values for the dried samples from sun drying and solar drying than those from the hot air
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drying (Table 2). Nevertheless, the dried samples from the solar dryer were still slightly yellower than those from sun drying, especially on the

underside of the slice. This can be concluded that the light exposure of sun and solar dried samples enhanced the degradation of curcumin which
is a yellow pigment in cassumunar ginger. The losses of curcumin in dried samples obtained from different drying methods will be discussed in

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section 3.3.

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3.3 Curcumin contents

The curcumin contents of fresh cassumunar ginger samples determined by HPLC varied from 3.70 to 4.93 mg/g d.b. Jitoe et al. (1992)

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reported that curcumin was the only curcuminoids found in CH2Cl and ethyl acetate extracts of this ginger. Curcumin contents in the dried

products obtained from hot air drying method at every temperature (6.34 – 8.99 mg/g d.b.) were higher than those in fresh rhizomes (Table 3).

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This agreed with the study from Green et al. (2008) which showed that dried (at 65C) and ground turmeric gave slightly higher curcuminoid

than fresh slice. However, Borah et al. (2017) reported a slight decrease in curcumin content after drying of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) at 55-
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60C. The higher amount of curcumin in the dried sample possibly caused by higher efficiency in extraction process of curcuminoid from dried

rhizome because drying usually breaks cell wall and promotes solvent migration into the sample. Nevertheless, comparison of curcumin contents
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among the dried products should be plausible. It was found that the curcumin contents of the dried products obtained from the hot air drying

tended to decrease as the temperature increased and the lowest amount was found at 80C. Higher losses of curcumin in turmeric dried at higher
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temperatures was also reported for hot air drying (Raza et al., 2018). Thermal degradation of curcumin into ferulic acid, vanillin, and vanillic

acid was reported (Suresh et al., 2009). On the contrary, losses of curcumin in the dried cassumunar ginger from the greenhouse solar dryer and

the sun drying were as high as 64 and 85%, respectively. This results agreed with the appearance and color values of samples as shown in 3.2.
Photodegradation of curcumin, which led to cyclization reaction product and other phenolic compounds such as vanillin, vanillic acid, ferulic

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aldehyde, ferulic acid, and 4-vinylguaiacol after exposure to 400 – 510 nm wavelength light or sunlight, was described by Lestari and Indrayanto

(2014). Li et al. (2016) also reported that a curcumin standard reduced around 50% after the exposure to a UV light at the wavelength of 290-360

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nm for 24 h. It should be noted that losses of the curcumin in cassumunar ginger obtained from the greenhouse solar dryer were lower than those

obtained from the sun drying and this might be because the polycarbonate sheets used as cover materials for this greenhouse dryer were coated

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to protect the UV light.

Degradation of (E)-4-(3',4'-dimethoxyphenyl)but-3-en-1-ol (compound D) was scarcely reported. This study found that amount of

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compound D (as a relative HPLC peak area) in the dried product obtained from the hot air drying at every temperature was not significantly

different from that of fresh rhizome (p > 0.05). Priprem et al. (2016) reported the degradation of compound D at 4 – 50C in a topical gel with
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the highest rate of 3.28% day-1 at 50C. In addition, it was found that the compound D contents in cassumunar gingers obtained from the

greenhouse solar dryer and the sun drying were not different but slightly higher than that in fresh sample. Therefore, it seemed that light might
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not affect this phenylbutanoid compound.

3.4 Essential oil yield

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The yields of essential oil from the fresh and dried cassumunar ginger samples are shown in Table 3. The values for the fresh samples

harvested at the age of 2 years used in this study were in a range of 10.66 – 11.85 mL/100 g d.b. or 1.92 – 2.13 mL/100 g w.b., while those for

dried samples were in range of 7.61 – 9.28 mL/100 g d.b. or 6.73 – 8.12 mL/100 g w.b. The values for fresh rhizomes were higher than those
reported for 8 months (0.49 – 1.11 mL/100 g w.b.) (Bua-in and Paisooksantivatana, 2009) or 10 months rhizomes (1.2 – 2.4 mL/100 g w.b.)

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(Manochai et al., 2010). The results showed that the essential oil contents of cassumunar ginger significantly decreased after the drying process.

For the convective hot air dryer, higher temperature tended to reduce the yield and the drying at 80C gave the lowest yield. Basically,

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evaporation of essential oil during drying process depends on the temperature and drying time and their effects may also vary for different raw

materials. Arabhosseini et al. (2006) reported that for tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus L.) leaves, losses of the essential oil were as high as 36 -

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75% at the drying temperatures of 60 - 90C while Argyropoulos and Müller (2014) reported the losses of 16 – 73% at the drying temperatures

of 30 - 90C for lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) which were much higher than those observed in our study (18 – 36%). The greenhouse solar

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drying and the sun drying also resulted in the essential oil yields comparable with the drying at 80C. Even though the temperatures in solar

drying and sun drying were lower than 80C but the longer drying times also resulted in losses of essential oil.
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3.5 Chemical compositions in essential oil
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The obtained essential oils of both fresh and dried cassumunar ginger were analyzed using GC-FID and 26 compounds were able to be

identified in every sample. Relative peak area of each compound was reported in Table 4 and 5. Major constituents of the essential oils from
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fresh rhizomes were sabinene (40.55 – 44.89%), (E)-1-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)buta-1,3-diene (DMPBD) (26.24 – 29.75%), and terpinen-4-ol

(9.80 – 12.09%). These values were in the same ranges with the work from Bua-in and Paisooksantivatana (2009) which reported that the

essential oil of cassumunar ginger from 35 locations in Thailand contained, among 15 compounds identified, sabinene (33.99 – 47.54%),
DMPBD (18.52 – 27.54%), and terpinen-4-ol (11.50 – 24.36%). It was found that all drying conditions did not influent these compounds and the

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values of sabinene, DMPBD, and terpinen-4-ol were in ranges 41.12 – 43.89%, 26.62 – 29.93%, and 10.56 – 12.78% and 47.64 – 48.83%, 25.31

– 27.68%, and 8.45 – 8.62% for the hot air drying at different temperatures and for the solar and sun drying, respectively. Fluctuations of values

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might arise from natural variations in the raw materials and it can be concluded that the drying conditions used in this study gave essential oils

from cassumunar ginger with similar quality.

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3.6 Antioxidant capacity

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Antioxidant capacities of fresh and dried cassumunar ginger samples were measured by DPPH and ABTS assays and expressed as Trolox

equivalent (Fig. 5). Both methods revealed that the drying decreased the antioxidant capacities of the dried products compared to their fresh
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samples. This agreed with the decreasing of curcumin and essential oil contents as discussed above. Nevertheless, antioxidant capacities in dried

cassumunar ginger at different temperatures of the hot air drying were not significantly different. In addition, only a slight decrease was obtained
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from sun dried sample. The results disagreed with the increase of antioxidant capacity of dried herbs after drying such as Stevia rebaudiana

leaves (Lemus-Mondaca et al., 2018) which might be due to the difference of the containing antioxidants. Considering the extensively losses of
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curcumin in solar and sundried samples, antioxidant capacities of cassumunar ginger must be responsible by other components. Complex

curcuminoids including cassumunarins A, B, and C from cassumunar ginger were reported for their higher antioxidant activities than curcumin
(Masuda et al., 1995). Also essential oils from herbs usually contain several compounds which exhibit antioxidant activities (Amorati et al.,

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2013).

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3.7 Choice of drying method of cassumunar ginger

Consider all above results, it can be concluded that the hot-air oven is a good choice for protecting important bioactive compounds in

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dried cassumunar ginger slices because its drying conditions can be precisely controlled and it can shield the raw material from light exposure

which adversely affected some bioactive components. However, the solar dryer has a lower operating cost comparing to a hot-air dryer while it

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could give higher retention of certain bioactive compounds, particularly curcumin, than conventional sun drying. In addition, antioxidant

capacities and the essential oil contents and compositions from all the three drying methods were quite similar. Therefore, the greenhouse solar
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dryer can be suggested as an alternative method for large scale production of dried cassumunar ginger slices.
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4. Conclusions

This study showed that the Page model was adequate for describing the drying kinetics of cassumunar ginger slices in the convective hot
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air dryer at 40 - 80C. Lower temperatures resulted in a slightly higher volatile oil and curcumin contents but indifference of the compound D

content. In contrast, both large-scale greenhouse solar dryer and sun drying significantly reduced curcumin contents and deteriorated the yellow

color. Additionally, lower antioxidant of dried cassumunar ginger from sun drying was also observed. Nevertheless, the greenhouse solar drying
can be an alternative method to sun drying for large scale production of herbs such as cassumunar ginger because it shorten the drying time

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without cost of fuel, but study on strategy for preservation of color should be further investigated.

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Acknowledgment
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This research was funded by the Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency, Ministry of Energy, Thailand under the

project “Development of the greenhouse solar dryer for drying herbs”.

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(A) (B)

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Fig. 1. Drying curves (A) and drying rate (B) of cassumunar ginger slices in a convective hot air dryer at different temperatures. Lines in (A) are drawn using
the Page model.
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(A)

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(B)
Fig. 2. Drying curves (A) and drying rate (B) of cassumunar ginger slices in the greenhouse solar dryer and the sun drying. Two replications are presented

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separately due to the nature of the method.

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Fig. 3. Variations of solar radiation, temperature and relative humidity inside and outside the greenhouse solar dryer.
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Hot air drying Greenhouse Sun drying

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Drying
40˚C 50˚C 60˚C 70˚C 80˚C solar drying
method

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Fresh

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Dried
Sample

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Upper side Upper side
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Underside Underside

Fig. 4. Appearances of the fresh and dried cassumunar gingers from different drying conditions.
 (A) (B)

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Fig. 5. Antioxidant capacities of the fresh and dried cassumunar gingers by DPPH (A) and
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ABTS (B) assays. Bars with different capital letters indicate significant difference between the

greenhouse solar dryer and the sun drying and with different lowercase letters indicate
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significant difference between drying temperatures in the hot air dryer (p ≤ 0.05).

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Table 1 Drying time, moisture content, and water activity of the fresh and dried cassumunar ginger slices at the different drying conditions.

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Drying time Moisture content (% w.b.) Water activity (aw)
Drying method
(h) Freshns Driedns Freshns Dried

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Hot air dryer

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40 ˚C 15 80.13±2.07 10.67±0.21 0.998±0.001 0.499±0.011a

50 ˚C 5 80.75±3.39 9.53±0.30 0.997±0.003 0.393±0.005b

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60 ˚C 3 79.79±1.94 10.55±0.26 0.997±0.000 0.412±0.004b

70 ˚C 2 83.41±1.38 10.33±0.16 0.998±0.000 0.416±0.019b

80 ˚C 1.5 l79.75±0.81 9.44±0.11 0.995±0.000 0.391±0.001b

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Greenhouse
9 77.01±0.91 10.92±4.91 0.995±0.001 0.369±0.068A
solar dryer
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Sun drying 32 77.01±0.91 10.69±0.17 0.995±0.001 0.421±0.011A

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Data are expressed as mean ± SD. Different superscript capital letters indicate significant difference between the greenhouse solar dryer and the

sun drying and different lowercase letters indicate significant difference between drying temperatures (p ≤ 0.05).

ns represents not significant difference among drying methods (p > 0.05).

Table 2 Color characteristics of the fresh and dried cassumunar ginger slices from different drying conditions.
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Drying L* a* b* C* h

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methods Freshns Driedns Freshns Dried Freshns Dried Freshns Dried Freshns Dried

Hot air dryer

40 62.75±2.73 64.89±3.69 8.44±1.76 8.00±0.06a 62.74±3.01 57.75±2.97a 63.34±3.19 58.36±2.97a 82.40±1.21 82.06±0.34a

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50 63.85±1.29 64.75±0.44 8.32±0.12 7.60±0.48a 63.67±2.64 57.88±2.88a 64.24±2.61 58.40±2.93a 82.56±0.43 82.49±0.12a

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60 62.29±1.20 61.58±0.88 7.38±1.21 7.94±0.45a 61.01±0.94 55.07±0.48a 61.49±1.09 55.65±0.54a 83.13±1.00 81.84±0.30a

70 62.29±0.08 61.68±0.93 8.37±1.35 7.70±0.48a 62.78±1.36 55.39±0.54a 63.36±1.15 55.94±0.47a 82.35±1.42 82.10±0.54a

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80 64.81±1.18 61.56±2.78 8.15±2.28 7.43±0.30a 61.81±2.23 53.30±3.50a 62.38±2.52 53.85±3.43a 82.56±1.91 81.94±0.75a

Greenhouse Upper side 63.70±0.47 65.08±3.84 10.30±0.15 4.24±0.18B 64.27±0.02 26.15±0.02B 65.10±0.05 25.56±0.05B 80.89±0.13 79.81±0.13A

solar dryer Underside 63.70±0.47 63.98±3.89 10.30±0.15 6.47±0.09A 64.27±0.02 39.25±3.92A 65.10±0.05 39.79±3.88A 80.89±0.13 80.60±0.78A
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Sun drying Upper side 63.70±0.47 64.71±0.65 10.30±0.15 6.47±0.13A 64.27±0.02 26.62±0.47B 65.10±0.05 27.41±0.44B 80.89±0.13 76.38±0.49B

Underside 63.70±0.47 65.12±0.71 10.30±0.15 4.30±0.17B 64.27±0.02 25.74±0.44B 65.10±0.05 26.12±0.47B 80.89±0.13 80.55±0.09A

Data are expressed as mean ± SD. Different superscript capital letters indicate significant difference between the greenhouse solar dryer and the
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sun drying and different lowercase letters indicate significant difference between drying temperatures (p ≤ 0.05).
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ns represents not significant difference among drying methods (p > 0.05).

Table 3 Curcumin, compound D, and essential oil yields of the fresh and dried cassumunar gingers as affected by drying conditions.

Curcumin Compound D Oil yield (mL/100 g d.b.)

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 Drying (mg/g d.b.) (Relative peak area)

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ns
method Fresh Dried Freshns Driedns Freshns Dried

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Hot air
dryer

40 ˚C 8.99±0.44a 8.43±0.27ab

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4.93±0.14 0.20±0.02 0.18±0.04 11.59±0.49

50 ˚C 4.25±0.46 8.24±1.06ab 0.22±0.03 0.21±0.03 10.66±0.27 8.77±0.50ab

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60 ˚C 4.65±0.02 7.66±0.60bc 0.20±0.01 0.22±0.01 11.3±0.55 9.28±0.18a

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70 ˚C 4.46±0.30 7.32±1.03c 0.20±0.03 0.18±0.03 11.43±0.98 8.26±0.41bc

80 ˚C 4.33±0.36 6.34±1.00d 0.21±0.01 0.19±0.004 11.85±0.77 7.61±0.41c

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Greenhouse
3.70±0.04 1.33±0.10A 0.21±0.01 0.25±0.01 10.89±0.19 7.68±0.15A
solar dryer

Sun drying 3.70±0.04 0.54±0.04B 0.21±0.01 0.27±0.02 10.89±0.19 7.82±0.04A

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Data are expressed as mean ± SD. Different superscript capital letters indicate significant difference between the greenhouse solar dryer and the

sun drying and different lowercase letters indicate significant difference between drying temperatures (p ≤ 0.05).
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ns represents not significant difference among drying methods (p > 0.05).

Table 4 Essential oil compositions of the fresh and dried cassumunar gingers as affected by different drying temperatures using a hot air drying.

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 RI 40°C 50°C 60°C 70°C 80°C

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Compound

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Fresh Dried Fresh Dried Fresh Dried Fresh Dried Fresh Dried

α-Thujene 926 0.25±0.04 0.23±0.05 0.26±0.00 0.30±0.02 0.31±0.03 0.31±0.03 0.27±0.00 0.23±0.04 0.27±0.00 0.31±0.01

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α-Pinene 934 0.89±0.11 0.89±0.15 0.94±0.07 1.00±0.01 1.11±0.10 1.07±0.02 1.09±0.03 0.91±0.09 0.89±0.17 1.06±0.08

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Sabinene 976 40.55±3.56 41.12±3.43 41.45±0.46 42.86±0.35 42.35±1.07 43.89±0.26 43.39±1.40 42.07±1.33 42.12±1.58 41.26±01.37

𝛽-Pinene 980 1.94±0.18 1.66±0.54 1.99±0.09 2.05±0.07 2.26±0.17 2.20±0.06 2.17±0.04 1.89±0.16 1.89±0.36 2.25±0.17

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Myrcene 988 1.29±0.03 1.15±0.23 1.33±0.05 1.32±0.02 1.46±0.08 1.38±0.03 1.40±0.02 1.22±0.09 1.24±0.23 1.40±0.12

𝛼-Terpinene 1017 1.27±0.05 1.11±0.20 1.29±0.07 1.35±0.05 1.49±0.15 1.41±0.06 1.24±0.10 1.16±0.21 1.34±0.11 1.57±0.15

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ρ-Cymene 1024 0.63±0.02 0.31±0.00 0.63±0.01 0.39±0.09 0.66±0.05 0.41±0.04 0.45±0.00 0.21±0.11 0.49±0.03 0.44±0.08

𝛽-Phellandrene 1029 0.77±0.06 0.74±0.01 0.75±0.01 0.75± 0.16 0.82±0.00 0.72±0.01 0.81±0.04 0.70±0.05 0.74±0.04 0.73±0.05
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𝛾-Terpinene 1059 2.69±0.12 2.44±0.16 2.70±0.11 2.83±0.17 3.07±0.32 2.92±0.10 2.54±0.19 2.42±0.46 2.41±0.37 3.30±0.35

cis-Sabinene hydrate 1068 0.29±0.01 0.28±0.04 0.24±0.04 0.30±0.01 0.28±0.01 0.29±0.01 0.25±0.00 0.26±0.01 0.25±0.06 0.29±0.02
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Terpinolene 1090 0.51±0.02 0.46±0.02 0.50±0.02 0.52±0.03 0.56±0.06 0.52±0.02 0.47±0.04 0.45±0.07 0.44±0.06 0.59±0.06

trans-Sabinene hydrate 1099 0.25±0.01 0.25±0.04 0.21±0.03 0.28±0.00 0.25±0.03 0.27±0.03 0.21±0.01 0.26±0.02 0.21±0.06 0.28±0.02

39
cis-p-Menth-2-ene-1-ol 1124 0.26±0.00 0.26±0.01 0.24±0.02 0.28±0.01 0.27±0.05 0.27±0.01 0.22±0.02 0.24±0.04 0.22±0.03 0.30±0.01

f
oo
trans-p-Menth-2-ene-1-ol 1143 0.17±0.01 0.16±0.02 0.16±0.02 0.18±0.01 0.18±0.03 0.17±0.00 0.14±0.02 0.15±0.03 0.14±0.01 0.19±0.01

Terpinen-4-ol 1184 11.73±1.07 10.70±1.75 10.58±0.26 11.25±1.21 12.09±1.99 11.22±0.26 11.15±0.81 10.56±0.44 11.15±0.78 12.78±1.09

pr
𝛼-Terpineol 1193 0.19±0.00 0.19±0.03 0.16±0.01 0.20±0.01 0.19±0.03 0.19±0.01 0.15±0.02 0.17±0.02 0.16±0.00 0.20±0.02

trans-Piperitol 1201 0.12±0.02 0.10±0.02 0.10±0.01 0.10±0.01 0.11±0.02 0.10±0.01 0.09±0.01 0.09±0.02 0.09±0.01 0.12±0.01

e-
𝛼-Terpinyl acetate 1352 0.32±0.03 0.34±0.08 0.27±0.00 0.30±0.00 0.27±0.01 0.24±0.06 0.26±0.01 0.27±0.03 0.26±0.05 0.29±0.00

Pr
𝛼-Zingiberene 1499 0.18±0.11 0.17±0.11 0.15±0.01 0.11±0.01 0.15±0.01 0.17±0.04 0.19±0.01 0.19±0.01 0.13±0.05 0.14±0.01

𝛽-Sesquiphellandrene 1529 1.92±1.13 1.93±1.24 1.53±0.23 1.17±0.04 1.58±0.12 1.45±0.05 1.91±0.18 1.99±0.06 1.46±0.06 1.53±0.01

l
na
Germacrene B 1549 0.13±0.07 0.50±0.06 0.11±0.03 0.36±0.00 0.10±0.01 0.34±0.08 0.13±0.00 0.50±0.17 0.14±0.04 0.33±0.00

(Z)-1-(3’,4’-Dimethoxy 1567 0.22±0.02 0.20±0.02 0.20±0.03 0.20±0.01 0.16±0.01 0.18±0.01 0.18±0.01 0.22±0.02 0.20±0.06 0.17±0.01
ur

phenyl) buta-1,3-diene

(E)-1-(3’,4’-Dimethoxy 1592 1.41±0.16 1.44±0.24 1.17±0.00 1.26±0.03 1.02±0.03 1.11±0.03 1.09±0.02 1.34±0.11 1.19±0.22 1.20±0.15
Jo

phenyl)but-1-ene

40
(E)-1-(3’,4’-Dimethoxy 1636 28.29±0.46 29.93±0.54 29.84±1.04 28.11±1.09 26.24±0.59 26.82±1.02 27.72±0.05 29.16±0.19 29.11±2.33 26.62±0.93

f
oo
phenyl)buta-1,3-diene

(DMPBD)

1-(2’,4’,5’-Trimethoxy 1765 0.57±0.09 0.44±0.10 0.51±0.02 0.36±0.06 0.49±0.06 0.39±0.03 0.50±0.02 0.45±0.01 0.61±0.03 0.42±0.03

pr
phenyl)but-1-ene

e-
(E)-1-(2’,4’,5’-Trimethoxy 1817 3.19±0.66 2.99±0.64 2.72±0.37 2.17±0.49 2.51±0.47 1.97±0.61 2.72±0.15 2.89±0.44 2.84±0.31 2.24±0.08

phenyl)buta-1,3diene

Pr
(TMPBD)

l
na
ur
Jo

41
Table 5 Essential oil compositions of the fresh and dried cassumunar gingers as affected by

the drying methods.

Compound RI Greenhouse solar dryer Sun drying

Fresh Dried Fresh Dried

α-Thujene 926 0.23±0.01 0.27±0.03 0.23±0.01 0.29±0.02

α-Pinene 934 1.01±0.01 1.14±0.17 1.01±0.01 1.19±0.09

Sabinene 976 44.89±0.01 47.64±0.01 44.89±0.01 48.83±0.00

of
𝛽-Pinene 980 2.04±0.00 2.29±0.22 2.04±0.00 2.41±0.07

ro
Myrcene 988 1.27±0.04 1.38±0.11 1.27±0.04 1.41±0.03

𝛼-Terpinenens 1017 1.09±0.10 1.03±0.06 1.09±0.10 1.04±0.02

ρ-Cymene 1024 0.19±0.00

-p0.25±0.06 0.19±0.00 0.32±0.01
re
𝛽-Phellandrene 1029 0.77±0.00 0.73±0.18 0.77±0.00 0.78±0.03

𝛾-Terpinenens 1059 2.35±0.19 2.41±0.13 2.35±0.19 2.62±0.03

lP

cis-Sabinene hydrate 1068 0.30±0.01 0.37±0.03 0.30±0.01 0.38±0.01

Terpinolene 1090 0.42±0.04 0.41±0.02 0.42±0.04 0.45±0.01

na

trans-Sabinene hydrate 1099 0.25±0.02 0.33±0.04 0.25±0.02 0.36±0.02

ur

cis-p-Menth-2-ene-1-ol 1124 0.21±0.01 0.22±0.00 0.21±0.01 0.24±0.02

trans-p-Menth-2-ene-1-ol 1143 0.12±0.01 0.13±0.00 0.12±0.01 0.17±0.02

Jo

Terpinen-4-ol 1184 9.80±0.15 8.45±0.39 9.80±0.15 8.62±0.51

𝛼-Terpineol 1193 0.14±0.01 0.14±0.01 0.14±0.01 0.16±0.01

trans-Piperitol 1201 0.07±0.00 0.07±0.00 0.07±0.00 0.08±0.01

𝛼-Terpinyl acetate 1352 0.21±0.01 0.24±0.00 0.21±0.01 0.24±0.01

42
𝛼-Zingiberene 1499 0.15±0.01 0.11±0.02 0.15±0.01 0.11±0.01

𝛽-Sesquiphellandrene 1529 1.22±0.11 1.00±0.01 1.22±0.11 1.07±0.00

Germacrene 1549 0.33±0.03 0.41±0.11 0.33±0.03 0.34±0.01

(Z)-1-(3’,4’-Dimethoxy phenyl) buta- 1567 0.39±0.16 0.89±0.14 0.39±0.16 1.35±0.01

1,3-diene

(E)-1-(3’,4’-Dimethoxy phenyl)but-1- 1592 1.07±0.12 1.13±0.05 1.07±0.12 1.17±0.12

ene

(E)-1-(3’,4’-Dimethoxy phenyl)buta- 1636 29.75±0.08 27.68±0.03 29.75±0.08 25.31±0.74

of
1,3-diene (DMPBD)

ro
1-(2’,4’,5’-Trimethoxy phenyl)but-1- 1765 0.16±0.01 0.13±0.06 0.16±0.01 0.14±0.03

ene

(E)-1-(2’,4’,5’-Trimethoxyphenyl)buta-

1,3diene (TMPBD)
1817 1.55±0.05
-p
1.14±0.28 1.55±0.05 0.91±0.02
re
lP
na
ur
Jo

43