GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1 NOTES

A. CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter can exist in three forms or
phases: solids, liquids, or gases.
A pure substance is defined as matter which is homogeneous and of which all parts are
alike. Substances are either elements or compounds. Elements are pure substances which cannot
be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical means.
Some familiar elements are oxygen, gold, sulfur, and iron. Compounds are pure
substances that are composed of two or more elements. Substances such as water, salt, and
sugar are simple examples of compounds. On the other hand, wood or a piece of marble are not
homogeneous and therefore not pure substances or compounds. They are called mixtures.
Mixtures are defined as matter which consists of two or more substances mixed together.
A mixture can be either homogeneous or heterogeneous. In a heterogeneous mixture several
difference components can be detected with the unaided eye. Marble is not homogeneous, you
can see different colored components. However, salt dissolved in water produces a perfectly
homogeneous mixture.
It is not only necessary to define the various forms of matter but we need to be concerned
also with the characteristics or properties of matter. Furthermore, we wish to define the changes
that matter can undergo.
A physical property of matter is one that can be observed without changing its
composition. Gold is a shiny yellow metal. Lead has a high density. Observations of these
characteristics do not change the composition.
A chemical property is one which is observed when matter undergoes a transformation
that results in a change of composition. Gasoline will burn in air to form products which are very
different from the original material. Iron will rust in moist air to form a compound called iron oxide.
The fact that gasoline burns, and iron rusts are therefore chemical properties.
A physical change is a change in the form of matter without changing its composition.
Examples of such changes are phase changes such as melting, boiling, etc.
A chemical change is one that leads to a change in the composition of the matter involved.
The burning of wood leads to products very different than the starting material.
Physical changes are quite often reversible. Ice can be melted to form liquid water;
however, water can be readily reconverted to ice. Chemical changes are usually irreversible.
Gasoline can be burned to produce water and carbon dioxide, but it is not possible to reconvert
these into the original material.
 Even though matter can undergo changes it is important to realize that in ordinary
chemical reactions matter cannot be created or destroyed. We say
that matter is conserved. This is one of the fundamental conservation
laws.

To Summarize, Matter can be classified according to

physical and chemical properties. Matter is anything that occupies
space and has mass. The three states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas. A physical change
involves the conversion of a substance from one state of matter to another, without changing its
chemical composition. Most matter consists of mixtures of pure substances, which can be
homogeneous (uniform in composition) or heterogeneous (different regions possess different
compositions and properties). Pure substances can be either chemical compounds or elements.
Compounds can be broken down into elements by chemical reactions, but elements
cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means. The properties of substances
can be classified as either physical or chemical. Scientists can observe physical properties without
changing the composition of the substance, whereas chemical properties describe the tendency of
a substance to undergo chemical changes (chemical reactions) that change its chemical
composition.
Physical properties can be intensive or extensive. Intensive properties are the same for all
samples; do not depend on sample size; and include, for example, color, physical state, and
melting and boiling points. Extensive properties depend on the amount of material and include
mass and volume. The ratio of two extensive properties, mass and volume, is an important
intensive property called density.
B. COMMON CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES AND USES
Chemical substances are present in many products that we have at home. This substance can
either be an element only, a compound or a mixture of many different chemicals.
Below are some examples of common chemical substances

Common Uses
Name of Chemical Name Formula
vinegar (5% Used for cooking and
solution) CH3COOH cleaning

acetic acid acetic acid, glacial

stop bath (28%)
Use to remove nail
nail polish
remover polish,
 epoxy and Solvent to manufacture
acetone fiberglass cleaner CH3COCH3
acetone plastics
Use to reduce fever and
acetylsalicylic acid aspirin C9H8O4 relieve mild paint
Used in metal industries in
aluminum aluminum foil Al producing cans, foils
aluminum wire etc,
and sheet
aluminum ammonium Used for tanning, dyeing if
sulfate ammonium alum AlNH4(SO4)2 textile
aluminum potassium KAl(SO4)2•12H2 Used as deodorant “rock”,
sulfate alum O purification of drinking water
sulfate of Used for water purification
aluminum sulfate aluminum Al2(SO4)3 and mordant in dying and
flocculating printing textiles
powder
Used in agriculture as
ammonia ammonia NH
3 (aq) fertilizer, dyes
Used to arouse
ammonium carbonate smelling salt (NH4)2CO3 consciousness
Used in production of cooling
baths and dyeing and leather
ammonium chloride sal ammoniac NH4Cl tanning
Used in making fertilizer and
ammonium nitrate nitrate of ammonia NH4NO3 explosive
Used to thicken liquids and
amylum corn starch [C6H10O5]n bind ingredients
Used to prevent and treat
scurvy and improves immune
ascorbic acid vitamin C C6H8O6 system
fruit fresh
Used as an anti-bacterial
boric acid boric acid H3BO3 compound to treat acne and
eyewash solution prevention of
 roach killer (solid) athletes’ foot
Used as fuel in lighters, and
butane lighter fuel C H
4 10 potable stoves
Used to improve mental
caffeine No-Doz tablets 8 10 4 2
C H N O
alertness
calcium carbonate chalk CaCO3 Used to relieve heartburn,

limestone production of chalk

marble chips
some antacids
Use to prevent ice from
calcium chloride ice melter CaCl2 bonding to use traffic surface
Used as fuel, pencil tips, dry cell
carbon charcoal C electrodes
activated charcoal
graphite (powder)
graphite (rod):
pencil lead
graphite (rod):
carbon battery1
carbon dioxide, solid dry ice CO2 Used to preserve food
soda water Helps relieve stomach ache
carbonic acid (seltzer) H2CO3
Used in insecticides and
disinfectants to help destroy
citric acid sour salt C6H8O7 bacteria and viruses.
(limes, lemons,
etc2)

BB’s3, sheet, pipe, Used in electrical equipment

copper or wire Cu such as wirings and motors
Used as fungicide, algaecide,
copper sulfate Bluestone algicide CuSO4•5H2O root killer and herbicide.
ethyl alcohol, Use as disinfectant
absolute
 ethyl alcohol, 95%
ethanol denatured alcohol CH3CH2OH
ethyl rubbing
alcohol, 70% to
95%
Used as solvent, sweetener,
glycerol glycerin C3H8O3 and may help preserve food

gold gold Au Use for making jewelries

Used to inhale blimps and party
helium helium He balloons

hydrochloric acid muriatic acid HCl Used in cleaning purposes.

masonry cleaner
Used to make ammonia for
agricultural fertilizer, and to
remove sulfur from fuels during
hydrogen H2 the oil refining process
Use for cleaning wounds
hydrogen because of its antiseptic
hydrogen peroxide peroxide, 3% H2O2 properties
Clairoxide, 20
volume (6%)
hydrogen
peroxide,
40 volume (12%)
hypochlorous acid laundry bleach HClO Used in removing stains
Use to lighten the dark patches
hydroquinone C6H6O2 of skin.
used an antiseptic in cleaning
iodine Tincture of iodine I2 wounds to disinfect.
(dissolved in
ethanol)
iron steel wool Fe Used in manufacturing of steel

nails
 Used as cooking and lighting
kerosene lamp oil n 2n+2
C H
fuel
Used as a food preservative,
lactic acid milk acid CH3COHCOOH curing agent and flavoring agent
Use to make items like gloves,
latex liquid rubber C5H8 swim caps, chewing gum etc.

isoprene
lead lead shot Pb Used as a projectile in shit guns
Used primarily as fuel to make
methane natural gas CH4 heat and light
Automotive antifreezes, in
rocker fuels, and as a general
methanol methyl alcohol CH3OH solvent
wood alcohol
duplicator fluid
gas dryer and
antifreeze
Used to treat
methemoglobinemia and urinary
methylene blue Methidote C16H18ClN3S tract infection
Used as chemical pesticide and
naphthalene some Moth balls 10 8
C H
deodorants

nickel (Canadian, Used in making alloys such as

nickel pre-1983) Ni stainless steel
(Note: pure nickel
is magnetic)
nitrogen (liquid) liquid air 2
N
Used as coolants

Used in production of steel,

plastic and textile, brazing,
oxygen oxygen O
2 welding and cutting of
Steels and other metals

oxalic acid rust remover HO2CCO2H Widely used as an acid rise in

 radiator cleaner Laundries
Used in stabilizing egg whites
potassium bitartrate cream of tartar KHC4H4O6 while whipping them.
Used to prevent or to treat low
potassium chloride lite salt KCl blood levels of potassium

potassium hydroxide lye KOH Used in making detergents

caustic potash
potassium nitrate saltpeter KNO3 Used as fertilizer

potassium Used for number of skin

permanganate “Clearwater” 5
KMnO4 conditions (fungal infections)

(0.53% solution)
propane gas barbecue fuel C3H8 Used as fuel

blow torch fuel

2-propanol isopropyl alcohol CH3CHOHCH3 Used as disinfectant
rubbing alcohol
(70% and 99%)
quinine quinine water6 C20H24N2O2*3H2O Used to treat malaria
Used in industrial purposes
silicon dioxide sand SiO2 such as buildings
Used for warming parts of the
sodium acetate heating pad NaC2H3O2 body in order to manage pain
(supersaturated
solution)
Used in laundry detergent and
sodium borate borax Na2B4O7 household cleaners
Used to treat heartburn, as
sodium hydrogen mouthwash, to whiten teeth,
carbonate baking soda NaHCO3 deodorant and etc.

(sodium bicarbonate)
sodium hydrogen Used for acid adjustment
phosphate pH Down Na2HPO4
(sodium biphosphate)
sodium hydrogen sulfate pH Down NaHSO4 Used for acid adjustment
(sodium bisulfate)
Used in chemical
sodium hydroxide lye NaOH manufacturing,

caustic soda Oil refining, hydraulic fracturing,

many drain Water treatment and metal

cleaners processing

bleach (5% Used for water purification,

sodium hypochlorite solution) NaClO bleaching, odor removal and
mildew remover Water disinfection
Used in solid propellants,
sodium nitrate nitrate of soda NaNO3 explosive, fertilizers etc.
Used as emulsifiers, thickening
trisodium agents and leavening agents for
sodium phosphate phosphate Na3PO4 baked goods

sodium silicate water glass Na2SiO3 Help to reduce viscosity

egg preserver
(40% solution) Na2Si3O7
Magic Rocks
Used to treat cyanide poisoning,
sodium thiosulfate hypo Na2S2O3 pityriasis versicolor
Used most often to thicken and
retain the shape of soaps,
stearic acid candle hardener C17H35CO2H candles etc.

sucrose table sugar 12H22O11

C
Used as sweetener in foods
Used in the vulcanization of
black rubber, as fungicide and
sulfur flowers of sulfur S in black gun powder
Used in production of fertilizers,
sulfuric acid battery acid H2SO4 battery etc.
some drain
cleaners
tungsten (wolfram) light bulb filament W Use as electrodes, heating
 elements and field emitters and
as filaments in light bulbs and
cathode ray tubes.
Used as fertilizer to provide the
Urea ice melter H2NCONH2 plants with nitrogen to promote
fertilizer Promote green leafy growth
Used as solvent in the painting,
Xylene xylene 8 10
C H
rubber and leather industries

canister of carbon Used in alloys such as brass,

Zinc batteries Zn nickel, silver and aluminum
galvanizing solder
coating

C. CONSUMER PRODUCTS AND ITS USES

Consumer Products are items or goods commonly bought for private consumption
These products help us to accomplish our daily work form cleaning the house, to wash
our body, treating wounds, repairing broken object, and many more. However, we might not be
familiar with the components of this products. It is important to know what their components
are, how to properly use these products, the risks they may pose on us. It is possible that the
products that we use every day can also be a risk to our health.
Commonly used consumer products:
Detergents are water- soluble cleaning agent used in
washing clothes and fabrics. These products contain
surfactants, the major component of cleaning products
that lower the surface tension of water. Surfactants also
serve an emulsifier in removing dirt and oil on the surface
of fabrics and even in our skin. While generally helpful,
detergents can also have harmful; effects on consumer.
They can cause eye and skin irritation and can be toxic
Picturefromhttp://www.powercleanchemicals.co.uk/
when inhaled or swallowed.
Vinegar is a sour liquid condiment used for cooking. It
has acetic acid that gives a sour taste. Acetic acid is
also used to treat ear infection it has anti-fungal and
anti-bacterial properties. It can also be used to remove
dirt and stains. Although vinegar has many uses, its
acetic acid component can also be harmful. Acetic
acid is corrosive. It can damage metals and can also
damage teeth.
 Picturefromhttps://www.clipartkey.com/view/
hRiihb_drawing-of-vinegar-bottle/

Deodorant is used to prevent body odor. The sweat in our body

does not really have a smell. It becomes stinky when bacteria
gather on the sweat part of the skin. Deodorant contains an
aluminum compound that clogs the sweat glands to temporarily
stop the secretion of sweat. On the bad side, the aluminum
compound in deodorants can cause skin irritation and other
allergic reactions.
Picture from https://stylecaster.com/beauty/deodorant-weird-facts/

Toothpaste is a gel or paste used to clean teeth and

make them stronger. We brush our teeth with
toothpaste three times a day. This prevents us from
having bad breath and other mouth problems like tooth
decay, plaque and gum diseases. Toothpaste has
fluoride, a mineral that help strengthen the teeth and
helps prevent tooth decay. Fluoride, however, when
Picture from https://thegoldzebra.wordpress.com/2013/01/06/crazy-things-
to-do-with-toothpaste/

swallowed specially in large amount ca cause

poisoning.
Toilet Bowl cleaner is a substance used to clean, disinfect, and
deodorized toilets. Most of the time soaps are not enough to clean a
dirty bathroom, which is why a more effective and more concentrated
solution is needed for cleaning. The ingredient present in most toilet
bowl cleaners is hydrochloric acids. Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid
solution of hydrogen chloride in water. It is used to remove stains from
surfaces like bathrooms and kitchen tiles. However, hydrochloric acid
Picturecan cause corrosion,
from https://cliparts.zone/laundry-cliparts-3d
skin and eye irritation and can also be fatal when inhaled or ingested.

D. METHODS OF SEPARATING MIXTURE

One of the approaches taken to isolate the gold from the soil was called "panning". Dirt
would be placed in the pan and covered with water. After thorough mixing, the pan is gently
swirled to remove dissolved material while the heavier gold settles to the bottom of the pan.
The gold is then separated from the mixture of soil and water.

Chromatography is the
separation of a mixture by passing
it in solution or suspension or as a
vapor (as in gas chromatography)
through a medium in which the
components move at different
rates. Thin-layer chromatography
is a special type of
chromatography used for separating and identifying mixtures that are or can be colored,
especially pigments.
Picture from https://microbenotes.com/paper-chromatography/

Distillation is an effective
method to separate mixtures
comprised of two or more pure
liquids. Distillation is a purification
process where the components of a
liquid mixture are vaporized and then
condensed and isolated. In simple
distillation, a mixture is heated and the
most volatile component vaporizes at the
lowest temperature. The vapor
passes through a cooled tube (a
condenser), where it condenses back into
its liquid state. The condensate that is
collected is called distillate. Picture from http://jupiter.plymouth.edu/~wwf/distillation.htm

Evaporation is a technique
used to separate out homogeneous
mixtures where
there is one or more dissolved
salts. The method drives off the
liquid components from the solid
Picture from https://www.aplustopper.com/separate-mixture-solid-liquid-using-evaporation/ components. The process typically
involves heating the mixture until
no more liquid remains. Prior to using this method, the mixture should only contain one liquid
component, unless it is not important to isolate the liquid components. This is because all liquid
components will evaporate over time. This method is suitable to separate a soluble solid from a
liquid.

Filtration is a separation method used to

separate out pure substances in mixtures comprised of
particles, some of which are large enough in size to be
captured with a porous material or what we called as a
filtering a medium. Particle size can vary considerably,
given the type of mixture. For instance, stream water is a
mixture that contains naturally occurring biological
organisms like bacteria, viruses, and protozoans. Some
water filters can filter out bacteria, the length of which is
on the order of 1 micron. Other mixtures, like soil, have
relatively large particle sizes, which can be filtered
through something like a coffee filter. Picture from https://keystagewiki.com/index.php/Filtration
 Sedimentation is a process
used to separate the components to
mixture based on their varying
weights. By sedimentation, heavy
suspended particles can settle at the
bottom of the container. This is after
some time, the water becomes
clearer, and impurities like small
grains of sand settle. The Liquid
portion is poured out carefully in such
a way that the sediments are not distributed. This process is called decantation.
Picture from https://www.aplustopper.com/methods-of-separation-substances-wet-conditions/

In sublimation, a solid turn into gas without going

through the liquid stage. Through this method, a
component of a mixture can be separated from component
that sublimates. For example, a mixture of naphthalene
and salt in container can be separated by heating the
mixture. The naphthalene changes directly from solid to
gas, through which the salt remains in the container.
Picture from https://www.aplustopper.com/separate-
mixture-two-solids/

E. ISOTOPES
Atoms with the same number of protons in the nucleus can have different numbers of
neutrons. Atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons are isotopes of
the same element. Typically, the number of protons and neutrons are equal, but this is not always
the case. For example, the most common isotope of carbon is 12C, which has six protons and six
neutrons. However, 238U is the most common isotope of uranium, which clearly has many more
neutrons than protons.
Another difference among isotopes is the mass. Since neutrons have one mass unit,
different isotopes of the same element have different masses. This difference, although it cannot
change the nature of chemical reactions, could influence the rate of reactions. For reactions that
involve hydrogen atoms, this effect could be significant because the three different hydrogen
isotopes have very different masses. Biochemists often utilize this effect to study the mechanism of
enzymatic reactions when speaking of different isotopes.
COMMON ISOTOPES AND THEIR USES

  There are other isotopic elements that can be useful to us. One of them is carbon which
has three naturally occurring isotopes carbon 12 has six protons and six neutrons, carbon 13 has
six protons and 7 neutrons, and carbon 14 has six protons and 8 neutrons. Carbon 12 is the most
common isotopes of carbon.  It is considered as the reference isotopes for measuring the atomic
weights of all the other elements masses. Carbon-13 is commonly used in studying the structure of
organic compounds using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Carbon 14 is a radioactive
isotope used in carbon dating to determine the age of materials like historical artifacts.

Unstable isotopes are called radioisotopes for radionuclides. They emit radiation, causing
the nucleus to change into nucleus of different elements which is more stable. Such atoms are
described as radioactive and the process of emission of radiation is called radioactive decay.

Radioactive substances are widely used in biochemistry and medicine. In biochemistry,

they are used in radiotracers these are radionuclides that can be introduced in organisms through
food or drugs, and who's pathways can be monitored. They provide sensitive and non-invasive
methods of elucidation of pathways and structure, detections of disease, and monitoring the action
and effectiveness of the drug. Some of these radionuclides, like C-14 which is already mentioned,
are:
 P- 32 is incorporated into nutrients giving information on metabolic pathways and use for
detecting of skin cancer
 I-131 used in medical diagnostic tests and treatment of illness of the thyroid glands;
 Cu-64 which is used in studying brain tumor
 Fe-55 which is used as an x-ray source of different methods of scientific analysis
 Na-24 which is used for detecting blood clots and tumors; and
 Co-60 and Cs-137 which are used for the radiation therapy of cancer.

F. CHEMICAL FORMULA
Writing chemical formulas is a way of expressing in symbols the element presents in a
compound,
as well as the number of atoms of each element present in the compound.
There are different types of chemical formula used to represent the bonding of atoms to
form a compound. These are structural formula, molecular formulas, and empirical formulas.

STRUCTURAL FORMULA
A structural formula indicates hoe the atoms are arranged and bonded chemically. They
are graphical representations of compounds showing the elements connected to each other in
symbols and how they are arranged in molecule of the compound. Study the structural formula of
water below.

The structural formula for water for water shows the symbols of the element in the
compound consisting of one oxygen atom bonded with two hydrogen atoms.

MOLECULAR FORMULA
A molecular formula is a formula that shows the number of atoms per element present in a
compound. It is also called the true formula. Study the molecular formula of glucose below.
 C6H12O6
The molecular formula for glucose is C6H12O6. There are 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen
atoms, and six atoms in a glucose compound.
EMPIRICAL FORMULA
An empirical formula shows the simplest form of atomic ratio in a chemical compound. A
molecular formula of a compound can also be an empirical formula if the molecular formula is
already in the simplest form of atomic ratio. Take the molecular formula of glucose as an example.
The ratio of the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms respectively is 6:12:6. Since 12 is a multiple
of 6, in its simplest form, the ratio will be 1:2:1. There for the empirical formula of C 6H12O6 is CH2O.
when a compound contains only 1 atom of an element, the subscript 1 of that atom is no longer
written.
MODELS
A molecular model is a representation of a compound’s structure in a molecular view. It is
a 3- dimensional view of the compound, usually represented by a ball and stick model or space
filling model. The ball and stick model depict a three-dimensional view of a compound and the
bonds between them. The atoms are represented by balls and the bonds between them are
represented by a stick connecting the balls. The space filling model depicts the atoms of the
compound by using spheres that are joined together, approximating the proportionate sizes of the
atoms. For example, H2O, which is the structural formula of water, is also its molecular and
empirical formulas because it is already in its simplest form.

Picture from http://clipart-library.com/clipart/2068359.htm Picture from https://www.pngbarn.com/png-image-lanyr

In the ball and stick model of water, the atom of oxygen is connected to two hydrogen of
atoms through two stick. On the other hand, the space filling model of water illustrates two
hydrogen atoms directly connected to oxygen atoms without stick or bonds between them.