Process Selection v7

Technological Institute of the Philippines
PRODUCT
DESCRIPTION
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
Soda ash is the commercial name of the technical grade sodium carbonate
(Na CO ), a white crystalline hygroscopic powder. It is the third largest chemical
2 3
manufactured in modern times next to sulfuric acid and ammonia. It is produced

as light or dense soda ash and contains 99.3% Na CO . It is graded according to
2 3
its bulk density and sodium oxide content. Dense soda ash is obtained from light
soda ash by hydration to produce sodium carbonate monohydrate that is calcined
for the production of sodium carbonate (dense soda ash).
Production of the alkaline material, sodium carbonate, was carried out from
ancient times until the 1800s by the combustion of marine and land vegetation,
followed by calcination at red heat and leaching of the ash. The soda ash
produced from plants was very expensive. The processes were too primitive for
mass production and consumed vast quantities of vegetation.
Being a highly soluble substance, soda ash is used for numerous chemical
reactions. It is mostly used as an ingredient in the manufacture of dyes and
coloring agents, synthetic detergents and fertilizers. It is an important chemical
agent used in enameling and petroleum industries. Soda ash is an important
ingredient in the manufacture of glass, since it helps reduce silica’s melting point.
It is replacing phosphates earlier used in several household detergents. Many
other cleaning products such as dishwashing soaps contain varying amounts of
soda ash in their formulations.
1. Appearance
Sodium carbonate is a white, anhydrous, odorless powder that absorbs
moisture from the air. It has an alkaline taste, and forms a strongly alkaline water
solution. It is one of the most basic industrial chemicals. Since seaweed ashes
were early sources of sodium carbonate, it is often called soda ash or simply soda.
2
Figure 5.1 Sodium Carbonate Powder

2. History
The development of sodium carbonate as a major commodity is intimately
attached to the chemical revolution that took place in the 18th and 19th century
in the United States. Strong political and economic reasons led to the search of
synthetic procedures to replace natural resources of soda that were available by
the 17th century.
Up to the middle of the 18th century, potassium carbonate (vegetable soda)
and sodium carbonate (mineral carbonate) were obtained from natural deposits
or from the ashes of certain plants and seaweed. Ashes were produced from wood
imported from Eastern Europe, and seaweeds from Scotland, Ireland, Norway,
and Northern France. The two carbonates were essential raw materials for three
growing industries. An alkaline scour in the bleaching of linen and cotton cloth
in textile processing, and a fluxing ingredient to lower the melting point of soda
lime glass compositions in glassmaking and in soap-making. The development
of synthetic methods for manufacturing sodium carbonate may be considered as
catalyst which led to chemical revolution. Synthetic methods provided the
answer to the economic bottleneck created by limited supplies of the traditional
raw materials. In the beginning, increased imports provided partial release to the
scarcity problem, but the political situation and the expanding economy of
Europe made this alternative short-lived.
A good example of the problems involved is that of the bleaching processes
employed by textile industry before the synthesis of sodium carbonate was
achieved. The different fabrics coming out from the loom and manufactured from
cotton, hemp, linen fibres had a grey color and were bleached by primitive
methods. The first stage involved repeated washes with stale urine, potash, sour
3
buttermilk, or sulphuric acid, and the cloth was then laid out on the sunlight for
three to six months. The process was very lengthy, depended on the weather and
utilized vast areas of land that could not be cultivated. By the end of the 18th
century, notable improvements of the bleaching process came into being with the
discovery of the bleaching properties of chlorine by Claude-Louis Berthollet, and
the manufacture of bleaching powder.
3. Uses in the Industry
The principal applications of sodium carbonate are in the manufacture of
glass and the production of chemicals. It is also used in processing wood pulp to
make paper, in making soaps and detergents, in refining aluminum, in water
softening, and in many other applications.
It can help remove alcohol and grease stains from clothing, as well as
calcifications in everything from coffee pots and espresso makers to boilers and
hot water heaters.
Soda ash can also be used to increase the alkalinity in swimming pools,
helping to ensure the proper pH balance of the water. It can be used in dying to
help the dye bond to the fabric effectively. Photographers also use a sodium
carbonate solution as part of the photo development process.
Washing soda has significant economic importance because of its
applications in manufacturing glass, chemicals, paper, detergents and many other
products. It has been used since ancient times.
It is also possible to replace a portion of the caustic soda with sodium
carbonate in many pulp bleaching applications such as caustic extraction or
hydrogen peroxide bleaching of mechanical or chemical pulps.
It is also possible to replace a portion of the caustic soda in many pulp
bleaching applications such as caustic extraction or hydrogen peroxide bleaching
of mechanical or chemical pulps.
In addition, washing soda is the most widely used fixed alkali for the
manufacture of other alkali products, sodium salts, glass, soap, sodium silicates,
detergent, bicarbonates, bichromates, cellulose and rayon, iron and steel,
aluminum, cleaning compounds, textiles and dyestuffs, drugs and many other
materials. It is also used as an alkali for household purposes and as washing
powder by laundries.
One of the most common products that can be made with soda ash is glass.
More than fifty percent of all sodium carbonate produced around the world is
used for this purpose. When mixed in proportion with sand and calcium
4
carbonate, heated to the right temperature, and then cooled quickly, the end result
is soda-lime silica glass with excellent durability and clarity.
Soda ash is a very common industrial chemical as well. In addition to food
and cosmetic products, it also finds major applications in agricultural sector
chemicals such as fertilizers. When it comes to exhaust towers and chemical
stacks, the ash can play a very important role in air purification because when
sodium carbonate reacts with sulfur dioxide and hydrochloric acid as less harmful
compounds are produced.
In laboratories, the sodium salt serves as an excellent electrolyte in the
electrolysis process. It helps reduce the water content in clay and makes the task
of molding clay in the shape of a brick easier. In the dyeing industry, it is used to
improve the chemical bonding between the dye and the fiber.
Washing soda is a key component of laundry soaps and other household
cleaning products as it can easily remove dirt and tough greasy stains from
clothes, utensils, floors, and various other surfaces. It is also used as a cleansing
agent for removing dirt stuck on silver and glass items. Water in the swimming
pools turns acidic due to repeated addition of chlorine as a disinfectant. Washing
soda is added to the water to make it chemically neutral.
Sodium carbonate is important in taxidermy for preparing hunting trophies.
When added to boiling water, it helps in the removal of flesh from the skulls and
bones of dead animals. Washing soda acts as a strong base and can neutralize
acidic effects.
4. Structure
The chemical structure of soda ash (sodium carbonate) is given below.
5
Figure 5.2 Chemical Structure of Soda Ash with Molecular Formula: Na CO 2 3
5. Properties
1. Physical Properties
Sodium carbonate is an inorganic compound used as a moderate
strength base. It is also called soda ash or washing soda. The chemical
structure of sodium carbonate is Na CO , and its molar mass is 106.0 g/mol.
2 3
Sodium carbonate is an ionic compound, a sodium salt of carbonic acid, and

composed of two sodium cations (Na ) and a carbonate anion (CO ). It has a
+
3
-
crystalline heptahydrate structure.

Table 5.1 Physical Properties of Soda Ash (Sodium Carbonate)
PROPERTY VALUE UNIT

Formula Weight 106 g/mol
Boiling Point at 1 atm 1600 ºC
Melting Point at 1 atm 851 ºC
Density 2.54 g/mL
pH 11.16
Viscosity (at 887ºC) 3.4 cP
Solubility in Water at 20ºC 22/100 g/mL
Refractive Index 1.535
pka(1) 6.37
pka(2) 10.25
Hardness 1.3 Mohs
Integral Enthalpy of Solution (10%w/w) -28.1 kJ/mol
Heat Capacity 112.3 J/mol-K
Standard Molar Entropy 135 J/mol-K
Standard Enthalpy of Formation -1130.7 kJ/mol
Gibbs Free Energy -1044.4 kJ/mol
Heat of Fusion 315.892 kJ/kg
Particle Size 75 to 125 microns
2. Chemical Properties
6
Sodium carbonate is a stable but hygroscopic solid (absorbs water from

air) that readily dissolves in water to form weakly acidic carbonic acid and the
strong base, sodium hydroxide. Thus, the aqueous solution of Na CO is overall
2 3
a strong base. It reacts violently with many acids. When heated to high
temperatures, it decomposes to emit toxic fumes of disodium oxide (Na O). 2
6. Potential Hazards/ Toxicity

A. Inhalation
a. Proct dust may be irritating to eyes, skin and respiratory tract.
b. Irrritating to mucous membranes.
c. Repeated or prolonged exposure: Risk of sore throat, nose bleeds. (In case
of higher concentration): Cough.
B. Eye Contact
. Severe eye irritation
a. Lachrymation
b. Redness
c. Swelling of tissue
d. May cause irreversible eye damage
C. Skin Contact
. When in contact with damp skin causes irritation
a. Itching
b. Repeated exposure may cause skin dryness or cracking
D. Ingestion
. Severe irritation
a. Irritation of the mouth and throat
b. Ingestion may cause gastrointestinal irritation, nausea, vomiting
and diarrhea
7. Protective Measures
A. Engineering Controls
a. Ensure adequate ventilation.
b. Provide adequate exhaust ventilation at places where dust is
formed.
c. Apply technical measures to comply with the occupational
exposure limits
B. Personal Protective Equipment
. Respiratory protection
a. Use only respiratory protection that conforms to international/
national standards
b. In case of insufficient ventilation, wear suitable respiratory
equipment
7
c. Use NIOSH approved respiratory protection.

d. Respirator with a dust filter
C. Hand Protection
. Take note of the information given by the producer concerning
permeability and break through times, and of special workplace conditions
(mechanical strain, duration of contact)
a. Wear suitable gloves
b. Suitable material: Neoprene, Natural Rubber
D. Eye Protection
. Dust proof goggles, if dusty
E. Skin and Body Protection
. Long sleeved clothing
a. Dust impervious protective suit
b. Rubber or plastic boots
c. Rubber or plastic apron
F. Hygiene Measures
. Use only in an area equipped with a safety shower
a. When using do not eat, drink or smoke
b. Handle in accordance with good industrial hygiene and safety practice
SODA ASH GLOBAL MARKET
Soda Ash Global Market is expected to witness a significant growth of

approximately 23.1 billion by 2022 with CAGR of ~4.9% from 2016 to 2022.
Soda Ash Industry Players
The major key players of this market are Tata Chemicals Limited (India),
Solvay S.A. (Belgium), OCI Wyoming, LLC (U.S), Nirma Limited, (India),
Searles Valley Minerals (U.S), GHCL Limited (India), FMC Corporation (US),
Ciech SA (Poland), Oriental Chemical Industries (Korea), Soda Sanayii (Turkey)
and others.SA (Poland), Oriental Chemical Industries (Korea), Soda Sanayii
(Turkey) and others.
Competitive Insights
Fluctuating prices of crude oil and rising energy prices have challenged
many manufacturers to tackle with suitable cost-pricing policies. Low cost of
natural soda ash particularly in US is benefitting producer in these regions. The
key players are expected to exert pressure on exports especially in China and
India due to energy intensive synthetic soda ash manufacturing. Developed
market such as Europe show negative impact due to shut down of many synthetic
8
soda ash manufacturers and turning to new substitute through research and
development.
The research report on Global Soda Ash Market 2019 keenly analyzes
significant features of the industry. The analysis servers market size, latest trends,
drivers, threats, opportunities, as well as key market segments. It is based on past
data and present market needs. Moreover, involved distinct business approaches
are accepted by decision-makers. Growth is intensified and remarkable stand in
the industry is being made. The Soda Ash market will grow with a significant
CAGR from 2019 to 2028. The report segregates the complete market on the
basis of key players, geographical areas, and segments.
9
Soda ash market in the Philippines which shows the market shares in global
exports and imports is shown in the figure below.
Figure 5.5 Market Shares of Global Imports and Exports of Soda Ash in the
Philippines
Philippine trade of soda ash by value which shows the trade balance, as
well as the import and export expenses from 2003 to 2010 is demonstrated by the
graph below.
10
Existing Suppliers/ Importers of Soda Ash in the Philippines
Easy Solar Philippines

Address: Z Plaza, D. Jakosalem Street, Cebu City, Cebu 6000
Contact no.: (02) 219 3099 | (032) 350 8747
Website: sales@easysolar-ph.com
SV Hesed Solutions Inc.

Address: Unit 10-A 10/F Net Lima Bldg., 5th Ave. Cor. 26th St., E-Square
Crescent Park West, BGC, Taguig City, 1634 Philippines
Contact no.: +63.2.734.9148 / +63.977.823.3355 / +63.977.805.1379
Website: sales@svhesed.com / jsv@svhesed.com
Jacinta Cheng Co
Address: No 8 Bonifacio Street, Cotabato City, Maguindanao 9600 Philippines
Contact no.: +63 (922) 3924665; +63 (922) 3964622
Website: http://www.jcipaper.ga
Sheen Papel
11
Address: No 120. Puerto National Highway, Cagayan De Oro City, Mindanao

9000 Philippines
Contact no.: +63 942 2330885; +639952745765
Website: http://www.sheenpaper.gq
Shin Global Papers

Address: 17 Magsaysay St., Malaybalay City, Bukidnon, Northern Mindanao
8700 Philippines
Contact no.: +639433917747; +63932 505 2710
Website: http://www.shinglobalpapers.ga
PROCESS
SELECTION
PROCESS SELECTION
Soda ash is the commercial name of the technical grade sodium carbonate
(Na CO ) that is a white crystalline hygroscopic powder. It is the third largest
2 3
chemical manufactured in modern times next to sulfuric acid and ammonia. It is

produced as light or dense soda ash and contains 99.3% Na CO . It is graded
2 3
according to its bulk density and its content of sodium oxide. Dense soda ash is
obtained from light soda ash by hydration to produce sodium carbonate
monohydrate which is calcined to produce sodium carbonate (dense soda ash).
Being a highly soluble substance, soda ash is used for numerous chemical
reactions. It is mostly used as an ingredient in the manufacture of dyes, coloring
agents, synthetic detergents and fertilizers. It is an important chemical agent used
12
in enameling and petroleum industries. Soda ash is an important ingredient in the

manufacture of glass for it helps reduce silica’s melting point. It is replacing
phosphates that were used earlier in several household detergents. Many other
cleaning products such as dishwashing soaps also contain varying amounts of
soda ash in their formulations. Given these facts, different processes of
manufacturing sodium carbonate are still being used in industries. In this chapter,
three process paths were presented and assessed to select the best process to
adapt. The selection was done in accordance with the feasibility and the market
analysis of the product.
PROCESS I:
PRODUCTION OF SODIUM
CARBONATE FROM AMMONIA,
SODIUM CHLORIDE AND CARBON
DIOXIDE VIA MODIFIED SOLVAY
PROCESS
PROCESS I
Production of Sodium Carbonate from Ammonia, Sodium Chloride and

Carbon Dioxide via Modified Solvay Process
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The modified Solvay process came in commercial use in 1980. Two

important products such as soda ash and ammonium chloride are produced. The
process provides a substantial save in the amount of salt used. Moreover, it does
13
not require limestone, an important raw material used in the classic Solvay
process.
The principal operation change offered by the dual process from the Solvay
process is mainly the treatment of the ammonium chloride formed according to
the following reaction:
NaCl + NH
(aq) 4(aq) + CO + H O → NaHCO
2(g) 2 (l) 3(aq) + NH Cl4 (aq)
In Solvay process, ammonia is recovered as suggested by the following

reaction:
NH Cl + Ca(OH)
4 (aq) 2(aq) → CaCl 2(aq) + 2H O + 2NH2 (l) 3(g)
In dual process, ammonium chloride is retained, crystallized out, and

separated by the addition of sodium chloride.
In both processes, the sodium bicarbonate is calcined, and soda ash is then
formed as follows:
2NaHCO 3(aq) → Na CO + H O + CO
2 3(s) 2 (g) 2(g)
The dual process can be summarized by the following steps:

1. Preparation of salt solution
The industrial salt will be stored in a tank with a temperature of 30 ºC and a
pressure of 1 atm. It will be used to make a thirty percent salt solution that will
be fed in the ammoniacal-salt reactor.
2. Ammonia absorption
The ammonia absorption tower acts as intermediate process to saturate the
brine solution with ammonia for its preparation in the succeeding processes. This
involves the separation of sodium bicarbonate and ammonium chloride. It is very
vital in the formation of the intermediate, sodium bicarbonate which produces
the final product, sodium carbonate.
Ammonia absorption towers usually operate at 1 atm and temperature of
30ºC, as the solubility of ammonia in water decreases with increasing
temperature.
Chemical Reaction in the Ammonia Gas Absorber:
NH + H O → NH OH
3(g) 2 (l) 4 (aq)
14
3. Carbonation of the ammonia brine and production of sodium

bicarbonate
The ammonia (NH ) buffers the solution at a basic (high) pH. The necessary
3
ammonia "catalyst" for reaction is reclaimed in a later step, and relatively little
ammonia is consumed.
The ammoniated and partially carbonated brine is pumped to the carbonating
tower that is on cleaning duty. Weak carbon dioxide gas is admitted below the
tower. This gas serves to further carbonate the liquor to just below the
precipitation point. During precipitation cycle, the tower temperature gradient is
maintained at a range of 20ºC to 25ºC at both ends and 45ºC to 55ºC at the middle.
Chemical Reactions in the Carbonating Tower:
NH OH ⇌ NH + H O
4 (aq) 3(g) 2 (l)
2NH OH + CO ⇌ (NH ) CO + H O
4 (aq) 2(g) 4 2 3(aq) 2 (l)
(NH ) CO4 2 3(aq) + CO + H O → 2NH HCO

2(g) 2 (l) 4 3(aq)
NH HCO
4 3(aq) + NaCl → NaHCO
(aq) 3(aq) + NH Cl4 (aq)
4. Crystallization and separation of ammonium chloride from

sodium bicarbonate solution
The mother liquor from the carbonating system containing ammonium
chloride, unreacted salt and traces of carbonate is ammoniated in ammonia
absorber. The ammoniated mother liquor is passed through a bed of salt in a salt
dissolver. Exit liquor that is saturated with salt from the dissolver is gradually
cooled from 40ºC to 10ºC by crystallization with evaporation under vacuum to
separate ammonium chloride. The magma is then filtered using a continuous
vacuum rotary drum filter to remove the excess fluids from the solid cake.
The crystallized ammonium chloride is then subjected to a rotary drier with
air as the heating medium at 150ºC before it is transported via conveyor for
packaging. Ammonium chloride is primarily used a fertilizer.
The mother liquor is recycled to the carbonating tower where sodium
bicarbonate is precipitated.
5. Decomposition/calcination of bicarbonate into soda ash and recovery

of
carbon dioxide
The growth of crystals of sodium bicarbonate is controlled by the supply of
water to cool coils in carbonation vessels. Sodium bicarbonate is thickened in a
thickener and centrifuged. The sodium bicarbonate is calcined to soda ash.
15
Chemical Reactions in the Calciner:

2NaHCO → Na CO + H O + CO
3(aq) 2 3(s) 2 (g) 2(g)
NH HCO 4 3(aq) → NH + CO + H O
3(g) 2(g) 2 (g)
NaHCO 3(aq) + NH Cl → NH + CO + H O + NaCl

4 (aq) 3(g) 2(g) 2 (g) (s)
The heat is provided at a temperature of 180ºC. The decomposition of

sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO ) occurs at a temperature of 87.7ºC. Gases removed
3
from the rotary calciners contain carbon dioxide, ammonia, water, some leakage
air and large amounts of sodium carbonate and bicarbonate dust.
7. Dilution of Calcined Light soda ash
After calcination, the produced soda ash will be introduced to a chiller with
operating parameters of 40ºC and 1 atm. Afterwards, it will be mixed with water
to dissolve the light soda ash in the process, as preparation for crystallization.
8. Crystallization of Diluted Solution
The crystallization process of the saturated solution of sodium bicarbonate
in water will be subjected to 10ºC and 1 atm as operating parameters. Nucleation
will proceed as the gradual change in temperature favors the production of
sodium monohydrate, which is the crystal also known as dense soda ash.
Then, the wet crystals and mother liquor will be separated by filtration via
leaf filter, with the mother liquor to be used as a recycle stream to the mixing of
the dilute solution of water and calcined soda ash for a better yield of crystals in
the next crystallization step.
9. Drying, Milling, and Screening of the Wet Dense Soda Ash Crystals
After the wet crystals are filtered, these will be dried in a tunnel dryer under
110ºC and 1 atm as operating parameters. Afterwards, the dried crystals will be
grinded to a small-media mill due to its particle size ranging from 75 to 125
microns. Then an industrial Tyler Mesh screen with a mesh size of 115, to
effectively screen the dense soda ash particles.
16
17
I.SUSTAINABILITY
Availability of Raw Materials
The major raw materials to be used in the modified Solvay process such
as sodium chloride, ammonia (gas phase), and carbon dioxide (gas phase) are
readily available in the Philippines. The possible suppliers where the raw
materials can be purchased are presented below.
Table 6.1 Suppliers of Raw Materials for Modified Solvay Process
Raw Materials List Of Suppliers

 Artemis Salt Corporation
 Salinas Foods Inc.
Sodium Chloride
 SBS Philippines
 Arvin International Marketing Inc.
 Linde Industrial Gases Philippines
Ammonia  Air Liquide Philippines
 MEPZ Mixed Gases Corporation
 Philippine CO Industry
2
Carbon Dioxide  Linde Industrial Gases Philippines

 SUGECO Manila
18
 SGS Philippines, Inc.

 Liquigaz

Pryce Gas
Sodium Chloride Supply in the Philippines
Sodium chloride (NaCl), also known as salt, is a white crystalline solid used
worldwide in many industrial processes, particularly as source of sodium and
chlorine compounds as feedstock for further chemical syntheses. Its other
applications include chemical production, glass, pharmaceuticals, food, and
industrial manufacturing of paper. Salt is also essential in the Solvay process to
produce calcium chloride and sodium carbonate. The sodium carbonate produced
is then used to make glass, sodium bicarbonate and dyes.
Eighty percent of the salt being sold in supermarkets and wet markets are
industrial grades imported from China and Australia. According to a presentation
by Pacific Farms Inc. in 2009, the annual salt requirement of the Philippines
reached 590,000 metric tons (MT), of which 400,000 MT were imports from
Australia and 22,000 MT were from China. The data, however, did not make a
distinction between food-grade and industrial-grade salt. The rest of the demand
was supplied by local producers, like Pacific Farms.
Sodium chloride suppliers and their respective contact information are listed
below.
Artemis Salt Corporation

Address: 623 Guerrero corner Hoover St., Mandaluyong City, Mandaluyong,
Metro Manila
Contact no.: (02)727-4927
Website: www.artemissalt.com
Ammonia Supply in the Philippines
Ammonia (NH ), a colorless gas with a characteristic pungent smell is a key

3
component and ingredient in the manufacture of many products people use every
day. It widely used in the country by a variety of industries for a wide range of
applications. It has applications on the production of fertilizers, chemicals, power
and energy, food and beverage, pharmaceuticals, mining, pulping, rubber and
electronics. Ammonia is essential in the Solvay process as it buffers the solution
at a basic pH and its absence will lead to a hydrochloric acid by-product that will
render the solution acidic. Ammonia suppliers and their respective contact
information are listed below.
19
Air Liquide Philippines

Address: Sandoval Avenue, Barrio Pinagbuhatan, Pasig City, 1600 Metro
Manila
Website: www.airliquide.com/philippines
Linde Philippines
Address: Km. 40 Asian Highway, Santa Rosa, Laguna
Website: www.linde.com.ph
Carbon Dioxide Supply in the Philippines

Carbon dioxide (CO2), a colorless gas is very versatile and used by industries
such as food, oil, and chemical industry. The compound has varied commercial
uses in the country. The gas is essential in modified Solvay process for it further
carbonates the liquor to just below the precipitation point. Carbon dioxide
suppliers and their respective contact information are listed below.
SUGECO Manila
Address: 33 P. Martinez, Mandaluyong, Metro Manila
Contact no.: (02)531-8021
Website: www.sugeco.net
II. ECONOMICS
Cost of Raw Materials
Table 6.2 Price of Raw Materials in Modified Solvay Process
Raw Materials Price (Php Per Metric Ton)

Industrial Salt 17,000
Ammonia 50,000
Carbon Dioxide 34,000
Source of Price: (www.alibaba.com)
Cost of Equipment
The estimated fixed capital cost required to produce sodium carbonate

using carbon dioxide, ammonia gas and sodium chloride by dual process or
modified Solvay process is computed using Lang method that has factors for
fluids processing taken from Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook 8th ed.
20
Table 6.3 Lang Factors for Modified Solvay Process
Lang Factors
Type of Plant Fixed Capital Total Capital
Investment Investment
Solid Processing 4.0 4.7
Solid Fluid
4.3 5.0
Processing
Fluid Processing 5.0 6.0
Adapted from D.W. Green, R.H. Perry, Perry’s Chemical Engineers Handbook,
8th ed.
Table 6.4 Factors for Estimation of Project Fixed Capital Cost for Modified
Solvay Process
Process Type
Item Fluids-
Fluids Solids
Solids
1. Major Equipment, total purchase
PCE PCE PCE
cost
f Equipment Erection
1 0.4 0.45 0.50
f Piping
2 0.70 0.70 0.70
f Instrumentation
3 0.20 0.15 0.10
f Electrical
4 0.10 0.10 0.10
f Buildings, process
5 0.15 0.10 0.05
* f Utilities
6 0.50 0.45 0.25
* f Storages
7 0.15 0.20 0.25
* f Site Development
8 0.05 0.05 0.05
* f Ancillary Building
9 0.15 0.20 0.30
2. Total physical plant cost (PPC)
3.40 3.15 2.80
PPC = PCE (1+f + …. + f )1 9 =PCE x
f Design and Engineering
10 0.30 0.25 0.20
21
f Contractor’s Fee
11 0.05 0.05 0.05
f Contingency
12 0.10 0.10 0.10
Fixed Capital = PPC (1 + f + f + f )
10 11 12 1.45 1.40 1.35
Adapted from Coulson and Richardson, Chemical Engineering Design, Volume 6

Formula for the computation of Fixed Capital Cost was taken from Chemical
Engineering Design Volume 6 by Coulson and Richardson
Cf=fLCe
Where:
Cf = fixed capital cost
Ce= total delivered cost of all major equipment items
fL = the “Lang factor”, which depends on the type of process
Table 6.5 Detailed Estimation of Fixed Capital Cost of Equipment for
Modified Solvay Process
Purchasing Delivered
Total Equipment
Equipment Quantity Equipment Cost Equipment Cost
Cost (PhP)
(PhP) (PhP)
2 ₱7,778,397.36 ₱8,167,317.23 ₱35,119,464.08
Storage Tank
₱3,298,081.50 ₱14,181,750.45
Mxing Tank 2 ₱3,141,030.00
₱1,429,168.65 ₱6,145,425.20
Silo 1 ₱1,361,113.00
Spherical
₱10,993,605.00 ₱47,272,501.50
Storage Tank 2 ₱10,470,100.00
1 ₱2,617,525.00 ₱2,748,401.25 ₱11,818,125.38
Attrtion Mill
Vacuum
2 ₱8,153,874.90 ₱8,561,568.65 ₱36,814,745.17
Crystallizer
Carbonating
1 ₱12,915,368.16 ₱13,561,136.57 ₱58,312,887.24
Tower
Ammonia
1 ₱3,526,000.00 ₱3,702,300.00 ₱15,919,890.00
Absorber
Rotary
Vacuum Drum 3 ₱2,669,875.50 ₱2,803,369.28 ₱12,054,487.88
Filter
22
Rotary
1 ₱2,456,510.79 ₱2,579,336.33 ₱11,091,146.21
Calciner
2 ₱5,065,021.58 ₱5,318,272.66 ₱22,868,572.42
Rotary Drier
Vibrating
1 ₱1,456,510.79 ₱1,529,336.33 ₱6,576,146.21
Screen
Heat
6 ₱10,185,945.60 ₱10,695,242.88 ₱45,989,544.38
Exchanger
25 ₱71,797,272.67 ₱75,387,136.31 ₱324,164,686.13
TOTAL
*Delivered Equipment Costs are at 5% of Purchasing Equipment Cost

Source of Equipment Price: (www.alibaba.com & www.matche.com)
Total Physical Plant Cost (PPC):
Total Physical Plant Cost=PCE 1+f1+f2+f3+f4+f5
PPC=₱324,164,6861+0.45+0.7+0.15+0.1+0.1
PPC= ₱ 810,411,715.31
Fixed Capital Cost (FCC)
Fixed Capital Cost=PPC 1+f10+f11+f12
FCC=₱ 810,411,715.31 1+ 0.3+0.05+0.10
FCC= ₱1,134,576,401.44
Working Capital Cost (WCC)
Working Capital Cost=FCC 0.05
WCC= ₱1,134,576,401.440.05
WCC= ₱ 56,728,820.07
23
Total Capital Investment (TCI)
Total Capital Investment=FCC+WCC
TCI=₱1,134,576,401.44+₱ 56,728,820.07
TCI= ₱1,191,305,221.51
Fixed Costs:
Maintenance Cost
Maintenance Cost =0.10FCC
Maintenance Cost=0.10₱1,134,576,401.44
Maintenance Cost= ₱113,457,640.14
Operating Labor Cost (OLC):
For a plant capacity of 628.453 MT/day, for an average condition plant,

the estimated operating labor requirement is 50 employee-hours/day/processing
step. The estimated operating labor requirement was estimated using figure 6.4.
24
Figure 6.4 Operating labor requirements for chemical process industries

(Peters & Timmerhaus, 1991)
Table 6.6 Latest Wage Orders and Implementing Rules Issued by the Regional
Boards as of August 2018 (Department of Labor and Employment, 2018)
SECTOR
Agriculture Retail & Service
Establishments
Non-
Non- Employing Not
INDICATOR Agriculture Plantation
Plantation More Than 10
Workers
Region IV-A ₱400.00 ₱370.00 ₱356.00 ₱303.00
Calculating for the operating labor costs using the data for manpower:
Operating labor cost
=50 employee-hoursday-processing step330 working daysyearPhp

400employee-8hours
3 processing steps 1 year operation
Operating Labor Cost=₱2,475,000.00
25
Figure 6.5 Various components of the production cost
Laboratory Cost:
Laboratory cost include the laboratory analyses required for process

monitoring and quality control. A rough estimate of the cost can be taken as
twenty to thirty percent of the operating labor cost of two to four percent of the
total production cost (Coulson, 2005). For the computation of the laboratory
cost, the average percentage will be used. Therefore:
Laboratory Cost=0.25OLC
Laboratory Cost=0.25₱2,475,000.00
Laboratory Cost=₱618,750.00
Supervision Cost:
Supervision involves the whole management that has direct association

in running the plant. The number of employees needed depends on the size of the
plant and the nature of the process. A typical management team for a unit would
consist of four to five shift foremen, a general foreman, and an area supervisor
26
and his assistant. A rough estimate of the supervision cost can be taken as twenty
percent of the operating labor cost (Coulson, 2005). Therefore:
Supervision Cost=0.20OLC
Supervision Cost=0.20₱2,475,000.00
Supervision Cost= ₱495,000.00
Plant Overheads:
This section includes the cost for general management, plant security,
medical, canteen, general clerical staff and safety. A rough estimate of the plant
overheads cost can be taken as fifty to one-hundred percent of the operating labor
cost. Therefore:
Plant Overheads=0.50OLC
Plant Overheads=0.50₱2,475,000.00
Plant Overheads=₱1,237,500.00
Capital Charges:
A rough estimate of the capital charge cost can be taken as 10 percent of

the fixed capital cost. Therefore:
Capital Charges=0.10FCC
Capital Charges=0.10 ₱1,134,576,401.44
Capital Charges=₱113,457,640.14
Local Taxes:
A rough estimate of the local taxes can be taken as one to two percent of
the fixed capital cost. For the computation of local taxes, the average value will
be used. Therefore:
27
Local Taxes=(0.015)(FCC)
Local Taxes=(0.015)( ₱1,134,576,401.44)
Local Taxes=₱ 17,018,646.02

Insurance:
A rough estimate of the insurance cost can be taken as one to two percent
of the fixed capital cost. For the computation of insurance cost, the average value
will be used. Therefore:
Insurance=0.015FCC
Insurance=0.015 ₱1,134,576,401.44
Insurance=₱ 17,018,646.02
License Fee/Royalty Fees
A rough estimate of the license fee/royalty fees can be taken as one to two
percent of the fixed capital cost. For the computation of license fee/royalty fees
the average value will be used. Therefore:
License Fee or Royalty Fees=(0.015)(FCC)
License Fee or Royalty Fees=(0.015)(₱1,134,576,401.44)
License Fee or Royalty Fees=₱ 17,018,646.02
Fixed Costs=MC+OLC+LC+S+PO+CC+LT+I+LF
Fixed Costs=₱113,457,640.14 + ₱2,475,000 + ₱618,750
+ ₱370,125.00 + ₱1,237,500 + ₱113,457,640.14 + ₱ 17,018,646.02
28
+ ₱ 17,018,646.02+₱ 17,018,646.02
Fixed Costs=₱282,797,468.35
Variable Costs:
Miscellaneous Operating Materials (MOM):
MOM=0.10Maintenance Cost
MOM=0.10₱113,457,640.14
MOM=₱11,345,764.01
Variable Costs=MOM
Variable Costs=₱11,345,764.01
Direct Production Cost (DPC):
DPC=Variable Costs+Fixed Costs
DPC=₱11,345,764.01+₱282,797,468.35
DPC=₱294,143,232.37
Indirect Production Cost (IPC):
Sale Expense:
Sale Expense=0.20 (Variable Cost+Fixed Costs)
Sale Expense= 0.2(₱11,345,764.01+₱282,797,468.35)
29
Sale Expense=₱58,828,646.47
General Overheads:
General Overheads=0.30Variable Cost+Fixed Cost
General Overheads=0.30₱11,345,764.01+₱282,797,468.35
General Overheads=₱88,242,969.71
IPC=Sales Expense+General Overheads
IPC=₱58,828,646.47+₱88,242,969.71
IPC=₱ 147,071,616.18
Annual Production Cost:
APC=IPC+DPC
APC=₱ 147,071,616.18+₱ 294,143,232.37
APC=₱441,214,848.55/year
Production Cost:
Production Cost=APCPlant Capacity/Day300 Working Days/year
Production Cost=₱441,214,848.55/year628.453 MT/day330 Working

days/year
Production Cost=₱ 2,127.47/ MT
30
The annual production cost required for the plant to produce 628.453
MT/day of sodium carbonate using modified Solvay process is estimated to be
₱441,214,848.55. Most of the amounts were allotted for direct production cost.
III. MANUFACTURABILITY
Number of Equipment in the Modified Solvay Process
Table 6.7 List of Equipment Needed for the Modified Solvay Process
No. Tag Number Equipment

1 ST-101 Water Storage Tank
2 ST-102 Ammonia Gas Storage Tank
3 ST-103 Industrial Salt Storage Tank
4 ST-104 Industrial Salt Brine Tank
5 ST-105 Ammoniacal Brine Tank
6 ST-106 Ammonium Chloride Slurry Tank
7 ST-107 Ammonium Chloride Strage Tank
8 ST-108 Mother Liquor Tank
9 ST-109 Carbon Dioxide Gas Storage Tank
10 ST-110 Sodium Bicarbonate Tank
11 ST-111 Sodium Bicarbonate Mother Liquor Tank
12 ST-112 Sodium Bicarbonate Slurry Tank
13 ST-113 Sodium Carbonate Storage Tank
14 AB-101 Ammonia Absorption Tower
15 C-101 Cooling Tower
16 CT-101 Carbonating Tower 1
17 CR-101 Vacuum Crystallizer 1
18 CE-101 Centrifuge 1
19 D-101 Rotary Drier
20 CC-101 Compressor
21 HX-101 Heat Exchanger 1
22 CE-102 Centrifuge 2
23 HX-102 Heat Exchanger 2
31
24 RC-101 Rotary Calciner

25 R-101 Salt Reactor Tank
Number of Energy Intensive Equipment
Table 6.8 Intensive Equipment in Modified Solvay Process
EQUIPMENT QUANTITY COMPLEXITY

- High Energy Requirement
Carbonating Tower 1 - Complex Design of Equipment
- High Construction Cost
Rotary Calciner 1
Rotary Drier 2
Yield
The Sodium Carbonate obtained from Modified Solvay process has a

product yield of 98%.
Purity
The Sodium Carbonate obtained from the Modified Solvay process has a
purity of 99.9%.
By-products
The by-product of modified process is Ammonium Chloride.
IV. PROCESS USAGE IN THE INDUSTRY
Table 6.9 Manufacturing Company using The Process
COMPANY
Asahi Glass Co., Ltd.
32
V. SAFETY
Table 6. 10 Parameters for Process 1
PARAMETER RANGE
Temperature 10 C – 180 C
o o
Pressure 1-5.2 atm
Health Hazard
In the modified Solvay process, only two (2) equipment, the evaporator
and the calciner, exceed 90ºC which might cause serious burns in people.
Precautions and warnings will be imposed in the areas near the equipment to
ensure safety, as well as the proper usage of personal protective equipment will
be strictly implemented in the areas.
Toxicological Rating
Toxicity levels of raw materials, products, and by-products are analyzed,

which may be seen in table below, based on the corresponding health hazards
that it may cause to humans. Health hazard rating was made taking zero for
minimal hazard and no significant risk to health, one for slight hazard or minor
reversible injury possible, two for moderate hazard temporary or minor injury
may occur, three for serious to severe hazard major injury, unless prompt action
is taken, medical treatment is given and life-threatening and major permanent
damage may result from single or repeated exposures.
Table 6.11 Toxicity Level Scores of Raw Materials, Products and By-products
in Modified Solvay Process
Product By-
Raw Materials
s products
Level of
Measure Importa
Sodiu Carbo Ammoni
nce Sodium
m Ammo n um
Carbo
Chlor nia Dioxi Chlori
nate
ide de de
33
Severity of
Immediate 3 0 3 1 1 1
Effects
Sensitizatio
3 1 3 2 2 2
n Level
Carcinogen
5 0 0 0 0 0
icity Level
Reproducti
ve Toxicity 4 0 0 0 0 0
Level
Severity of
Chronic 5 0 3 0 0 1
Effects
Weighted Score 3 33 9 9 14
Weighted Average 0.3 1.65 0.45 0.45 0.7
Weighted Total 2.40 0.45 0.7
Averaged Total 1.18
Table 6.12 Basis of Toxicity Level Scores

(from MSDS of ScienceLab, Toxicological Review of Sodium Chloride,
Toxicological Review of Ammonia, Toxicological Review of Carbon Dioxide)
By-
Raw Materials Products
Products
Criteria Sodium Ammoniu

Sodium Carbon
Ammonia Carbonat m
Chloride Dioxide Chloride
e
Causes Causes Causes m

Causes
mild mild ild Harmful
Severity of severe
irritation irritation irritation if
Immediate skin burns
or or or swallowe
Effects and eye
discomfor discomfor discomfor d.
damage.
t t t
34
Serious
eye
Very mild Eye,
Eye, skin Eye, skin irritant,
Sensitization eye, skin, nose, and
and nose and nose can cause
Level and nose skin
irritant irritant coughing
irritant irritant
when
inhaled
Carbon
It has not Ammonia dioxide It has not
been has not has not It has not been
classified been been been
classified
for classified classified classified
for
carcinoge for for for carcinogen
carcinogeni
nic effects carcinogen carcinoge ic effects
c effects
by EPA, ic effects nic effects by EPA,
Carcinogeni by EPA,
the by EPA, by EPA, the
city Level the
Departme the the Departm
Department
nt of Departme Departme ent of
of Health
Health nt of nt of Health
and
and Health and Health and
Human
Human Human and Human
Services
Services Services Human Services
(DHHS).
(DHHS). (DHHS). Services (DHHS)
(DHHS).
There is
There is There is
no
no no
informati
informatio informati
on Causes m
n on
regarding ild Harmful
Reproductiv regarding regarding
the irritation if
e Toxicity the the
reproducti or swallowe
Level reproducti reproducti
ve effects discomfor d.
ve effects ve effects
of sodium t
of of carbon
chloride
ammonia dioxide in
in
in humans. humans.
humans.
Continuou Serious
Eye,
Severity of No s exposure No eye
nose, and
Chronic known to known irritant,
skin
Effects effects ammonia effects can cause
irritant
will cause coughing
35
death. when
Increasing inhaled
concentrat
ion with
respect to
time will
also lead
to death.
VI. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
The analysis for the environmental hazard levels of raw materials,

products, and by-products is seen in table 6.13, based on the corresponding
hazards that it may cause to environment. Table 6.14 shows the basis for attaining
the level of hazard to the environment and explains in detail the possible
environmental hazards of the raw materials. From the information in table 6.13,
environmental hazard rating was made by taking zero for minimal hazard and no
significant risk to environment, one for slight hazard or minor reversible damage
possible, two for moderate hazard temporary or minor damage that may occur,
and three for serious to severe hazard major damage to environment, unless
prompt action is taken and causes permanent damage on environment.
Table 6.13 Environmental Hazard Level Scores of Raw Materials, Products

and By-products in Modified Solvay Process
By-
products
Level of
Measure Importa
Carbo Ammoni
nce Sodium Sodium
Ammo n um
Chlori Carbon
nia Dioxi Chlorid
de ate
de e
Acute
3 0 0 0 0 0
Toxicity
Toxicity
on Plants
3 0 2 0 1 1
and
Animals
36
Toxicity
of
Immedia
4 0 0 0 0 0
te
Degradat
ion
Long-
term
Degradat 5 0 1 2 0 0
ion
Effects
Weighted Average 0 0.73 0.67 0.2 0.2
Weighted Average 0.6
Table 6.14 Basis of Environmental Hazard Level Scores

(from MSDS of Afrox and Fisher Scientific)
By-
Products
Criteria Sodium Sodium Ammoniu

Carbon
Chlorid Ammonia Carbonat m
Dioxide Chloride
e e
No It is not a No No No
Acute
known systemic known known known
Toxicity
effects poison effects effects effects
Genetic Toxic to
mutations fishes.
Toxicity on No observed in No Slightly
May
Plants and known bacterial and known harmful
cause
Animals effects effects to fishes.
mammalian eutrophic
test systems a-
37
tion.
The
Toxicity of
No substance is No No No
Immediate
known biodegradabl known known known
Degradati
effects e. Unlikely effects effects effects
on
to persist.
It can cause
damage to A
the ecology greenhou
Long-term No due to its se gas No No
Degradati known high that known known
on Effects effects alkalinity affects effects effects
the ozone
and affinity layer
for water.
PROCESS II:
CARBONATE FROM AMMONIA
AND LIMESTONE VIA SOLVAY
PROCESS
PROCESS II
38
Production of Sodium Carbonate from Ammonia and Limestone via

Solvay Process
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
In 1861, the Belgian industrial chemist Ernest Solvay developed a method

to convert sodium chloride to sodium carbonate using ammonia. The Solvay
process centered on a large tower.
Sodium carbonate is prepared by the reaction of sodium chloride and
calcium carbonate. However, both do not react together. Since the reaction is
endothermic, a significant input of heat energy is required for the process. The
key reaction is between sodium chloride supplied by a storage tank and the
carbon dioxide in the presence of ammonia. This reversible reaction, along with
water supplied by a storage tank forms ammonium chloride and sodium
bicarbonate. The ammonia is being absorbed in the water at the ammonia
absorber to prepare for the reaction in the carbonating tower.
2NaCl(aq)+CaCO3(s)Na2CO3(aq)+CaCl2(aq)
NaCl(aq)+NH3(aq)+H2O(l)+CO2(g)NH4Cl(aq)+NaHCO3(s)
The ammonium chloride produced is cooled by cooling water in the
cooling tower at thirty degrees Celsius to increase the solubility of the gas and
passed onto the ammoniacal brine tank to be supplied to the carbonating tower.
The sodium chloride supplied by the industrial salt storage goes to a storage tank
along with the supplied water. The salt brine solution in the tank is supplied to
the carbonating tower. Calcium carbonate enters the lime kiln operated at 950 to
1100 degrees Celsius where it decomposes into calcium oxide and carbon
dioxide. Calcium oxide is formed as by-product of the decomposition of
limestone in the lime kiln. The calcium oxide will enter the lime slaker for
ammonia recovery. The carbon dioxide enters the carbonating tower, operated at
thirty degrees Celsius, and reacts with sodium chloride, water and ammonium
hydroxide to produce sodium bicarbonate and ammonium chloride in an
exothermic reversible reaction.
CaCO3(s)CaO(s)+CO2(g)
NaCl(aq)+NH3(aq)+H2O(l)+CO2(g)NH4Cl(aq)+NaHCO3(s)
The sodium chloride, ammonium chloride and sodium bicarbonate
coming out of the tower enters a centrifuge. The sodium bicarbonate is separated,
preheated at seventy degrees Celsius, and enters a rotary calciner operated at
eighty degrees Celsius. The carbon dioxide and water vapor come out of the
39
calciner and the final product, sodium carbonate, produced is stored in a storage
tank.
2NaHCO3(s)Na2CO3(s)+CO2(g)+H2O(g)
The ammonium chloride and sodium chloride separated enters the
reactive distillation column. In the lime slaker, calcium oxide is hydrated and
converted into liquid form, calcium hydroxide before entering the reactive
distillation column, operated at 105 degrees Celsius. The calcium hydroxide
reacts with ammonium chloride to produce calcium chloride, ammonia and
water. The calcium chloride is collected as waste, while the ammonia and water
are recycled back into the ammonia absorber along with the unreacted carbon
dioxide and sodium chloride to be used again for the process.
CaO(s)+H2O(l)Ca(OH)2(s)
Ca(OH)2(s)+2NH4Cl(aq)CaCl2(aq)+2NH3(aq)+2H2O(l)
Since the Solvay process recycled its ammonia, it consumed only brine
and limestone, and had calcium chloride as its only waste product. This made it
substantially economical and it soon came to dominate the world sodium
carbonate production.
40
41
I. SUSTAINABILITY
Availability of Raw Materials
The raw materials used for producing sodium carbonate via Solvay
process are sodium chloride, limestone, and ammonia. The sodium chloride
market in the Philippines continues to grow due to industries such as
pharmaceuticals, glass, food, and industrial manufacturing of paper. The sodium
chloride that will be used for the Solvay process will be from inland sources or
from the sea. Despite its small area, Philippines is one of the world’s richly
endowed countries in terms of mineral resources. According to Philippine
Statistics Authority (PSA), limestone is very abundant as it accounts for about
twenty-nine percent of non-metallic minerals found in the country. Limestone
exposures of varying age are widespread in the Caraga Region and mining areas
of limestone deposits are in Guimaras, Island. Ammonia is available and widely
used in the country by a variety of industries for a wide range of applications. Its
applications include chemicals, power and energy, food and beverage,
pharmaceuticals, mining, pulping, rubber and electronics.
Sodium Chloride Supply in the Philippines
Sodium chloride (NaCl), also known as salt, is a white crystalline solid used
worldwide in many industrial processes, particularly as source of sodium and
chlorine compounds as feedstock for further chemical syntheses. Its other
applications include chemical production, glass, pharmaceuticals, food, and
42
industrial manufacturing of paper. Salt is also essential in the Solvay process to

produce calcium chloride and sodium carbonate. The sodium carbonate produced
is then used to make glass, sodium bicarbonate and dyes.
Eighty percent of the salt being sold in supermarkets and wet markets are
industrial grades imported from China and Australia. According to a presentation
by Pacific Farms Inc. in 2009, the annual salt requirement of the Philippines
reached 590,000 metric tons (MT), of which 400,000 MT were imports from
Australia and 22,000 MT were from China. The data, however, did not make a
distinction between food-grade and industrial-grade salt. The rest of the demand
was supplied by local producers, like Pacific Farms.
Sodium chloride suppliers and their respective contact information are listed
below.
SGS Philippines Inc.
Address: Alegria Building, 2229, Chino Roces Ave, Makati,1231 Metro Manila
Contact no.: (02)784-9400
Website: www.sgs.ph
Artemis Salt Corporation

Address: 623 Guerrero corner Hoover St., Mandaluyong City, Mandaluyong,
Metro Manila
Contact no.: (02)727-4927
Website: www.artemissalt.com
Limestone Supply in the Philippines
Limestone, a carbonate sedimentary rock having a light-colored, grey

through yellow color, has its applications on the manufacture of quicklime, glass
making, production of paper, plastics, textiles, petrochemicals, pesticide and
paint, and base for cement. It is essential in Solvay process as it is a good source
of calcium carbonate, since the rock consists of more than fifty percent of the
substance. Limestone suppliers and their respective contact information are listed
below.
Kaufman Stone
Address:Unit B, 865 A. Mabini, San Juan, 1500 Metro Manila
Contact no.: (02)722-0534
Website: www.kaufmanstone.com
Euroasia Marble and Granite, Inc.

Address: 206-B M. Paterno, San Juan, 1500 Metro Manila
43
Contact no.: (02)726-3638

Website: www.euroasiagranite.com
Ammonia Supply in the Philippines
Ammonia (NH ), a colorless gas with a characteristic pungent smell is a key

3
component and ingredient in the manufacture of many products people use every
day. It widely used in the country by a variety of industries for a wide range of
applications. It has applications on the production of fertilizers, chemicals, power
and energy, food and beverage, pharmaceuticals, mining, pulping, rubber and
electronics. Ammonia is essential in the Solvay process as it buffers the solution
at a basic pH and its absence will lead to a hydrochloric acid by-product that will
render the solution acidic. Ammonia suppliers and their respective contact
information are listed below.
Wyler Enterprises Inc.
Address: 1300 Rizal Ave, Santa Cruz, Manila, 1003 Metro Manila
Contact no.: (02)735-0583
Website: www.wyler.com.ph
Kemrad Incorporated
Address:700-A Del Monte Ave, Quezon City, 1104 Metro Manila
Contact no.: (02)925-7400
Website: www.kemradinc.com
II. ECONOMICS
Table 6.15 Price of Raw Materials in Solvay Process

Industrial Salt 17,000
Ammonia 50,000
Limestone 4,000
Source of Price: (www.alibaba.com)
Cost of Equipment
The estimated fixed capital cost required to produce sodium carbonate

using limestone, ammonia gas and sodium chloride by Solvay process is
44
computed using Lang method, factor for fluids processing taken from Perry’s
Chemical Engineering Handbook 8th ed.
Factors for estimation of the calculation of total physical plant cost were
taken from table 6.3 and table 6.4.
Table 6.16 Detailed Estimation of Fixed Capital Cost of Equipment for Solvay
Process
PURCHASING DELIVERED TOTAL

EQUIPMENT QUANTITY EQUIPMENT EQUIPMENT EQUIPMENT
COST (PHP) COST (PHP) COST (PHP)
Storage
9 ₱35,002,788.12 ₱36,752,927.53 ₱158,037,588.36
Tank
Cooling
1 ₱22,537,478.00 ₱23,664,351.90 ₱101,756,713.17
Tower
Carbonating
1 ₱12,915,368.16 ₱13,561,136.57 ₱58,312,887.24
Tower
Centrifuge 1 ₱729,664.65 ₱766,147.88 ₱3,294,435.89
Ammonia
1 ₱3,526,000.00 ₱3,702,300.00 ₱15,919,890.00
Absorber
Heat
1 ₱1,659,515.00 ₱1,742,490.75 ₱7,492,710.23
Exchanger
Lime Kiln 1 ₱2,532,510.79 ₱2,659,136.33 ₱11,434,286.21
Rotary
1 ₱2,456,510.79 ₱2,579,336.33 ₱11,091,146.21
Calciner
Distillation
1 ₱21,410,604.10 ₱22,481,134.31 ₱96,668,877.51
Column
TOTAL 17 ₱102,770,439.61 ₱107,908,961.59 ₱464,008,534.83
45
PPC=₱464,008,534.831+0.45+0.7+0.15+0.1+0.1
PPC= ₱1,160,021,337.07
FCC=₱1,160,021,337.071+ 0.3+0.05+0.10
FCC= ₱1,624,029,871.90
WCC=₱1,624,029,871.900.05
WCC= ₱81,201,493.59
TCI=₱1,624,029,871.90+₱81,201,493.59
TCI= ₱1,705,231,365.49
46
Fixed Costs:
Maintenance Cost
For a plant capacity of 100 tons of product per day, for an average
condition plant, the estimated operating labor requirement is 50 employee-
hours/day/processing step. The estimated operating labor requirement was
estimated using figure 6.5.

Table 6.17 Latest Wage Orders and Implementing Rules Issued by the
Regional Boards as of August 2018 (Department of Labor and Employment,
2018)
SECTOR
47
Agriculture Retail & Service

Establishments
Non-
Non- Employing Not
Agriculture Plantation
INDICATOR Plantation More Than 10
Workers
Region III ₱329.00 ₱314.00 ₱302.00 ₱369.00

329employee-8hours

Laboratory Cost:

48
Laboratory Cost=₱462,656.25
Supervision Cost:

Plant Overheads:
cost. Therefore:
Plant Overheads=₱925,312.50
49
Capital Charges:

Capital Charges=0.10 ₱1,624,029,871.90
Local Taxes:
be used. Therefore:
Local Taxes=(0.015)( ₱1,624,029,871.90)
Local Taxes=₱24,360,448.08
Insurance:
Insurance=0.015FCC
Insurance=0.015 ₱1,624,029,871.90
Insurance=₱24,360,448.08
License Fee/Royalty Fees
50
License Fee or Royalty Fees=(0.015)( ₱1,624,029,871.90)
License Fee or Royalty Fees=₱24,360,448.08
Fixed Costs=MC+OLC+LC+S+PO+CC+LT+I+LF
Fixed Costs=₱162,402,987.19+ ₱1,850,625.00 + ₱462,656.25
+ ₱370,125.00 + ₱925,312.50 +₱162,402,987.19+ ₱24,360,448.08
+ ₱24,360,448.08
Fixed Costs= ₱401,496,037.36
Variable Costs:
MOM=0.10₱162,402,987.19
MOM= ₱16,240,298.72
Variable Costs=MOM
51
DPC=₱16,240,298.72+ ₱401,496,037.36
DPC=₱417,736,336.08
Sale Expense:
Sale Expense= 0.2(₱16,240,298.72+ ₱401,496,037.36)
Sale Expense=₱83,547,267.22
General Overheads:
General Overheads=0.30₱16,240,298.72+ ₱401,496,037.36)
General Overheads= ₱125,320,900.83
IPC=₱83,547,267.22+₱125,320,900.83
IPC= ₱208,868,168.04
APC=IPC+DPC
52
APC=₱208,868,168.04+₱417,736,336.08
APC=₱626,604,504.13/year
Production Cost:
Production Cost=₱626,604,504.13/year100 tons/day300 Working

days/year
Production Cost=₱20,886.82/ ton
The annual production cost required for the plant to produce one hundred
tons/day of sodium carbonate using Solvay process is estimated to be
₱626,604,504.13. Most of the amounts were allotted for direct production cost.
Number of Equipment in the Solvay Process
Table 6.18 List of Equipment Needed for the Solvay Process

1 ST-101 Water Storage Tank 1
2 ST-102 Ammonia Gas Storage Tank
3 ST-103 Industrial Salt Storage
4 ST-104 Salt Brine Tank
5 ST-105 Ammoniacal Brine Tank
6 ST-106 Limestone Storage
7 ST-107 Water Storage Tank 2
8 ST-108 Sodium Carbonate Storage
9 AB-101 Ammonia Absorber
10 C-101 Cooling Tower
11 CT-101 Carbonating Tower
12 LK-101 Lime Kiln
53
13 RD-101 Rotating Drum

14 CE-101 Centrifuge
15 PR-101 Pre-Heater
16 CA-101 Rotary Calciner
17 RC-101 Reactive Distillation Column
Table 6.19 Intensive Equipment in Solvay Process
Equipment Quantity Complexity

Carbonating Tower 1 - Complex Design of Equipment
Lime Kiln 1
Rotary Calciner 1
Reactive Distillation
1 - Complex Design of Equipment
Column
Yield
The sodium carbonate obtained from the Solvay process has a product
yield of 90%.
Purity
The sodium carbonate obtained from the Solvay process has a purity of
97%.
By-products
The by-products of the Solvay process are calcium chloride (CaCl ), 2
wastewater and carbon dioxide (CO ). 2
54
Table 6.20 Manufacturing Companies using the Process
Company
Solvay Process Company
Brunner Mond Company
V. SAFETY
Table 6.21 Parameters for Process 2
PARAMETER RANGE
o o
Pressure 1 atm
Health Hazard
In the Solvay process, only the operation in the lime kiln with 900 degrees
Celsius may cause serious burns to people. Proper precautions and earnings will
be imposed in the areas near the equipment to ensure safety. Moreover, workers
will always be required to wear personal protective clothing in said areas to avoid
accidents.
Toxicity levels of raw materials, products and by-products are analyzed,

which may be seen in Table 6.19, based on the corresponding health hazards that
it may cause to humans. Basis for attaining the level of toxicity was in table 6.19,
which explains in detail the health hazards of the raw materials. From the
information in table 6.19, health hazard rating was made by taking zero for
may occur, three for serious to severe hazard major injury, unless prompt action
is taken and medical treatment is given and a life-threatening and permanent
damage may result from single or repeated exposures.
in Solvay Process
55
By-
Product
Raw Materials produc
s
ts
Level of
Measure Importa
Sodiu Calciu
nce Calcium Sodium
m Ammo m
Carbo Carbo
Chlor nia Chlor
nate nate
ide ide
Severity of
Immediate 3 0 3 1 1 3
Effects
Sensitizatio
3 1 3 1 2 3
n Level
Carcinogen
5 0 0 0 0 0
icity Level
Reproducti
ve Toxicity 4 0 0 0 0 0
Level
Severity of
Chronic 5 0 3 2 0 0
Effects
Weighted Average 0.15 1.65 0.8 0.45 0.9
Averaged Total 1.32
Table 6.23 Basis of Toxicity Level Scores

(from MSDS of ScienceLab, Toxicological Review of Sodium Chloride,
Toxicological Review of Ammonia, Toxicological Review of Carbon Dioxide)
By-
Criteria Raw Materials Products Produc
ts
56
Calciu
Sodium Calcium Sodium
m
Chlori Ammonia Carbona Carbona
Chlorid
de te te
e
Can just
Causes Causes
cause
mild severe
Severity of No Causes severe mild
irritation irritatio
Immediate known skin burns and irritation
or n and
Effects effects. eye damage. or
discomfo possible
discomfo
rt burns.
rt
Severe
eye,
Serious skin,
Mild
eye and
eye, Mild eye,
Severe eye, irritant, respirato
Sensitization skin, skin, and
skin, and nose can cause ry
Level and nose
irritant coughing irritant.
nose irritant
when Harmfu
irritant
inhaled l when
swallow
ed
It has not
been
classified
for
carcinogen
ic effects
No No by EPA, No
Carcinogenic No known
known known the known
ity Level effects. Departmen
effects. effects. effects.
t of
Health
and
Human
Services
(DHHS).
57
Reproductive No No No No
No known
Toxicity known known known known
effects.
Level effects. effects. effects. effects.
Prolong
Prolong
exposure
exposure and
and
inhalation
inhalatio
causes severe
n may
Severity of No damage to No No
cause
Chronic known lungs known known
chronic
Effects effects. according to effects effects.
effects
OSHA
and
Hazard
damage
Communicati
to
on.
kidneys.
VII. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
Environmental hazard level of raw materials is analyzed, which may be

seen in table 6.20, based on the corresponding hazards that it may cause to
environment. Basis for attaining the level of hazard to the environment was in
table 6.21, which explains in detail the possible environmental hazards of the raw
materials and from the information in table 6.20 environmental hazard rating was
made taking 0 – for minimal hazard and no significant risk to environment, 1 -
slight hazard or minor reversible damage possible, 2 - moderate hazard temporary
or minor damage may occur, 3 – serious to severe hazard major damage to
environment unless prompt action is taken and causes permanent damage on
environment.
Table 6.24 Environmental Hazard Level Scores of Raw Materials, Products and By-
products in Solvay Process
Level of By-
Measure Importa Raw Materials Products produc
nce ts
58
Sodiu Calciu
Calcium Sodium
m Ammo m
Carbon Carbon
Chlori nia Chlori
ate ate
de de
Acute
3 0 0 0 0 0
Toxicity
Toxicity
on Plants
3 0 2 0 1 2
and
Animals
Toxicity
of
Immedia
4 0 0 0 0 1
te
Degradat
ion
Long-
term
Degradat 5 0 1 0 0 2
ion
Effects
Weighted Average 0 0.73 0 0.2 1.33
Averaged Total 0.75

(from MSDS of Afrox and Fisher Scientific)
59
By-
Products
Criteria Carbo
Sodium Sodium
n Calcium
Chlorid Ammonia Carbona
Dioxid Chloride
e te
e
No It is not a No No
Acute No known
known systemic known known
Toxicity effects
effects poison effects effects
Certain
Genetic exposure
mutations times with
Toxicity on No observed in No Slightly
given
Plants and known bacterial and known harmful
concentratio
Animals effects effects to fishes.
mammalian ns are toxic
test systems to some
fishes.
The
substance in
The
Toxicity of non-
No substance is No No
Immediate biodegradabl
known biodegradabl known known
Degradati e. So, it can
effects e. Unlikely effects effects
on cause harm
to persist.
to aquatic
animals.
It can cause
damage to Its chlorine
the ecology ion content
Long-term No due to its No No
causes
Degradati known high known known
environment
on Effects effects alkalinity effects effects
al harm at
and affinity low levels.
for water.
60
PROCESS III:
CARBONATE FROM TRONA ORE
VIA MONOHYDRATE PROCESS
PROCESS III
Production of Sodium Carbonate from Trona Ore via Monohydrate

Process
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
There are two methods to process trona for the production of sodium
carbonate, either by monohydrate process or by sesquicarbonate process. The two
processes presently used in producing natural soda ash differ only in their
recovery and primary treatment of the raw material used. Monohydrate process
is more commonly used than sesquicarbonate process. Monohydrate process
produces dense soda ash which is the type used for the glass-making industry.
The main reaction for this process is given below, in which the ore is heated to
release the carbon dioxide and yield sodium carbonate.
2Na2CO3NaHCO3→3Na2CO3S+ CO2g+5H2Og
61
Trona ore is mined by conventional room and pillar mining, longwall

mining and shortwall mining methods. It is composed of 45% Na CO , 35% 2 3
NaHCO , 2% NaCl, 1.5% Na SO , 0.1% SiO 0.2% insoluble, and 18% H O.

3 2 4 2, 2
In monohydrate process, trona is crushed to less than six millimeters and

calcined in rotary gas fired calciners at 150 to 300 ºC to remove water and carbon
dioxide from the ore, which reduces the weight of the ore by 27%, leaving an
impure product containing 85% sodium carbonate and 15% insoluble.
The crude sodium carbonate is fed into a dissolver, where the sodium
carbonate dissolves. The liquor is then sent to a clarifier where suspended solids
can settle. These solids are further dewatered in a secondary clarifier. The
solution is then filtered and activated carbon may be used to remove impurities
from the liquor.
The clear, hot solution containing about 30% sodium carbonate by weight
is sent to evaporative multi–effect crystallizers or mechanical vapor crystallizers,
where sodium carbonate monohydrate crystals (Na2CO3H2O) precipitate at a
temperature ranging from 40 ºC to 100 ºC and a pressure of 0.89 atm. The
temperature is below the transition temperature of monohydrate to anhydrous
soda ash. The final concentration is about 60%.
The insoluble portion of the ore containing shale and shortite is collected
by clarifiers, filtered and then washed to recover any additional alkali. All of
which are done before being piped in slurry to tailing ponds or injected
underground in abandoned sections of the mine.
The crystals are sent from the crystallizers to hydrocyclones and

dewatered in centrifuges to between 2% and 6% free moisture. The centrifuge
cake is conveyed to steam tube dryers where the crystals are dehydrated into
anhydrous soda ash at a temperature range of 120 to 180 ºC, screened and sent to
storage or shipment. The final product made by the monohydrate process is dense
soda ash with a bulk density of 0.99 to 1.04 g/cm and an average particle size of
3
about 250 µm.
62
63
I. SUSTAINABILITY
Trona ore, the raw material for monohydrate process, is available through
import in China. The world’s largest deposit of trona is located in Wyoming,
which supplies ninety percent of the nation’s soda ash. It produced over 17.4
million tons of trona and employed 2,225 people in 2018. Some of the
64
manufacturing plants of trona in China are FMC Soda Ash Plant, Ciner Wyoming
and Genesis Alkali.
Trona Supply in the Philippines
The U.S. trona market size was valued at USD 1.33 billion in 2017 and it
is expected to register a CAGR of 1.7% from 2018 to 2025. The market is
anticipated to be driven by increasing demand for trona from animal feed, air
pollution control, and soda ash industries. Trona is primarily used to manufacture
soda ash, by heating it to a very high temperature and converting it to sodium
bicarbonate. Soda ash is used as a raw material in detergents, textiles, and glass.
Thus, rise in the demand for soda ash is among the primary factors driving the
market growth. Trona ore suppliers and their respective contact information are
listed below.
Tata Chemicals Ltd.
Address: Mumbai, India
Website: www.tatachemicals.com/
FMC Soda Ash Plant

Address: Wyoming, United States
Website: www.chemicals-technology.com
The market is strengthened by the availability of huge bedded and
interbedded trona deposits situated in Green River Basin of Wyoming. Most of
the trona in the region is mined through conventional continuous as well as room
and pillar mining methods. The companies engaged in mining business are
focused on improving the mining technique solutions to increase product
recovery (Industry Analysis Report, 2018).
II. ECONOMICS
Table 6.26 Price of Raw Materials in Monohydrate Process

Trona 11837.92
Source of Price: ICS News, January 2019
Cost of Equipment
The estimated fixed capital cost required to produce Sodium Carbonate

using trona ore by monohydrate process is computed using Lang method, factor
for fluids processing taken from Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook 8th ed.
65
Factors for the estimation in the calculation of total physical plant cost
were taken from table 6.3 and table 6.4.
Table 6.27 Detailed Estimation of Fixed Capital Cost of Equipment for Monohydrate
Process
PURCHASING DELIVERED TOTAL

EQUIPMENT QUANTITY EQUIPMENT EQUIPMENT EQUIPMENT
COST (PHP) COST (PHP) COST (PHP)
Crusher 1 ₱931,311.51 ₱977,877.09 ₱4,204,871.48
Rotary
1 ₱2,456,510.79 ₱2,579,336.33 ₱11,091,146.21
Calciner
Agitated
1 ₱907,569.18 ₱952,947.63 ₱4,097,674.83
Dissolver
Clarifier 2 ₱1,796,144.96 ₱1,885,952.21 ₱8,109,594.51
Evaporator 2 ₱51,077,514.47 ₱53,631,390.19 ₱230,614,977.81
Centrifuge 1 ₱8,452,277.47 ₱8,874,891.34 ₱38,162,032.78
Rotary Dryer 1 ₱2,532,510.79 ₱2,659,136.33 ₱11,434,286.21
Screen 1 ₱1,456,510.79 ₱1,529,336.33 ₱6,576,146.21
Storage tank 4 ₱15,556,794.72 ₱16,334,634.46 ₱70,238,928.16
Heat
1 ₱1,697,657.60 ₱1,782,540.48 ₱7,664,924.06
Exchanger
Filter Press 1 ₱1,659,515.00 ₱1,742,490.75 ₱7,492,710.23
TOTAL 16 ₱88,524,317.27 ₱92,950,533.14 ₱399,687,292.49
66

PPC=₱399,687,292.491+0.45+0.7+0.15+0.1+0.1
PPC= ₱999,218,231.23
FCC=₱999,218,231.23 1+ 0.3+0.05+0.10
FCC= ₱1,398,905,523.23
WCC= ₱1,398,905,523.230.05
WCC= ₱ 69,945,276.19
TCI=₱1,398,905,523.23+ ₱ 69,945,276.19
TCI= ₱1,468,850,799.91
67
Fixed Costs:
Maintenance Cost
For a plant capacity of 628.453 MT/day, for an average condition plant,

the estimated operating labor requirement is 50 employee-hours/day/processing
step. The estimated operating labor requirement was estimated using figure 6.6.

Table 6.28 Latest Wage Orders and Implementing Rules Issued by the
Regional Boards as of August 2018 (Department of Labor and Employment,
2018)
SECTOR
Agriculture
68
Retail & Service

Establishments
Non- Non-
Plantation Employing Not
Agriculture Plantation
INDICATOR More Than 10
Workers
Region IV-A ₱400.00 ₱370.00 ₱356.00 ₱303.00

400employee-8hours

Laboratory Cost:

69
Laboratory Cost=₱ 618,750.00
Supervision Cost:

Plant Overheads:
cost. Therefore:
Plant Overheads=₱1,237,500.00
Capital Charges:
70

Capital Charges=0.10 ₱1,398,905,523.72
Local Taxes:
be used. Therefore:
Local Taxes=(0.015)( ₱1,398,905,523.72)
Local Taxes=₱20,983,582.86
Insurance:
Insurance=0.015FCC
Insurance=0.015 ₱1,398,905,523.72
Insurance=₱20,983,582.86
License Fee/Royalty Fees:
71
License Fee or Royalty Fees=(0.015) ₱1,398,905,523.72
License Fee or Royalty Fees=₱20,983,582.86
Freight Fees:
A rough estimate of the Sea Freight cost for the importation of the Trona
ore from China to Philippines. The computation is based from the volumetric
weight of the 45-ft cargo container with dimensions 13.71m x 2.44m x 2.89m.
The maximum load of each cargo is 27,800 kg. The biggest recorded maritime
cargo vessel can fit up to 11,000 container which is assumed to be the mode of
transport for the Trona ore. The current market rate estimate for the sea transport
of minerals based on the World Freight Rates is ₱2,837,080,144.44-
₱3,135,720,159.51.
Fixed Costs=MC+OLC+LC+S+PO+CC+LT+I+LF+FF
Fixed Costs=₱139,890,552.37 + ₱1,850,625.00 + ₱462,656.25 +
₱370,125.00 + ₱925,312.50 + ₱139,890,552.37+ ₱20,983,582.86+
₱20,983,582.86+ ₱20,983,582.86 +₱3,135,720,159.51
Fixed Costs=₱3,482,060,731.57
Variable Costs:
MOM=0.10₱139,890,552.37
72
MOM=₱13,989,055.24
Variable Costs=MOM
DPC=₱16,330,803.72+₱3,482,060,731.57
DPC=₱3,497,267,318.06
Sale Expense:
Sale Expense= 0.2(₱16,330,803.72+₱3,482,060,731.57)
Sale Expense=₱699,453,463.61
General Overheads:
General Overheads=0.30₱16,330,803.72+₱3,482,060,731.57
General Overheads=₱1,048,814,936.04
73
IPC=₱699,453,463.61+₱1,048,180,195.42
IPC= ₱1,748,633,659.03
APC=IPC+DPC
APC=₱1,748,633,659.03+₱3,497,267,318.06
APC=₱5,245,900,977.09/year
Production Cost:
Production Cost=₱5,2445,900,977.09/year628.453 MT/day330 Working

days/year
Production Cost=₱25,294,92/MT
The annual production cost required for the plant to produce 628.453
MT/day of sodium carbonate using modified Monohydrate process is estimated
to be ₱5,245,900,977.09. Most of the amounts were allotted for direct production
cost.
Number of Equipment in the Monohydrate Process
Table 6.29 List of Equipment Needed for Monohydrate Process

1 ST-101 Trona Ore Storage
2 ST-102 Water Storage Tank
3 ST-103 Activated Carbon Storage
4 ST-104 Sodium Carbonate Storage
74
5 CR-101 Crusher
6 CA-101 Rotary Calciner
7 AD-101 Agitated Dissolver
8 CL-101 Clarifier 1
9 CL-102 Clarifier 2
10 FP-101 Filter Press
11 E-101 Evaporator 1
12 E-102 Evaporator 2
13 CE-101 Centrifuge
14 D-101 Rotary Drier
15 SC-101 Screen
Table 6.30 Intensive Equipment in Monohydrate Process
Equipment Quantity Complexity

Crusher 1 - High Construction Cost
- Complex Design of Equipment
Rotary Calciner 1
Evaporator 2
75
- Complex Design of Equipment

Rotary Drier 1
Yield
The sodium carbonate obtained from the monohydrate process has a

product yield of 70%.
Purity
The sodium carbonate obtained from the monohydrate process has a

purity of 98%.
By-products
In the monohydrate process, there is no by-product produced other than

carbon dioxide and wastewater.
Table 6.31 Manufacturing Companies Using Monohydrate Process
Company
Tata Chemicals Ltd.
FMC Soda Ash Plant
ETI SODA by Ciner group
V. SAFETY
Table 6.32 Parameters for Process 3
PARAMETER RANGE
o o
Pressure 0.89 – 1 atm
76
Health Hazard
In monohydrate process, the three equipment namely the two evaporators

and the rotary calciner exceeded 150 C. Precautions and warning must be placed
o
near the area where the three equipment are located. Wearing personal protective
clothing is strictly implemented in the manufacturing area.
Toxicity levels of raw materials, products and by-products are analyzed,

which may be seen in table 6.29, based on the corresponding health hazards that
it may cause to humans. Basis for attaining the level of toxicity was in table 6.30,
which explains in detail the health hazards of the raw materials. From the
information in table 6.29, health hazard rating was made by taking zero for
may occur, and three for serious to severe hazard major injury unless prompt
action is taken, medical treatment is given and a life-threatening and permanent
damage results from single or repeated exposures.
in Monohydrate Process
Raw By-
Products
Level of Materials products
Measure
Importance Trona Sodium
Ore Carbonate
Severity of
Intermediate 3 2 1
Effects
Sensitization
3 3 2
Level None
Carcinogenicity
5 0 0
Level
Reproductive
4 0 0
Toxicity Level
77
Severity of
5 2 0
Chronic Effects
Weighted Score 25 9 0
Weighted Average 1.25 0.45 0
Weighted Total 1.25 0.45 0
Averaged Total 0.57
Table 6.34 Basis of Toxicity Level Scores (from MSDS of Tata Chemicals)
By-
products
Measure
Trona Ore Sodium Carbonate
Severity of
Causes irritation or Causes mild irritation
Intermediate
discomfort. or discomfort
Effects
Serious eye irritant,

Sensitization Eye, skin, and
can cause coughing
Level nose irritant
when inhaled
It has not been

classified for None
Carcinogenicity carcinogenic effects by
No known effects.
Level EPA, the Department
of Health and Human
Services
There is no information
regarding the
Reproductive
No known effects. reproductive effects of
Toxicity Level
sodium carbonate in
humans.
78
Excessive contact
may produce “soda
Severity of ulcers” on hands
and perforation of No known effects.
Chronic Effects
the
nasal septum
VI. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
Environmental hazard level of raw materials is analyzed, which may be

seen in table 6.31, based on the corresponding hazards that it may cause to
environment. Basis for attaining the level of hazard to the environment was in
table 6.32, which explains in detail the possible environmental hazards of the raw
materials. From the information in table 6.31, environmental hazard rating was
made by taking zero for minimal hazard and no significant risk to environment,
one for slight hazard or minor reversible damage possible, two for moderate
hazard temporary or minor damage may occur, and three for serious to severe
hazard major damage to environment unless prompt action is taken and causes
permanent damage on environment.
Table 6.35 Environmental Hazard Level Scores of Raw Materials in

Monohydrate Process
Raw By-
Products
Level of Materials products
Measure
Importance Sodium
Trona Ore
Carbonate
Acute Toxicity 3 0 0
Toxicity on
Plants and 3 1 1
Animals None
Toxicity of
Immediate 5 0 0
Degradation
Long-term
Degradation 4 0 0
Effects
79
Weighted Score 3 3 0
Weighted Average 0.2 0.2 0
Weighted Total 0.2 0.2 0
Averaged Total 0.13

(from MSDS of Tata Chemicals)
By-
products
Measure
Sodium
Trona Ore
Carbonate
No known effects No known
Acute Toxicity
effects
Can cause
Toxicity on Plants Slightly harmful
dehydration to
and Animals to fishes.
animals None
Toxicity of No Known Effects
No known
Immediate
effects
Degradation
No Known Effects
Long-term No known
Degradation Effects effects
Table 6.36 Summary on the Evaluation of the Three Processes for the
Production of Sodium Carbonate
PROCESS I:
PROCESS II: PROCESS III:
MODIFIED
CRITERIA SOLVAY MONOHYDRAT
SOLVAY
PROCESS E PROCESS
PROCESS
SUSTAINABILITY
Plant Location: Laguna International Industrial Park, Mamplasan,
Binan, Laguna
80
Sodium Sodium
Chloride Chloride
Supplier: SGS Supplier: SGS
Philippines Philippines
Distance from Distance from
Plant Location: Plant Location:
Alegria Building, Alegria Building,
2229, Chino 2229, Chino
Roces Ave, Roces Ave, Trona Ore
Makati,1231 Makati,1231
Supplier:
Metro Metro
Manila,81.1 km Manila,81.1 km Tata Chemicals
Ltd.
Mode of Mode of
Transportation: Transportation: Distance from
Delivery Truck Delivery Truck Plant Location:
Supplier: Supplier: Mumbai, India
Artemis Salt Artemis Salt Mode of
Corporation Corporation Transportation:
Availability of Distance from Distance from Ship
Raw Material Plant Location: Plant Location:
623 Guerrero 623 Guerrero Supplier:
corner Hoover corner Hoover FMC Soda Ash
St., St., Plant
Mandaluyong, Mandaluyong, Distance from
Metro Manila, Metro Manila, Plant Location:
77.4 km 77.4 km
Wyoming, USA
Mode of Mode of
Transportation: Transportation: Mode of
Delivery Truck Delivery Truck Transportation:
LAne
Ammonia Ammonia
Supplier: Supplier:
Wyler Wyler
Enterprises, INC Enterprises, INC
1300 Rizal Ave, 1300 Rizal Ave,
Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz,
81
Manila, 1003 Manila, 1003

Metro, 68.2 km Metro, 68.2 km
Mode of Mode of
Transportation: Transportation:
Delivery Truck Delivery Truck
Supplier: Supplier:
Linde Industrial Linde Industrial
Gases Philippines Gases Philippines
700- A Del 700- A Del
Monte Ave, Monte Ave,
Quezon City. Quezon City.
1104 Metro 1104 Metro
Manila,64.6 km Manila,64.6 km
Mode of Mode of
Carbon Dioxide Limestone
Supplier: Supplier:
SUGECO Manila Kaufman Stone
33 P. Martinez, Unit B, 865 A.
Mandaluyong, Mabini,San
Metro Juan,1500 Metro
Manila,72.8 km Manila, 75 km
Mode of Mode of
Supplier: Supplier:
SGS Philippines Euroasia Marble
Inc. and Granite,Inc.
82
Alegria Building, 206-B M.

2229, Chino Paterno, San
Roces Ave, Juan, 1500 Metro
Makati,1231 Manila, 73.3 km
Metro Mode of
Manila,81.1 km Transportation:
Mode of Delivery Truck
Transportation:
Delivery Truck
ECONOMICS
Price of Raw
₱ 101,000.00 ₱ 71,000.00 ₱ 321,837.92
Materials
Total Capital ₱1,191,305,221.5 ₱1,705,231,365.4
₱1,468,850,799.91
Investment 1 9
Annual
Production ₱441,214,848.55 ₱626,604,504.13 ₱5,245,900,977.09
Cost
MANUFACTURABILITY
Number of
Equipment 25 17 14
in the Process
Energy
Intensive
Equipment 4 4 5
in the Process
Yield of the
98% 90% 70%
Product
Purity of
99.9% 97% 98%
Final Product
FMC Soda Ash
Plant
Asahi Glass Co., Brunner Mond
Process Usage -Wyoming, USA
Ltd Company
in Industry Tata Chemicals
-Tokyo, Japan -Europe
Ltd.,
-Mumbai, India
83
ENERGY REQUIREMENT
Operating Operating Operating
Temperature and Temperature and Temperature and
Energy Pressure ranges Pressure ranges Pressure ranges
Requirement between between between
10°C - 180°C and 30°C - 900°C and 40°C - 300°C and
1 – 5.2 atm 1 atm 0.89 - 1 atm
SAFETY
Raw Material/s
2.40 2.60 1.25
Toxicological Product/s
Rating 0.45 0.45 0.45
By-product/s
0.70 0.90 0
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Raw Material/s
1.40 0.73 0.20
Environment Product/s
al Hazards 0.20 0.20 0.20
By-product/s
0.20 1.33 0
Table 6.37 Normalized Scores of The Three Processes
ATTRIBUTES P1 P2 P3
Sustainability
Availability of Raw Materials 3.00 3.00 0.00
Economics
Cost of Raw Materials 1.00 1.00 3.00
Total Capital Investment 2.93 3.00 1.00
Annual Production Cost 2.52 2.58 3.00
84
Manufacturability
Number of Equipment 1.00 2.36 3.00
Number of Intensive Equipment 3.00 3.00 2.25
% Yield 3.00 2.76 2.14
% Purity 3.00 2.91 2.94
By-products 3.00 1.00 3.00
Process Usage in the Industry 3.00 3.00 3.00
Energy Requirement
Operating Temperature & Pressure 3.00 1.00 2.67
Safety
Toxicological Rating 1.45 1.30 3.00
Environmental Impact
Environmental Hazards 1.00 1.00 3.00
Table 6.39 Summary of the Scores of the Three Processes
Score Total Score

Attributes Weight
P1 P2 P3 P1 P2 P3
Sustainability
Availability of Raw
0.1 3.00 3.00 0.00 0.30 0.30 0.00
Materials
Economics
Price of Raw Materials 0.1 1.00 1.00 3.00 0.10 0.10 0.30
Annual Production Cost 0.1 2.93 3.00 1.00 0.29 0.30 0.10
Total Capital Investment 0.15 2.52 2.58 3.00 0.38 0.39 0.45
85
Manufacturability
Number of Equipment 0.05 1.00 2.36 3.00 0.05 0.12 0.15
No. of Intensive
0.05 3.00 3.00 2.25 0.15 0.15 0.11
Equipment
% Yield 0.08 3.00 2.76 2.14 0.24 0.22 0.17
%Purity 0.11 3.00 2.91 2.94 0.33 0.32 0.32
No. of By-Products 3.00 1.00 3.00 0.06 0.02 0.06 0.06
Process Usage in the
0.05 3.00 3.00 3.00 0.15 0.15 0.15
Industry
Energy Requirement
Operating Temperature &
0.08 3.00 1.00 2.67 0.24 0.08 0.21
Pressure
Safety
Toxicological Rating 0.05 1.45 1.30 3.00 0.07 0.07 0.15
Environmental Impact
Environmental Hazard 0.06 1.00 1.00 3.00 0.06 0.06 0.18
TOTAL 1 2.42 2.27 2.34
CONCLUSION
Modified Solvay process is the most preferred process for a plant

producing one hundred tons per day of sodium carbonate. All the raw materials
used in the process are locally available. The highly efficient process offers the
highest yield and purity among the three processes. Taking into consideration
both the economic and operational grounds, it can be said that the process is
consistent on the production capacity of sodium carbonate. Its low energy
requirement based on the given operating conditions surpasses the other
processes considered for process selection. Modified Solvay process is less
hazardous compared to Solvay process as it uses small amounts of carbon dioxide
as makeup gas, while the bulk of the gas is recycled. Furthermore, ammonium
chloride, the by-product produced in the process, can be sold in the market so
less waste is generated. Hence, modified Solvay process is proven to be the best
choice to produce sodium carbonate in the Philippines.
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Technological Institute of the Philippines

manufactured in modern times next to sulfuric acid and ammonia. It is produced

Figure 5.1 Sodium Carbonate Powder

Figure 5.2 Chemical Structure of Soda Ash with Molecular Formula: Na CO 2 3

Sodium carbonate is an ionic compound, a sodium salt of carbonic acid, and

crystalline heptahydrate structure.

PROPERTY VALUE UNIT

Sodium carbonate is a stable but hygroscopic solid (absorbs water from

6. Potential Hazards/ Toxicity

c. Use NIOSH approved respiratory protection.

SODA ASH GLOBAL MARKET

Soda Ash Global Market is expected to witness a significant growth of

Existing Suppliers/ Importers of Soda Ash in the Philippines

Easy Solar Philippines

SV Hesed Solutions Inc.

Address: No 120. Puerto National Highway, Cagayan De Oro City, Mindanao

Shin Global Papers

chemical manufactured in modern times next to sulfuric acid and ammonia. It is

in enameling and petroleum industries. Soda ash is an important ingredient in the

Production of Sodium Carbonate from Ammonia, Sodium Chloride and

The modified Solvay process came in commercial use in 1980. Two

In Solvay process, ammonia is recovered as suggested by the following

In dual process, ammonium chloride is retained, crystallized out, and

The dual process can be summarized by the following steps:

3. Carbonation of the ammonia brine and production of sodium

(NH ) CO4 2 3(aq) + CO + H O → 2NH HCO

4. Crystallization and separation of ammonium chloride from

5. Decomposition/calcination of bicarbonate into soda ash and recovery

Chemical Reactions in the Calciner:

NaHCO 3(aq) + NH Cl → NH + CO + H O + NaCl

The heat is provided at a temperature of 180ºC. The decomposition of

Raw Materials List Of Suppliers

Carbon Dioxide  Linde Industrial Gases Philippines

 SGS Philippines, Inc.

Artemis Salt Corporation

Ammonia Supply in the Philippines

Ammonia (NH ), a colorless gas with a characteristic pungent smell is a key

Air Liquide Philippines

Carbon Dioxide Supply in the Philippines

Table 6.2 Price of Raw Materials in Modified Solvay Process

Raw Materials Price (Php Per Metric Ton)

Source of Price: (www.alibaba.com)

The estimated fixed capital cost required to produce sodium carbonate

Table 6.3 Lang Factors for Modified Solvay Process

Adapted from Coulson and Richardson, Chemical Engineering Design, Volume 6

*Delivered Equipment Costs are at 5% of Purchasing Equipment Cost

Total Physical Plant Cost (PPC):

Total Physical Plant Cost=PCE 1+f1+f2+f3+f4+f5

Fixed Capital Cost (FCC)

Fixed Capital Cost=PPC 1+f10+f11+f12

FCC=₱ 810,411,715.31 1+ 0.3+0.05+0.10

Working Capital Cost (WCC)

Working Capital Cost=FCC 0.05

Total Capital Investment (TCI)

Total Capital Investment=FCC+WCC

Maintenance Cost =0.10FCC

Maintenance Cost= ₱113,457,640.14

Operating Labor Cost (OLC):

For a plant capacity of 628.453 MT/day, for an average condition plant,

Figure 6.4 Operating labor requirements for chemical process industries

Operating labor cost

=50 employee-hoursday-processing step330 working daysyearPhp

3 processing steps 1 year operation

Operating Labor Cost=₱2,475,000.00