The Visual Computer

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00371-022-02736-3

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

New color image encryption using hybrid optimization algorithm

and Krawtchouk fractional transformations
Mohamed Amine Tahiri1 · Hicham Karmouni1,2,4 · Ahmed Bencherqui2 · Achraf Daoui2 · Mhamed Sayyouri2 ·
Hassan Qjidaa1 · Khalid M. Hosny3

Accepted: 9 November 2022

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2022

Abstract
This paper proposes a new method for encryption of RGB color images by combining two encryption approaches: the spatial
approach and the transformation approach. The proposed method uses the 3D fractional modified Henon map (3D FrMHM)
and the discrete fractional Krawtchouk moments (FrDKM). We have also proposed a new hybrid optimization algorithm (H-
SSAOA) to optimize the parameters of the proposed Henon map and the parameters of the Krawtchouk fractional moments.
This algorithm is based on the hybridization of two metaheuristic algorithms: the "Salp Swarm Algorithm" (SSA) and the
"Arithmetic Optimization Algorithm" (AOA). The simulation results reveal the optimization efficiency of the proposed hybrid
algorithm H-SSAOA compared to other meta-heuristic algorithms and the efficiency of the suggested encryption method for
encrypting RGB color images in terms of sensitivity to the security key and resistance to different attacks.

Keywords RGB image encryption · Discrete fractional Krawtchouk moments · Metaheuristic algorithms · Optimization ·
Slap swarm algorithm · Arithmetic optimization algorithm · Modified 3D fractional Henon map

1 Introduction
B Hicham Karmouni
hicham.karmouni@usmba.ac.ma With the evolution of informatics services, visual data secu-
Mohamed Amine Tahiri rity has become more critical to ensure the safety of sensitive,
mohamedamine.tahiri@usmba.ac.ma confidential, and critical data. With this evolution, digital data
Ahmed Bencherqui are transmitted and transferred over networks, which exposes
ahmed.bencherqui@usmba.ac.ma it to major insecurity issues such as confidentiality, authen-
Achraf Daoui tication, hacking, falsification, and careless use of this data
achraf.daoui@usmba.ac.ma [1, 2]. Since images are private digital data, their transfer
Mhamed Sayyouri over networks still presents many problems that are not yet
mhamed.sayyouri@usmba.ac.ma fully resolved. Encryption of images effectively ensures the
Hassan Qjidaa visual privacy of their contents while preserving their quality
qjidah@yahoo.fr and size [3–5]. In the literature, encryption methods can be
Khalid M. Hosny separated into three major areas:
k_hosny@yahoo.com
1 CED-ST, STIC, Laboratory of Electronic Signals and Systems
(1) Spatial approach refers to the image’s two-dimensional
of Information LESSI, Dhar El Mahrez Faculty of Science,
Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah-Fez University, Fez, Morocco plane. Methods based on this approach apply alterations
2 Engineering, Systems and Applications Laboratory, National
directly to the components of the image to be encoded
School of Applied Sciences, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah before transferring it. In this regard, some previous stud-
University, Fez, Morocco ies will be cited: Image encryption with a fractional
3 Department of Information Technology, Faculty of Computers order Henon was presented in [6]. M. Guillermo et al.
and Informatics, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt also present a deformable logistic q-map for image
4 National School of Applied Sciences at Cadi Ayyad encryption [7]. V. Rathore et al. proposed a bit-plane
University, Marrakech, Morocco image encryption technique based on the Henon map

123

[8]; other interesting works have been presented in [9,
10].
(2) A transformation approach that refers to the equivalent
plane of the original two-dimensional image. By using
an appropriate transformation model, this approach
transforms images from the spatial domain to the fre-
quency or moment domain. In this context, we note
some work: Ogri et al. contributed a new encryption
technique based on the Meixner fractional [11]. Also,
in [12], José et al. submitted a multiparametric frac-
tional transform of number theory used to create an
encryption technique. In [13], Yang et al. studied the
Hahn moments for image feature extraction in encrypted
domains. In addition, X.Kang et al. presented a realistic
color image encryption method based on the discrete
fractional angular transform [14]. Tao et al. explored
new methods of image encryption based on the frac-
tional Fourier transform [15]. Pei discusses discrete
gyrator transforms computational algorithms and appli-
cations in [16].
(3) Optical approaches based on the two spatial and fre-
quency domains to generate an encrypted image. In
this sense, we cite the work of: Wang et al. presented
in [17] optical image encryption by reverse engineer-
ing. Chen et al. [18] provided a new image encryption
technique based on multi-beam interference. Liansheng
et al. [19] used vortex beams to encode numerous images
in the gyrator domain. In [20], Luan et al. researched
asymmetric image encryption, including suppression
of silhouettes using interference and equal modulus
decomposition. In [21], Wang et al. presented image
encryption with divergent illumination.
Motivated by the concept of image encryption techniques,
which play an important role in multimedia applications to
secure and authenticate digital images [70–72], and after a
deep discussion of the above literature in order to address and
overcome some of the problems found by the researchers.
Indeed, in this paper, a novel algorithm is proposed for the
encryption of RGB color images that combines two very
well-known approaches, namely the spatial approach, which
is based on the use of the 3D modified fractional Henon map
(3D FrMHM), and the transformation approach, which is
manifested by the use of the discrete fractional Krawtchouk
moments (FrDKM), The latter belongs to the family of
discrete orthogonal moments [22–24]. The proposed encryp-
tion method also relies on using a new hybrid optimization
algorithm to optimize the parameters of 3D FrMHM and
FrDKM to construct more powerful security keys. The pro-
posed hybrid optimization algorithm is named H-SSAOA. It
is based on combining two popular optimization algorithms:
the Salp Swarm Algorithm (SSA) and the Arithmetic Opti-
mization Algorithm (AOA). This hybridization is proposed
123
M. A. Tahiri et al.
to benefit from both algorithms’ advantages in optimizing
the parameters of 3D FrMHM and FrDKM to increase the
complexity of the security keys of the encrypted images.
In summary, this paper’s primary contribution is introduc-
ing a new RGB image encryption system by combining two
different encryption approaches: the spatial approach and the
transformation approach. It is based on the following aspects:
(1) Introduced a novel hybrid optimization algorithm and
referred to it as (H-SSAOA), based on the SSA and
AOA optimization algorithms.
(2) Introduction of an improved chaotic system by modi-
fying the conventional 3D fractional Henon map (3D
FrHM), which significantly increases and expands the
available key space for the encryption technique without
increasing the dimension of the chaotic system.
(3) Optimization of 3D FrMHM and FrDKM parameters
by the hybrid optimization algorithm H-SSAOA.
The rest of this work is structured as follows: Sect. 2
describes the proposed hybrid optimization technique (H-
SSAOA). Section 3 will represent the fractional order Henon
map in traditional and modified 3D. In Sect. 4, we will
give the fractional order of Krawtchouk moments. Section 5
describes the construction of the proposed encryption tech-
nique. Section 6 illustrates the outcomes of simulations and
comparisons that show how the suggested method is better
than other methods in the literature.
2 Literature review
Due to the distinctive ideal cryptographic characteristics of
chaotic systems, these systems have been widely used in
1D and 2D signal encryption systems [25–28]. In recent
years, new algorithms have been introduced, which combine
existing approaches with chaotic systems, such as frequency
transformation, deoxyribonucleic acid and others.
Slimane et al. [34] applied DNA sequence operations to
confusion and diffusion. However, the algorithm has a high
correlation of pixel points after encryption. Xu et al. [35] used
a chaotic system to encrypt on the binary plane. Although the
encryption effect is good, the chaotic sequence is independent
of the plaintext. Therefore, it is vulnerable to the chosen text
attack. Raza et al. [36] proposed a new bit-order encryption
method using a three-dimensional puzzle and a chaotic sys-
tem for encryption since this algorithm only changes the pixel
position during the scrambling process, so it is vulnerable to
statistical attacks. Table 1 summarizes the various current
image encryption techniques using the different encryption
approaches.
New color image encryption using hybrid optimization algorithm and Krawtchouk fractional…

Table 1 Various recent methods of encrypting images

References The approach uses The method used Use security key optimization

[18] Optical approach The method is based on the use of –

multi-beam interference and vector
composition.
[29] Optical approach The method is based on dividing the –
images into a series set of
3D-distributed points.
[30] Spatial approach The method relies on the 7D No
hyper-chaotic map to generate security
keys.
[31] Spatial approach The method lies in using hybrid chaotic No
maps to generate security keys.
[32] Spatial approach The method is based on Chen’s chaotic No
system.
[33] Spatial approach The method is based on using the No
Lorenz-Rossler chaotic system and the
2D logistic map.
[11] Transformation approach The method resides in the use of No
Meixner’s fractional discrete moments
to generate security keys
[13] Transformation approach The method lies in the use of Hahn No
moments
[14] Transformation approach The method is based on the discrete No
fractional angular transform.
Suggested Spatial and transformation The 3D FrMHM and FrDKM-based Used the new H-SSAOA optimization
method approach method for generating security keys algorithm

3 The Proposed hybrid algorithm X j ( j  0, 1, 2, 3, ..., n) that represents the positions of n

Salps, taking into account the upper bounds UBj and lower
Metaheuristic hybridization combines the characteristics of bounds LBj of the jth dimension. Then the SSA updates the
two or more different metaheuristic algorithms to benefit leader position for (j  1) using Eq. (1) or followers (j ≥2)
from the advantages of each algorithm for solving optimiza- using Eq. (2). The latter uses Newton’s law of motion to go
tion problems [37, 38]. The origin of this approach goes toward food F [41].
back to the work of Fred Glover [39], but researchers have
not widely applied it until recent years. Motivated by the 
F j + c1 ((U B j − L B j )c2 + L B j ); c3 ≥ 0
idea of hybridization and its advantages, we will propose, X 1j  (1)
in this section, a new hybrid optimization algorithm based F j − c1 ((U B j − L B j )c2 + L B j ); c3 ≺ 0
on SSA and AOA. The objective is to use this algorithm to
optimize the parameters of the 3D FrMHM and the fractional 1 i 
X ij  X j + X i−1
j (2)
Krawchouk polynomials to build more robust security keys 2
in encrypting color images.
where c1 , c2 ∈ [0, 1] and c3 ∈ [0, 1] random numbers.
3.1 Salp swarm algorithm It should be noted that c1 plays a critical role in SSA, as
it controls the balance between the inspection and manipula-
The SSA algorithm [40] adopts the attitude of a chain of tion phases. The c1 is a time-varying parameter, and this is
Salps in the oceans, namely the navigation behavior in search because it depends on the number of iterations as defined in
of food under the leader’s command [41]. Generally, the Eq. (3).
leader inspects the search space for optimal regions that con-
tain food while the other members of the chain (followers)  2
4×Citer
−
manipulate the area surrounding the leader [42]. To provide a c1  2 × e Miter
(3)
more detailed overview, we describe the process of the SSA
algorithm as follows: In the first step, we construct a matrix

123

3.2 Arithmetic optimization algorithm
The AOA meta-heuristic algorithm adopts the arithmetic
operators in mathematics and is based on the population
for solving problems and optimizing solutions without con-
sidering their derivatives [43]. Note that the optimization
process of population-based algorithms is based on two main
phases: inspection and manipulation. In the following, we
give a detailed overview of the AOA algorithm: in the first
step, a collection of randomly achieved candidate  solutions
X  x1, 1 , x2, 1 , x3, 1 , ...., x N , n−1 , x N , n [44]. Then,
we use Eq. (4) to speed up the local search for the optimal
solution:
M O A(Citer )  M O Amin + Citer
 
M O Amax − M O Amin
× ;
Miter
Citer ∈ [1, Miter ]
Secondly, in the inspection phase, the AOA refers to mul-
tiple convergences to achieve a wide coverage of the search
space to avoid local solutions based on two main arithmetic
operators, divisions (÷) and multiplications (×) (Eq. (5)) and
the function of the optimization probability (MOP) (Eq. (6))
[44].
xi, j (Citer + 1)

best(x j )/(M O P + ε) × ((U B j − L B j ) × μ + L B j ),
 into leaders and followers [41]. However, leader Salpe has a
best(x j ) × M O P × ((U B j − L B j ) × μ + L B j )
An integer μ denotes the control parameter for adjusting
the search process, and MOP denotes the optimization prob-
ability function [44].
1/α
Citer
M O P(Citer )  1 − ; Citer ∈ [1, Miter ]
1/α
Miter
α denotes the sensitive parameter that defines the precision
of the manipulation phase.
Note that, for the case where r 2 < 0.5, the first division
operator (÷) starts the inspection phase, and the multipli-
cation operator (×) remains negligible until the division
operator (÷) finishes its current task. Otherwise, the mul-
tiplication operator (×) starts the inspection phase [44].
Finally, in the manipulation phase, the AOA algorithm
refers to a precise convergence to achieve an improvement
of the solution obtained during the inspection phase based,
on the one hand, on the two main arithmetic operators, Sub-
traction (−) and Addition (+) (Eq. (7)), on the other hand, on
the MOP function (Eq. (6)) [44].
123
M. A. Tahiri et al.
xi, j (Citer + 1)

best(x j ) − (M O P + ε) × ((U B j − L B j ) × μ + L B j ), r3 < 0.5

best(x j ) + M O P × ((U B j − L B j ) × μ + L B j ) otherwise
(7)
Note that, for the case where r3 <0.5, the first subtraction
operator (−) starts the inspection phase, and the addition
operator (+) remains negligible until the subtraction operator
(−) finishes its current task. Otherwise, the addition operator
(+) starts the inspection phase.
After presenting the two optimization algorithms, SSA
and AOA, it is time to present our proposed hybrid algorithm,
H-SSAOA.
3.3 Details of H-SSAOA
A hybridization is a creative approach adopted by many sci-
(4) entists and researchers in the field of optimization based on
metaheuristics to improve the efficiency and performance of
optimization processes (inspection and manipulation) [45,
46]. The hybridization approach is based on two main cri-
teria: the level and the mode: the hybridization level can be
low or high. Each hybridization level generates two modes:
the relay mode and the co-evolutionary mode [39, 47].
In this context, the same creative approach was followed
to develop the optimization strategy based on the proposed
r2 < 0.5 H-SSAOA algorithm. The SSA model divides the population
otherwise
(5) random and weak character, and it is easy to achieve the local
optima. This problem is due to moving the leader in the search
space unsuccessfully and inefficiently. Indeed, from Eq. (1),
we consider the variation X 1j concerning Fj as follows:
 
X 1j  F j ± c1 (U B j − L B j )c2 + L B j (8)
 
(6) X 1j  F j ± c1 c2 (U B j − L B j ) + c1 × L B j ; c1 and c2 ∈ [0, 1]
(9)
If the variables c1 and c2 take their maximum
 values, the
term c1 c2 (U B j − L B j ) ∈ 0, U B j − L B j means that the
leadership position X 1j  F j ± c1 c2 (U B j − L B j ) always
stays in the proper search space. At this level, it should be
noted that the added value c1 × L B j c1 ∈ [0, 1] may affect
the leadership position inappropriately, which may hinder
the search process using SSA [48]. Motivated by: (i) Solving
this problem and (ii) Developing a new hybrid algorithm, we
present the main steps of the proposed algorithm H-SSAOA
based on SSA and AOA optimizers in the flowchart Fig. 1:
The H-SSAOA algorithm is based on integrating the AOA
algorithm into the SSA algorithm to improve the exploration
capacity, as we will present in Pseudo Code 1. More precisely,
New color image encryption using hybrid optimization algorithm and Krawtchouk fractional…

the leader location X 1j of the SSA algorithm is updated by FrHM and the parameters of the fractional Krawtchouk poly-
the AOA algorithm as shown by the following mathematical nomials.
formula of the leader Salpes:
X i (Citer + 1)
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
best(x j )/(M O P + ε) × ((U B j − L B j ) × μ + L B j )), r2 < 0.5 4 The 3D Fractional Order Henon Map
⎨
best(x j ) × M O P × ((U B j − L B j ) × μ + L B j ) ) otherwise

⎪
⎪ best(x j ) − (M O P + ε) × ((U B j − L B j ) × μ + L B j )), r3 < 0.5 A chaotic system [50–52] is known on the one hand for
⎪
⎩
best(x j ) + M O P × ((U B j − L B j ) × μ + L B j ) )s, otherwise its determinism and, on the other hand, its unpredictability.
(10) This system is perfectly described by well-defined equations
according to the dimension (1D, 2D, or 3D) and the type
The convergence performance of the proposed H-SSAOA of chaotic system, for example, the Henon map [44], the
is compared to three other hybrid algorithms, GWO-CS Ikeda map [45], and the quadratic map [46]. The relationship
[49], GWO-SCA [46], and PSO-GWO [45]. Figure 2 shows between these two paradoxical notations manifests through
the illustrative convergence curves obtained by employing sensitivity to initial conditions.
six test functions (Table 2): Unimodal reference functions We will present: (i) an overview of the classical fractional
(F1-F2), Multimodal reference functions (F8-F9), and Fixed- order Henon map. (ii) 3D FrMHM and numerical tools for
dimension multimodal reference functions (F14-F15). The studying its dynamics and stability. iii) The parameter opti-
H-SSAOA achieves the best solutions compared to other mization of the 3D FrMHM. With the aim of later use in the
algorithms on the six test-selected functions in terms of con- production of security keys with the intention of encryption
vergence speed.

After analyzing the convergence performance of H-

of RGB images, it should be noted that the 3D fractional-
SSAOA and showing its efficiency compared to other algo-
order has more complex dynamic behavior and is, therefore,
rithms for the optimization problems, we will proceed to the
more suitable for our RGB image encryption algorithm.
following Sects. 3 and 4, in which we will adopt the proposed
H-SSAOA algorithm to optimize the parameters of the 3D

123
 M. A. Tahiri et al.

Table 2 Unimodal, multimodal,

and multimodal with fixed Function Dimensions Range F min
dimensions
n
F1: f (x)  2
i1 x i 30 [−100.0,100.0] 0
d i
F2: f (x)  i1 ( j1 x j )
2 30 [−10.0, 10.0] 0
n √
F8: f (x)  i1 (x i sin .( |x i |)) 30 [−500, 500] − 418.9729 ×
Dim
F9: f (x)  30 [−5.12.0, 5.12.0]
n
i1 [x i − 10 cos(2π x i ) + 10]
2

F14: f (x)  2 [−65, 65] 0.998

 −1
1 25 1
500 + j1 j+ 2
i1 (xi −ai, j )
 2
11 x 1 (bi2 +bi x 2 )
F15: f (x)  i1 ai − bi2 +bi x 3 +x 4
4 [−5, 5] 0.00030

Fig. 1 H-SSAOA flowchart

4.1 The dynamics of the 3D fractional-order Classical To better understand the dynamics of FrCHM, we use 2D,
Henon Map (FrCHM) and 3D images obtained  digitally,
 as shown in Fig. 3. For
the system parameters: α, γ , B  [0.01, 0.856, 0.724],
Mathematically, the 3D FrHM is defined discretely by the initial conditions [x(0), y(0), z(0)]  [0.0, 0.0, 1.0] and n
iterative formula Eq. (11), with (x, y, z) ∈ R 3 , (α, γ , B) ∈  2200, and υ  0.92.
R3 the fractional order υ ∈ [0, 1] [53].

⎧ n
⎪
⎪ x(n)  x(0) + (υ)
1 (n−i+υ)
+ B × z(i − 1) + γ × y(i − 1) − x 2 (i − 1) − x(i − 1))
⎪
⎪ (n−i+1) (α
⎪
⎪ i1
⎨ n
(n−i+υ)
y(n)  y(0) + (υ)
1
(n−i+1) (x(i − 1) − y(i − 1)) (11)
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
i1
⎪
⎪
n
(n−i+υ)
⎩ z(n)  z(0) + (υ)
1
(n−i+1) (y(i − 1) − z(i − 1))
i1

123
New color image encryption using hybrid optimization algorithm and Krawtchouk fractional…

F1 : F2 :
104 Objective space 105 Objective space
7 SSAAOA SSAAOA
GWOCS GWOCS
GWOSCA 2.5 GWOSCA
Best score obtained so far 6 PSOGWO PSOGWO

Best score obtained so far

5 2

4
1.5

3
1
2

0.5
1

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Iteration Iteration

F8 : F9 :
Objective space Objective space
450 SSAAOA
-2000 GWOCS
GWOSCA
-3000 400
PSOGWO
SSAAOA
-4000 GWOCS 350
Best score obtained so far

Best score obtained so far

GWOSCA
-5000 PSOGWO
300
-6000
250
-7000
200
-8000

-9000 150

-10000 100
-11000
50
-12000

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Iteration Iteration

F14 : F15 :
Objective space Objective space
220 SSAAOA
GWOCS -2000
200 GWOSCA
-3000
PSOGWO
180 SSAAOA
-4000 GWOCS
Best score obtained so far

Best score obtained so far

160 GWOSCA
-5000 PSOGWO
140
-6000
120
-7000
100
-8000
80
-9000
60
-10000
40
-11000
20
-12000

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Iteration Iteration

Fig. 2 Convergence results for F1-F2-F8-F9-F14-F15

123
 M. A. Tahiri et al.

1 1

0.8 (a) 0.8 (b)

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4
Y

0.2 0.2

Z
0 0

-0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4

-0.6 -0.6
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
X X

1 (c)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Z

0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
1
0.5 1
0.8
0.6
0 0.4
0.2
-0.5 0
-0.2
Y -0.4 X
-1 -0.6

1
x
0.8 (d)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0 500 1000 1500 2000
y
1
0.8 (e)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0 500 1000 1500 2000

1
z
0.8 (f)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0 500 1000 1500 2000

Fig. 3 Plot of the 2D and 3D FrCHM: a 2D phase space (x, y). b 2D phase space (x, z). c 3D phase space (x, y, z). d First coordinate as a function
of n. e The second coordinate as a function of n. f The third coordinate as a function of n

123
New color image encryption using hybrid optimization algorithm and Krawtchouk fractional…

Figure 3a–c represents the system as single points in a
space; the latter is called phase space. This representation
allows us to distinguish chaotic behavior from random behav-
ior. Note that the points will form a closed curve if the
system is chaotic. If not, the system points fill the phase
space randomly [53, 54]. Using the same parameters and ini-
tial conditions, we obtain Fig. 3d–f, representing the three
coordinates x, y, and z as a function of n iterations. These
figures show how stable the iterative equations of the system
are in front of large values of n. From the results obtained
in Fig. 3, we can confirm that, on the one hand, the points
do not draw any particular shape, and, on the other hand, the
instability of the iterative system equations in front of large
values of n, this is also confirmed by Table 3.
To conclude, the chaotic property of FrCHM is destroyed
as a result of the spread of numerical mistakes in the system
(overflow) that appear during numerical computations due
to the existence of the non-elementary analytical function
Gamma (Gamma (172=Inf). The following section deals with
the modified 3D Henon map that will be used to overcome
numerical instability problems related to the propagation of
numerical values.
4.2 The dynamics of the 3D fractional order
modified Henon map (FrMHM)
The proposed solution to the previously mentioned instabil-
ity problem was obtained by replacing x  (n−i+υ)
(n−i+1) with
e L N (x) . Furthermore, we propose a modified 3D FrHM by
adding in the parameter space three additional ϕ1 , ϕ2 , ϕ3
parameters to increase the map’s complexity and, conse-
quently, the key security in the image encryption process.
The modified 3D FrMHM thus proposed is defined by
the iterative formula Eq. (12) with (x, y, z) ∈ R 3 , (α, γ ,
B) ∈ R 3 fractional order υ ∈ [0, 1].
map. Figure 4a–c represents the chaotic system modified by
single points in space. We notice that the points draw shapes
very similar to the infinite shape. Figure 4d–f presents the
three x, y, and z coordinates as a function of n  2200 iter-
ations; these figures show how stable the system’s iterative
equations are in front of large values of n. From the results
in Fig. 4, we can confirm that the modified system is chaotic
and stable for large values. Therefore, the latter can generate
security keys to encrypt and decrypt RGB images.
After introducing the modified 3D FrMHM and presenting
some results that showed the latter’s efficiency, we have now
arrived at an important step. Optimizing the fractional ϕ1 ,
ϕ2 , ϕ3 order and the additional υ parameters of FrMHM to
have good results when encrypting and decrypting the RGB
images.
Figure 5 shows a flowchart that summarizes the idea of
optimizing the 3D FrMHM parameters by seeking to mini-
mize the objective function "correlation function." This step
relies on using the hybrid algorithm presented in the first
section, H-SSAOA, to optimize the parameter vector. To
provide a more detailed overview, we describe the optimiza-
tion process of the H-SSAOA algorithm as follows: first, we
choose test images, taking into account the initial parame-
ters of the hybrid H-SSAOA algorithm, the FrMHM map,
and the objective function "correlation function." Second,
the FrMHM is calculated using the parameters generated by
H-SSAOA. Third, the image will be encrypted by adopting
the permutation and diffusion [8] using the parameters gen-
erated by the previous step. The first manifests itself through
υ, ϕ1 , ϕ2 , ϕ3 parameters, while the second manifest through
υ ∗ , ϕ4 , ϕ4 , ϕ5 parameters, as seen in the encryption algo-
rithm in Section 5. Fourth, we evaluate the value of the
correlation function. This step is repeated iteratively until
the maximum number of iterations is reached. Finally, the

⎧ n
⎪
⎪  1
A1 × (1 − ϕ1 × |cos(i)|) × e( L N ((n−i+υ))−L N ((n−i+1)))
⎪
⎪ x(n) x(0) + (υ)
⎪
⎪ i1
⎨ n
y(n)  y(0) + (υ)
1
A2 × (1 − ϕ2 × |cos(i)|) × e( L N ((n−i+υ))−L N ((n−i+1))) (12)
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
i1
⎪
⎪
n
⎩ z(n)  z(0) + (υ)
1
A3 × (1 − ϕ3 × |cos(i)|) × e( L N ((n−i+υ))−L N ((n−i+1)))
i1

with output of this optimization generates the optimal

 ∗
 vector val-
⎧ ues Voptimal  υ, ϕ1 , ϕ2 , ϕ3 , υ , ϕ4 , ϕ4 , ϕ5 optimal .
⎪ 2
⎨ A1  α + B × z(i − 1) + γ × y(i − 1) − x (i − 1) − x(i − 1)
A2  x(i − 1) − y(i − 1) (13)
⎪
⎩ A  y(i − 1) − z(i − 1)
3
5 Fractional Krawtchouk moments
We use the same parameters and conditions as the 2D
and 3D figures used in the previous section to determine and We will briefly introduce fractional Krawtchouk polynomi-
p
visualize the quality and effectiveness of the modified Henon als order K  K n (x; N − 1), 0 ≤ n, x ≤ N − 1 [55, 56] to

123

Table 3 3D fractional order
modified Henon map values n  169
computed for n  0:1000
x 0.5790
y 0.2347
z 0.5092
use later in RGB image encryption to increase the security
key space. For more details about this polynomial, you can
consult the following article: [50, 51]. Mathematically, the
calculation of fractional polynomials is based mainly on the
properties of [49]: a) Orthogonality, b) Symmetry, and c) K
eigenvalues. From these properties, by combining the eigen-
vectors of K, we may generate a collection of orthonormal
eigenvectors of K:
K  V DV T
where D and V represent, respectively, the diagonal matrix
and the set of orthonormal eigenvectors
 be maximal. Then, we compute the moments of the image
V  [u 1 , v1 , u 2 , v2 ..., u m , vm ]
If the size of K is even
D  Diagonal(1, −1, 1, −1, ..., 1, −1)
 using Eq. (20) and evaluate the value of the PSNR objec-
V  [u 1 , v1 , u 2 , v2 ..., u m , vm , u m+1 ]
If the size of K is odd
D  Diagonal(1, −1, 1, −1, ..., 1, −1, 1)
It is important to take note that the components of D can
be written as e− jk with k  {0, 1, ..., N − 1} the matrix
K a of size N and the order “a” corresponding to an angle
α with α  πa:

N −1
K a  V Da V T  e− jkα vk vkT
k0
D a  Diagonal(e− j0α , e− j1α , e− j2α ..., e− j(N −1)α ) (18)
The definition of the FrDKM and their fractional order
inverse a, b corresponding to the angle α and β where α 
π .a, β  π .b an image g (x, y) can be expressed by Eqs.
(19) and (20), respectively [55].
F (a, b)  K ( p 1 , a) × g × K ( p 2 , b)
g  K ( p1 , −a) F (a, b) K ( p2 , −b)
We can observe in Eq. (19) that there are four
{P1 , P2 , a, b} parameters, while the classical discrete
Krawtchouk polynomial contains just two {P1 , P2 }-control
parameters. It should be noted that we have deliberately used
FrDKM in this paper for two reasons.
123
M. A. Tahiri et al.
n  170 n  171 n  172 n  173 n  1000
0.2168 0.6136 Inf Inf Inf
0.5818 0.2128 Inf Inf Inf
0.2321 0.5848 Inf Inf Inf
(1) It has not been used much in encrypting and decrypting
RGB images.
(2) It has two additional parameters plus the control param-
eters, increasing the complexity of the security key that
will be used later in the image encryption.
To select the best benefit of FrDKM when applied to the
encrypting of RGB images, we adopt the proposed H-SSAOA
(14) to optimize the parameter V ∗  [P1 , P2 , a, b].
Figure 6 shows a flowchart that summarizes the idea
of optimizing the parameters of FrDKM. In the first step,
we choose images considering the initial parameters of H-
SSAOA and the objective function PSNR, which should
chosen in the first step using Eq. (19) and the parameter
(15) generated by H-SSAOA. Then we reconstruct the image
tive function. We reiterate the last step until the maximum
number of iterations is achieved. Finally, the output of this
(16)
optimization generates the optimal values for the vector
∗
Voptimal  [P1 , P2 , a, b]optimal .
After having presented the theoretical framework of 3D
FrMHM and FrDKM, in what follows, we propose an algo-
rithm for encryption of RGB images by adopting the optimal
values of FrMHM and FrDKM, which will be noted as O-
FrMHM and O-FrDKM.
(17)
6 Proposed encryption system
Image encryption is a powerful approach to ensure the visual
privacy of their content while preserving its format, size, and
quality. There are three main ways to encrypt images to make
them more secure: the spatial approach, the transformation
approach, and the optical approach, as mentioned in Fig. 7.
(19) In this context, the following section presents a color
image encryption algorithm based on 3D O-FrMHM
(20) and O-FrDKM. The RGB image encryption process is
described in detail below. Let’s start with a prepro-
cessing phase that will be attributed to optimizing the
parameters of FrDKM { p1 , p2 , a, b} and 3D-FrMHM
{υ, ϕ1 , ϕ2 , ϕ3 , υ ∗ , ϕ4 , ϕ4 , ϕ5 }. When we choose the right
parameters in this phase, we can ensure that the keys we use
to protect the RGB image will be strong enough.
New color image encryption using hybrid optimization algorithm and Krawtchouk fractional…

x,y x,z
0.8 0.8
(a) (b)
0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0

-0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4

-0.6 -0.6
-0.5 0 0.5 1 -0.5 0 0.5 1

(c)

x
1
0.8
0.6 (d)
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0 500 1000 1500 2000
y
1
0.8 (e)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0 500 1000 1500 2000
z
1
0.8
0.6
(f)
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0 500 1000 1500 2000

Fig. 4 Plot of the 2D and 3D FrMHM: a 2D phase space (x, y). b 2D phase space (x, z). c 3D phase space (x, y, z). d First coordinate as a function
of n. e The second coordinate as a function of n. f The third coordinate as a function of n.

123
 M. A. Tahiri et al.

Fig. 5 Flowchart of optimization

of FrMHM parameters

Fig. 6 Optimization flowchart of

FrDKM parameters

Fig. 7 Classification of image

encryption approaches

Step 1: Extract the RGB component of the original image
Ioriginal by decomposing it into three matrices: I R , I G , and
I B . Each of these three components is subdivided into bit
planes.
Step 2: We integrate noise in the least significant bits plane of
each matrix IR , IG , and IB in this step. This slight modification
causes: (a) significant changes in the encrypted image; (b)
does not affect the visual quality Ioriginal . Note that this step
is independent of the encryption key generated afterward.
Step 3: The Scrambling of I R , I G , and I B Steps consists of
two main phases:
• Generation of three chaotic sequences (vectors) using
3D O-FrMHM:

123
New color image encryption using hybrid optimization algorithm and Krawtchouk fractional…

 
X (n + 1)  x0 The parameters ϕ4 , ϕ5 , ϕ6 , x0∗ , y0∗ , z 0∗ , α, γ , B, υ∗
1 
n
correspond to the initial values provided as the second
+ A1 × (1 − ϕ1 × |cos(i)|) × e( L N ((n−i+υ))−L N ((n−i+1)))
(υ)
i1
security key (KEY 2), with A∗1  α + B × z ∗ (i −
Y (n + 1)  y0 1) + γ × y ∗ (i − 1) − x ∗2 (i − 1) − x ∗ (i − 1),A∗2 
1 
j x ∗ (i − 1) − y ∗ (i − 1) and A∗3  y ∗ (i − 1) − z ∗ (i − 1).
+ A2 × (1 − ϕ2 × |cos(i)|) × e( L N ((n−i+υ))−L N ((n−i+1))) • Reshape X*, Y*, and Z* sequences into 2D matrices
(υ)
i1 x, yN , M x, yN , M
Z (n + 1)  z 0
K R  {K R (x, y)}x, y1 ,K G  {K G (x, y)}x, y1
x, yN , M
1 
k and K B  {K B (x, y)}x, y1 , respectively. These
+ A3 × (1 − ϕ3 × |cos(i)|) × e( L N ((n−i+υ))−L N ((n−i+1)))
(υ) matrixes are designed to be key images of scram-
i1 x, yN , M
(21) bled matrixes. S R  {S R (x, y)}x, y1 ,SG 
x, yN , M x, yN , M
{SG (x, y)}x, y1 and S B  {S B (x, y)}x, y1 .
where the parameters {ϕ1 , ϕ2 , ϕ3 , x0 , y0 , z 0 , α, γ , B, υ} Then, apply the XOR operation to obtain encrypted
x, yN , M
are initial values given as the first security key (KEY matrices D  {D(x, y)}x, y1 of each RGB layer
1), with A1  α + B × z(i − 1) + γ × y(i − 1) − as follows:
x 2 (i − 1) − x(i − 1),A2  x(i − 1) − y(i − 1) and
A3  y(i − 1) − z(i − 1). x, yN , M
{D R (x, y)}x, y1
x, yN , M
 {K R (x, y)}x, y1
x, yN , M
⊕ {S R (x, y)}x, y1
The elements of the vectors: X  [x(1); x(N × M)], x, yN , M
{DG (x, y)}x, y1
x, yN , M
 {K G (x, y)}x, y1
x, yN , M
⊕ {SG (x, y)}x, y1
Y  [y(1); y(N × M)], and Z  [z(1); z(N × M)] x, yN , M x, yN , M x, yN , M
{D B (x, y)}x, y1  {K B (x, y)}x, y1 ⊕ {S B (x, y)}x, y1
are sorted in ascending order, the sorted values must be
(23)
stored in variables named X*, Y*, and Z* with X ∗ 
[x ∗ (1); x ∗ (N × M)],Y ∗  [y ∗ (1); y ∗ (N × M)] where x  1, 2, 3, ..., N , y  1, 2, 3, ..., M and ⊕ is
and Z ∗  [z ∗ (1); z ∗ (N × M)]. In addition, the vari- the XOR in the bit sense
ables named L x(i),L y( j) and Lz(k) must be given • Finally, the output blocks {D R (x, y)}x, y1 ,
x, yN , M
indices, e.g., L(1) must be given the index that comes x, yN , M x, yN , M
from X ∗(1), and L(2) is the location from which X ∗(2) {DG (x, y)}x, y1 and {D B (x, y)}x, y1 are
comes. assembled to generate the color image I ∗original .
• Transform the IR image matrix into a 1D vector; per-
x, y N , M
mute the latter elements according to L x(i), to obtain the I ∗original + {D R (x, y)} x, y 1
sequence S R  [S R (1) , S R (N × M)]. Then, reshape x, y N , M x, y N , M
x, yN , M + {DG (x, y)} x, y 1 + {D B (x, y)} x, y 1 (24)
the S R  {S R (x, y)}x, y1 vector into a 2D matrix
to generate scrambled IR . This phase is then per-
Step 5: We adopt the two-dimensional fractional order O-
formed for the IG and IB matrices to obtain SG 
x, yN , M x, yN , M FrDKM by calculating the corresponding moments for the
{SG (x, y)}x, y1 and S B  {S B (x, y)}x, y1 ,
I ∗original image via the following equation:
respectively.
Step 4: In the diffusion step, we use 3D O-FrMHM to F (a, b)  K ( p1 , a) × I ∗original ×K ( p2 , b) (25)
x, yN , M
create key matrices D R  {D R (x, y)}x, y1 & DG 
x, yN , M
{DG (x, y)}x, y1
x, yN , M To increase and improve the security of our encryp-
and D B  {D B (x, y)}x, y1 . Note
tion scheme against different attacks, where the parameters
that this stage is composed of three main phases:
{ p1 , p2 , a, b} are initial values given as the first security key
• Generation of three chaotic sequences as follows: (KEY 3).

 
1 n
X ∗  f loor x0∗ + A∗1 × (1 − ϕ4 × |cos(i)|) × e( L N ((n−i+υ))−L N ((n−i+1)))
(υ∗)
i1
⎛ ⎞
1 j
Y ∗  f loor ⎝ y0∗ + A∗2 × (1 − ϕ5 × |cos(i)|) × e( L N ((n−i+υ))−L N ((n−i+1))) ⎠
(υ∗)
i1
 
1 k
Z ∗  f loor z 0∗ + A∗3 × (1 − ϕ6 × |cos(i)|) × e( L N ((n−i+υ))−L N ((n−i+1))) (22)
(υ∗)
i1

123

Fig. 8 The RGB image encryption scheme
Fig. 9 Original image
"Woodland Hills" and their pixel
distributions
We now focus on the decryption algorithm after finish-
ing the presentation in detail on the RGB image encryption
algorithm. The difference lies in step 5. Practically, in the
case of the encryption process, we use Eq. (19) with the
{P1 , P2 , a, b} parameters to calculate the discrete moments
of the RGB image. However, in the case of decryption, using
Eq. (20) with the {P1 , P2 , −a, −b} parameters to calculate
the inverse of the moments. To conclude, Fig. 8 presents a
flowchart that summarizes the algorithm for the encryption
of RGB images
After giving the theoretical background of the proposed
encryption technique, the next step is to put the simulation
and comparison results into practice to confirm the effective-
ness of the suggested encryption strategy.
123
M. A. Tahiri et al.
7 Results of the simulations
The high level of security and robustness of our proposed
algorithm against different kinds of attacks needs to be
demonstrated to prove our algorithm’s promised effective-
ness. The proposed algorithm was evaluated in this section
using the well-known color images of sizes 512 × 512 and
256 × 256 via Matlab® 2021 software on an Intel® Core™i3
computer. Consequently, this part has been separated into
six analyses: (1) security analysis, (2) histogram analysis,
(3) correlation analysis, (4) entropy analysis, (5) differential
attack analysis, (6) noise attack analysis.
New color image encryption using hybrid optimization algorithm and Krawtchouk fractional…

Fig. 10 Sensitivity of the key with a change of 10−15

123
 M. A. Tahiri et al.

16000 6000 4500

14000 4000
5000
3500
12000
4000 3000
10000
2500
8000 3000
2000
6000
2000 1500
4000
1000
1000
2000 500

0 0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250

Fig. 11 The original images and their histograms

7.1 Security analysis The Key Sensitivity with a change 10−15 for the "Wood-
land Hills" image of size 512 × 512 is shown in Fig. 10.
An important feature of a good encryption system is its Figure 10a shows the image "Woodland Hills" encrypted
sensitivity to the security key (KEY), which produces a com- with the key "KEY" and its pixel distribution. In the same
pletely different encrypted image under a slightly modified sense, the experiment is extended to be performed for the
security key. In other words, an attacker with a key guess decryption process. Figure 10b gives the "Woodland Hills"
cannot reveal the original Ioriginal image. It is important image decrypted with the "KEY" key and its pixel distri-
to note that the security key created by our encryption bution, while Fig. 10c gives the "Woodland Hills" image
technique comprises three different keys, representing the decrypted with the perturbed "KEY*" key and its pixel distri-
concatenation of the keys created in steps 3, 4, and 5: In other bution. Moreover, we notice that the PSNR  7.0354 value of
words,
 it is K EY  {K EY 1, K EY 2, K EY 3},K EY  the image decrypted  using the perturbed key (KEY*) is very
ϕ1 , ϕ2 , ϕ3 , x0 , y0 , z 0 , α, γ , υ, ϕ4 , ϕ5 , ϕ6 , x0∗ , y0∗ , z 0∗ , α, γ , υ∗,
lowpin1 , front
p2 , a,ofbthe
. one decrypted using the real key (KEY)
In practice, the following scenario is used to determine PSNR  70.1256, this indicates that the suggested algorithm
the key sensitivity: First, the original image Ioriginal (Fig. is extremely sensitive to changes in the security key
9) is encrypted by the security key “KEY” to produce
the encrypted RGB image Ienc 1 . Second, the security key
“KEY” is modified with a minor change “KEY*,” and then
the encryption Ioriginal is performed using the modified key 7.2 Histogram analysis
to obtain the encrypted image Ienc 2 . The influence of KEY
and KEY* is measured by adopting the "peak signal-to-noise Another metric is commonly used to check data distribution
ratio," This latter compares the resemblance of the decrypted and to judge the robustness and effectiveness of the encryp-
image to the original image by using the two keys KEY and tion algorithm adopted in opposition to statistical attacks.
KEY* as follows: This metric is called the histogram, adapted to graphically
illustrate the distribution and the diffusion of pixel values in
 2  the image. It should be noted that the encryption algorithm is
k
PSNR  10 log10 (26) effective if its histogram is approximately balanced [57]. In
MSE
practice, the following scenario is followed to determine the
−1
 
N M−1   2 quality of the proposed algorithm. First, several clear images
1 ∧
MSE  f (x, y) − f (x, y) (27) were selected, and their corresponding encrypted images
N×M were calculated using the proposed encryption algorithm. In
x0 y0

123
New color image encryption using hybrid optimization algorithm and Krawtchouk fractional…

Encrypted Peppers image Encrypted Earth from space Encrypted San Diego image
512×512 image 512×512 512×512

1200 1200 1200

1000 1000 1000

800 800 800

600 600 600

400 400 400

200 200 200

0 0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250

1200 1200 1200

1000 1000 1000

800 800 800

600 600 600

400 400 400

200 200 200

0 0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250

1200 1200 1200

1000 1000 1000

800 800 800

600 600 600

400 400 400

200 200 200

0 0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250

Fig. 12 The encrypted images are accompanied by each channel’s histogram (R, G, B).

addition, we provided the histogram of all the original images
Fig. 11.
Secondly, we will provide the histograms of {R, G, B}
channels of the encrypted image using the proposed algo-
rithm. From Fig. 12, we can see that the three {R, G, B}
channels’ histograms are almost flat. In other words, the pro-
posed algorithm can effectively avoid statistical attacks.
7.3 Correlation analysis
Another metric commonly used is to confirm a link and
redundancy between neighboring pixels and to assess the
robustness of the encryption algorithm adopted against sta-
tistical attacks [58]. This metric is called the correlation, and
it is used to know the possibility of estimating the value of

123
 M. A. Tahiri et al.

Table 4 Comparison of the

correlation coefficients of the Algorithm Canal Horizontal Vertical Diagonal
Lena encrypted image
Literature [34] Red 0.0271 0.0297 0.0254
Green 0.0021 0.0168 0.0011
Blue 0.0205 0.0029 0.0172
Literature [60] Red 0.0695 0.0480 0.0224
Green 0.0200 0.0560 0.0485
Blue 0.0500 0.0503 0.0560
Literature [61] Red − 0.0029 0.0013 − 0.0026
Green − 0.0032 − 0.0032 − 0.0039
Blue 0.0040 − 0.0018 0.0012
Suggested method Red 0.0013 0.0047 0.0022
Green 0.0036 0.0048 0.0042
Blue 0.0021 − 0.0012 0.0031

one of the variables (pixels) by knowing the corresponding is as follows:

value of the other variable. It should be noted that the effec-
tiveness of the encryption algorithm is measured by the value 
i
H − p(i) log2 P(i) (29)
of correlation, which must be zero [59]. The formula for cal-
i0
culating the correlation values of each pair is as follows [58]:
The frequency with which a given gray value i occurs is
cov(X , Y ) denoted by the symbol P(i).
r (X , Y )  (28)
σ (X )σ (Y ) Table 4 summarizes the entropy values of the encrypted
image. These results show that the entropy coefficients for
The correlation coefficient is calculated by comparing the Lena’s 512 × 512 encrypted image exceed 7.99, close to
values of two neighboring pixels arranged in three directions. the theoretical value of 8. These results prove that there
There is a strong association between neighboring pixels if is a uniform distribution between the pixel values of the
r (X , Y ) is close to 1, but if the correlation value converges encrypted image. Therefore, the algorithm proposed is effec-
to zero, the neighboring pixels have little in common. The tive in encrypting the images. Moreover, as shown in Table 5,
results of the calculation r (X , Y ) are given in Table 4. our approach is more consistent with theoretical expectations
Based on these findings, it can be deduced that the corre- than other encryption algorithms made by previous studies.
lation coefficients for the encrypted 512 × 512 Lena image
are close to 0, proving a weak correlation and hence no sim- 7.5 Analysis of the differential attack
ilarity. Moreover, as shown in Table 3, our approach is more
consistent with theoretical expectations than the descriptions To facilitate the recovery of the security key, an attacker can
of the encryption effect made by previous studies. This effec- attempt to detect distinguishing features between the normal
tiveness is confirmed in Fig. 13 using another image, "San image and its encrypted version. By highlighting the effect of
Diego (North Island NAS)," of size 512 × 512. a pixel change on the overall system output. We use the two
following formulas [Eqs. (30), (31)] to verify the differential
attack of our method:
7.4 Entropy analysis
1  M N
Image entropy is a common measure used by researchers to NPCR  . D(i, j) (30)
M×N
demonstrate and highlight the effectiveness of an encryption i1 j1
algorithm. It reflects the degree of confusion about the pixel
1 
M 
N
|C1(i, j) − C2(i, j)|
value of the entire image. The entropy of the information UACI  (31)
increases as the degree of visual confusion increases. Specif- N×M 255
i1 j1
ically, a good encryption strategy has an entropy value of
eight, while a bad encryption method has an entropy value of where NPCR represents the range of pixel number change
zero. The formula for calculating the entropy for a single R, [64], and UACI represents the uniform average intensity
G, or B channel of a color image that has i  256 gray levels of change [64]. We will follow the following approach in

123
New color image encryption using hybrid optimization algorithm and Krawtchouk fractional…

Fig. 13 Correlation of the

original and encrypted image in
the Blue signal channel.

(a) Horizontalcorrelationof (d) Horizontalcorrelationof

4 San Diego image 4 San Diego encrypted image
10 10
10 5

0 0
0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6
4 4
10 10
(b) Vertical correlationof (e) Vertical correlationof
4 4
10 San Diego image 10 San Diego encrypted image
10 5

0 0
0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6
4 4
10 10
(c) Diagonal correlationof (f) Diagonal correlationof
4 San Diego image 4
10 10 San Diego encrypted image
10 5

0 0
0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6
4 4
10 10

the experiment: First, we choose Lena 512 × 512 as the
original image Ioriginal . Then, we create ten images from
the original image Iˆn {n  1, 2..., 10} by applying a slight
change by adding two randomly to the original image. Sec-
ond, we construct groups such that each group consists of
two images, one is Ioriginal , and the other is the modified
image Iˆn {n  1, 2..., 10}.
Finally, we encrypt the images of each group using the

same security key K EY  ϕ1 , ϕ2 , ϕ3 , x0 , y0 , z 0 , α, γ , υ,
ϕ4 , ϕ5 , ϕ6 , x0∗ , y0∗ , z 0∗ , α, γ , υ∗, p1 , p2 , a, b} to produce the
corresponding encryption images C1, the encrypted image of
Ioriginal , and C2, the encrypted image Iˆn {n  1, 2..., 10} .
The influence is measured quantitatively using the two met-
rics, NPCR and UACI, as presented in Tables 6 and 7.
The two tables above (Tables 6, 7) compare the perfor-
mance of the NPCR and UACI algorithms to other methods.
Compared to other algorithms, the results show that the
suggested technique is extremely sensitive to a single pixel
change in a base image. This efficiency is confirmed in Fig.
14 using another "female" image of size 256 × 256.

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 M. A. Tahiri et al.

Table 5 The entropy values of

the three channels (R, G, B) of
the proposed method and other
encryption methods

Algorithm Red Green Blue

Lena 512×512 Literature [62] 7.9871 7.9881 7.9878

Lena 512×512 Literature [63] 7.9993 7.9994 7.9993
Lena 512×512 Literature [11] 7.9994 7.9996 7.9995
Lena 512×512 Suggested method 7.9996 7.9997 7.9998

Table 6 Performance of NPCR

compared to other algorithms. NPCR%

Algorithm Red (%) Green (%) Blue (%) Average (%)

Lena 512 × 512 Literature [65] 98.60 97.61 98.42 98.21

Lena 512 × 512 Literature [62] 99.60 99.61 99.62 99.61
Lena 512 × 512 Literature [66] 99.69 99.69 99.69 99.69
Lena 512 × 512 Literature [67] 99.61 99.60 99.60 99.60
Lena 512 × 512 Literature [68] 99.60 99.60 99.61 99.60
Lena 512 × 512 Literature [69] 99.623 99.623 99.652 99.63
Lena 512 × 512 Literature [34] 99.63 99.62 99.61 99.62
Lena 512 × 512 Suggested method 99.713 99.704 99.707 99.708

Table 7 Performance of UACI

compared to other algorithms UACI%

Algorithm Red (%) Green (%) Blue (%) Average (%)

Lena 512 × 512 Literature [65] 28.47 29.52 30.34 29.44

Lena 512 × 512 Literature[62] 33.42 33.45 33.48 33.45
Lena 512 × 512 Literature [66] 33.35 33.45 33.42 33.41
Lena 512 × 512 Literature [67] 33.46 33.47 33.47 33.47
Lena 512 × 512 Literature [68] 33.42 33.49 33.37 33.43
Lena 512 × 512 Literature[69] 33.24 33.36 33.52 33.37
Lena 512 × 512 Literature [34] 33.46 33.45 33.45 33.45
Lena 512 × 512 Suggested method 33.573 33.452 33.593 33.539

123
New color image encryption using hybrid optimization algorithm and Krawtchouk fractional…
Fig. 14 The NPCR and UACI the
difference |C1 − C2 |
Original images
‘Female’ 256×256
Encrypted images
C1– C 2
NPCR
UACI
7.6 Analysis of noise attacks
The color image "Couple" with a size of 256 × 256 pixels is
used as the original image and encrypted using the algorithm
suggested in this paper. The attacker can track this image and
add noise, making it more difficult to transfer an encrypted
image. A "Salt & Pepper" noise with varying noise densi-
ties between 0.05 and 4% is applied to the encrypted image,
and the resulting decrypted image is also shown in Fig. 15.
The decrypted images are almost indistinguishable from the
originals when the noise levels are low. Furthermore, the
decrypted images can still reveal details in the originals even
when the noise levels are high, demonstrating that the tech-
nique can withstand noise attacks.
modified ‘Female’ 256×256
C1 C2
|C1-C2|
99.712
33.630
8 Conclusion
This study introduced a new method to encrypt color images
by combining the spatial and transformation approaches. The
new scheme is also based on a new hybrid optimization algo-
rithm, H-SSAOA, to optimize the parameters of FrMHM
and FrDKM and, consequently, enhance the security of the
image encryption keys. This scheme extends the algorithm’s
key space, improving the encryption performance of color
images. The experimental results revealed that the encryp-
tion method outperforms the existing methods in terms of
key sensitivity and resistance to image differencing attacks.
Although the suggested technique proved its efficiency, it suf-
123
 M. A. Tahiri et al.

Fig. 15 A "Couple" image

density
Noise
created by encrypting an Original image Attacked encrypted image
Decrypted image
encrypted image that has been “Couple” by “Salt & pepper” Noise
assaulted by "Salt & Pepper"
noise of varying 0.05,1, 2, and
4%.

0.05%
1%
2%
4%

fers from an encryption time consumption problem due to the Declarations

repetitive use of H-SSAOA during parameter optimization.
Therefore, our team is looking into this issue, which has not
yet been resolved, and we are also appealing to other research
teams to speed up the encryption process, particularly for use
online.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the anonymous
referees for their valuable comments and suggestions.
Funding No funding has been granted for this work.
Data Availability The datasets used or analyzed during the current study
are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Conflict of interest The authors state that they have no known compet-
ing financial interests or personal ties that could have influenced the
research presented in this study.
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Mohamed Amine Tahiri was
born in Errachidia, Morocco,
in 1990. He obtained the B.Sc.
degree in Physical Sciences
and the M.Sc. degree in Micro
Electronics Signals and Systems
from the Faculty of Science,
University of Sidi Mohammed
Ben Abdellah, Fez, Morocco in
2014 and 2016, respectively. He
is currently pursuing a Ph.D. in
the Department of Physics at the
University of Sidi Mohammed
Ben Abdellah, Fez, Morocco.
His research interests include
information systems algorithms, image processing, and artificial
intelligence.
Hicham Karmouni was born in
Fès, Morocco, in 1992, received
the M.S degree in Signals, Sys-
tems and Informatics and PhD
degrees in electrical engineering
from the Faculty of Science, Uni-
versity of Sidi Mohammed Ben
Abdellah, Fez, Morocco in 2013
and 2019, respectively. Since
2022, he served as a Research
Professor at the National School
of Applied Sciences at cadi ayyad
university, Marrakech, Morocco.
His current research interests
are in electrical engineering,
renewable energies, artificial intelligence, optimization algorithm,
1D/2D/3D signal processing and security.
Ahmed Bencherqui was born in
Rass El Oued Taounate, Morocco
in 1993. He received the Bache-
lor of Science degree in Physical
Sciences and the Master of Sci-
ence degree in Microelectronics
from the Faculty of Science, Sidi
Mohammed Ben Abdellah Uni-
versity, Fez, Morocco, in 2015
and 2018, respectively. He is cur-
rently pursuing a PhD at the ISA
laboratory at the National School
of Applied Sciences, University
of Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdel-
lah, Fez, Morocco. His research
interests include information systems algorithms, image processing,
and artificial intelligence.
Achraf Daoui was born in
Taounate, Morocco, in 1991. He
received the B. Eng. degree in
electrical engineering and the
M.S. degree in engineering sci-
ence from the Faculty of science,
University of Sidi Mohammed
Ben Abdellah, Fez, Morocco
in 2013 and 2018, respectively.
He is currently pursuing the
Ph.D. degree in Laboratory of
Engineering, Systems and Appli-
cations at the National School of
Applied Sciences, Sidi Mohamed
Ben Abdellah University, Fez,
Morocco. His-research interest includes signal processing, image
processing and pattern recognition.
Mhamed Sayyouri received the
M.S. degree in engineering sci-
ence and PhD degrees in Signals,
Systems and Informatics from the
Faculty of Science, University
of Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdel-
lah, Fez, Morocco in 2002 and
2014, respectively. Since 2016,
he served as a Research Scien-
tist at the National School of
Applied Sciences at Department
of Industrial Engineering, Sidi
Mohamed Ben Abdellah-Fez
University, Fez, Morocco. He
has been a Professor with the
Department of Industrial Engineering. His research interest includes
image processing, pattern classification Signals and Systems.
123

Hassan Qjidaa received the M.S.
and Ph.D. degrees in electrical
engineering from Nuclear Physics
Institute of Lyon, in France 1984
and 1987, respectively. Since
1987, he served as a Research
Scientist at Faculty of Science in
the University of Sidi Mohammed
Ben Abdellah, Fez, Morocco. He
has been a Professor with the
Department of Physics. He is
currently also a Director of the
Information Analysis and Micro-
system Teams (IAMS), and Vice
Director of the electronic signal
and systems laboratory (LESSI). His current research interests are
in image processing, pattern recognition, data analysis and machine
intelligence.
123
M. A. Tahiri et al.
Khalid M. Hosny was born in
Zagazig, Egypt, in 1966. He
received the B.Sc., M.Sc., and
Ph.D. degrees from Zagazig Uni-
versity, Egypt, in 1988, 1994, and
2000, respectively. From 1997 to
1999, he was a Visiting Scholar
with the University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor, and the University
of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, USA.
He is currently a Professor in
information technology with the
Faculty of Computers and Infor-
matics, Zagazig University. His
research interests include image
processing, pattern recognition, multimedia security, and computer
vision.