Thesis Revised 2

CITY OF MANILA
UNIVERSIDAD DE MANILA
Mehan Gardens, Manila
659-A Cecilia Muñoz St. Ermita Manila
309-0582; 302-6558/ udm@edu.ph
EXPLORING TEACHER AND STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH AS A

MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION IN PHILIPPINE LITERATURE
A Research
Submitted in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Stylistics and Discourse Analysis
GROUP 8
Claridades, Marianne
Dalaguan, Jenny M.
Dimla, Jazelle Anne
Guk-ong, John Harold
Obrar, Mary Zey
Sapon, Angelo Vincent

Exploring Teacher and Student Perceptions of English as a Medium
ii
of Instruction in Philippine Literature
UNIVERSIDAD DE MANILA-GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

iii
Chapter I
This chapter introduces the problem and its background, statement of the
problem, assumption, the significance of the results of the study, and the scope
and limitations of the study.
Introduction
The English language is strengthening its place as a worldwide lingua
franca in an era of unmatched globalization. The convergence of technologies and
the subsequent impact of globalization are creating a new global order that has a
substantial impact on societies all over the world. English has effortlessly
acquired the role of the language of communication within this evolving global
linguistic framework in response to the need for a shared linguistic medium.
Between 1995 and 2005, there was great interest in educational systems
worldwide in adopting English as a medium of instruction. In teaching Philippine
Literature, it is important to recognize the role of the English language in shaping
the literary landscape of the Philippines.
Using English as a medium of instruction in teaching Philippine Literature
has the potential for both beneficial and negative educational consequences,
depending on one's point of view. Some view it as a progressive step that aligns
with the evolving cultural and literary landscape, while others consider it a
response to the need for a common, utilitarian literary language. Throughout the

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nation's history, various languages have taken the role of 'lingua franca' within
distinct regions or social spheres, enriching the tapestry of Philippine literature.
Looking ahead, English is poised to continue its significant role in meeting the
literary demands of a globalized world, thus shaping the trajectory of Philippine
Literature for years to come.
English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) in Philippine Literature sheds
light on instructors' challenges. These challenges range from the demand for
effective English communication to facilitating meaningful relationships and
successfully transmitting teachings. Despite these obstacles, it underscores the
resourcefulness of teachers who have devised creative solutions to overcome
them. One notable strategy involves streamlining course content to enhance
comprehension. Teachers actively involve students by encouraging them to
express themselves in English, fostering a more immersive learning experience
(Azarias 2021).
Education and language are intertwined. They work well as devices for
creating sense of the world, particularly in acquiring highly skilled knowledge and
economic prosperity. As institutions aim to develop students' language skills and
professional competencies, English is being used more frequently in higher
education across the board (Tang, 2020; Vu, 2020). Language serves as the
framework for education, so the intricate relations between language and
education have had a major impact on both educational achievements of students
and teachers.

v
English is one of the languages used for instruction in the Philippines,
particularly at the college level. It equips learners in higher education with more
effective communication abilities so they can decide wisely and find solutions to
issues (Hurtado & Guillermo-Wann, n.d.). Many college students have trouble in
class because the language of instruction is different from their native languages
and cultural experiences. Additionally, they are not well-suited for English
communication due to their linguistic, social, and cultural characteristics (Lynch,
n.d.). Thus, students from diverse cultural backgrounds should be able to
communicate clearly in English. The use of language of instruction consequently
affects students' overall communicative abilities and English proficiency (British
Council, 2018).
Linguistic diversity refers to the wide range of languages and dialects
spoken in the world. It is a vital part of human culture and heritage. Languages
are not just tools for communication; they are also repositories of knowledge,
traditions, and values. They are the means by which we transmit our stories, our
songs, and our dreams from one generation to the next. Linguistic diversity can
be categorized in several ways. One common way is through genetic
relationships. Languages that are related to each other are said to belong to the
same language family. For example, English, French, Spanish, and Italian are all
members of the Indo-European language family. According to the Philippine
Department of Tourism, the national language is Filipino. English is also
considered a Lingua Franca in the country. Aside from these languages, the

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country is also rich in dialects scattered around the country. The major dialects
spoken in the Philippines are: Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon or Ilonggo,
Bicol, Waray, Kapampangan, and Pangasinense. The linguistic diversity factors
greatly when it comes to education. Especially on how the teachers and students
communicate with each other in the classroom. With the diverse linguistic forms
in the country, the teacher must consider them to perform and communicate
better.
In teaching Philippine literature, a bilingual approach is recommended
(J. Villanueva 2018). It is a teaching method that uses two languages in the
classroom. There are several benefits to using a bilingual approach in the
classroom. These benefits can include improved language proficiency in both
languages, increased cognitive flexibility, enhanced cultural understanding, and
greater academic achievement. Bilingual approaches can be categorized by the
level of language use. In subtractive bilingualism, one language is gradually
replaced by the other. This can happen when the dominant language is used more
frequently in the home and in the community. With additive bilingualism, both
languages are maintained and developed. This can happen when both languages
are used equally in the home and in the community.
Learning Philippine literature makes us culturally sensitive (M. Grasso
2018). It is the ability to understand and appreciate the cultural backgrounds,
beliefs, and values of others. It is an important skill for anyone who interacts with

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people from different cultures. Cultural awareness, understanding, and
competence are the common ways we can categorize cultural sensitivity.
Knowing the culture of a certain place and being aware of every text
about it is essential. Text sensitivity is the ability to identify and understand the
potential impact of text on individuals or groups. This includes being aware of the
potential for text to cause offense, harm, or distress. This can be categorized in a
number of ways, such as basic text sensitivity, intermediate text sensitivity, and
advanced text sensitivity. Knowing this will be helpful to communicate more
effectively and to create a more positive and inclusive world.
To understand a certain language and to be able to comprehend it in
several ways, language proficiency is important in teaching Philippine literature.
because it is a way of honoring and preserving the Filipino language. Philippine
literature is a vital part of Filipino cultural heritage, and it is important for
students to have the opportunity to learn about and appreciate this heritage. By
teaching Philippine literature in the Filipino language, teachers are helping to
ensure that this heritage is passed on to future generations.
The goal of the study conduct interviews to gather perspectives from both
teachers and students, to learn, analyze and adapt teachers’ and students’
perceptions, challenges, and recommendations in using the English language as
medium of instruction in teaching and studying Philippine Literature, and
identify common learning challenges such as language barriers, and cultural

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differences. In terms of linguistic diversity, bilingual approach, cultural
sensitivity, text sensitivity, and language proficiency, this study will shed light as
to whether these factors become a barrier when using English as a medium of
instruction in Philippine Literature.
Background of the Study
English is considered as a global language, and has been used by other
countries and is considered a Lingua Franca. The language has been used for
communication, business, technological, and educational matters. The English
language has been introduced as a medium of instruction in the classroom.
According to Panthee (2020) in Nepalese community school, the teachers have a
positive attitude regarding EMI. Teachers believe it can promote learners to be
more successful both in academic and social dimensions in their life. Panthee
(2020) also reported that public school teachers are aware of the basic concept of
EMI. In addition, there are some linguistic difficulties and insufficient language
skills on the teacher’s end, due to less lack of resources, cultural diversity, and
less effective pedagogy.
A study conducted by Olerjarczuk (2023) regarding the perspective of the
students in English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) in the subject of

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Interpersonal Communication in English. The study was conducted in Poland,
and the results showed that the students have a positive attitude regarding EMI.
However, the study focused on the students challenges in English as a Medium of
Instruction. These challenges are vocabulary and pronunciation. They are
considered two of the main concerns especially in their subject of Interpersonal
Communication because English is not their native language.
According to Zainura (2019), in Nyak Arif Fatih Bilingual School the
English language is already implemented as a medium of instruction. However, it
is reported that the medium of instruction depends on the subject being taught.
The students preferred to have a mixed language when it comes to class
discussions, which is a combination of both English and their native language.
The teachers already came up with a solution by using various media forms to
help students understand the lesson in English. However, there are still students
who expressed that sometimes they still find it difficult to follow the lesson
because the teacher often uses advanced or complex vocabulary.
Afiyanti (2021) reported that the students in SMA Negeri Gorontalo
agreed on using English as a tool of instruction and is seen through visual,
auditory, and speech perception. In visual perception, when the students see
their teacher speaking in English especially during the discussion, the students
become motivated to be better in speaking the English language as well. In the
auditory perception, the students agreed that the teacher should use a bilingual
approach in order to aid the vocabulary issues in the classroom. It is also

x
reported that the vocabulary, grammar, and accent of the students had improved.
Lastly, students also had a positive response regarding speech perception. The
teachers often use the English language during their discussion. However,
students are still hesitant in using the English language during class discussion.
According to Azarias's (2021) research on English as a Medium of
Instruction (EMI) in the Philippines, instructors face a variety of challenges
during their teaching careers. These difficulties include the requirement for good
English communication, the facilitation of meaningful relationships, and the
effective transmission of teachings. Despite these obstacles, the study
emphasized the creativity of teachers who found solutions to overcome them.
One strategy used to improve comprehension is the streamlining of course
content. It is a typical strategy that involves simplifying and refining course
material with the goal of simplifying and enhancing content for better
comprehension. Teachers also actively engage students by asking questions and
encouraging them to express themselves in English, which contributes to a more
immersive learning experience. In essence, Azarias emphasizes not just the
difficulties, but also the innovative approaches employed by educators to
negotiate the complexity of EMI in the Philippine context.
Itorralba (2022) details the long history of English as a Medium of
Instruction (EMI) in the Philippines, demonstrating how it has been a
component of the educational system for over a century. Its usage has recently

xi
increased while the Philippines is becoming more integrated into the world
economy. Today, EMI has spread to all public schools nationwide, not just
those in private institutions. But this widespread adoption has sparked various
responses, from emotional support to harsh criticism. Additionally, the study
demonstrates that it has multiple effects and is related to societal and economic
changes. People are concerned that using English would cause the local
languages and cultures to disappear, which would entail losing variety,
especially students and instructors. Finding a fair way to educate children while
defending the nation's languages and customs is at the heart of the controversy
over using English in the Philippines.
In 1901, enacted into law by the Philippine Commission, the Act created
the Department of Public Instruction, laid the foundations of the public school
system in the Philippines, and made English as the medium of instruction.
By the time of former President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, the "English
Speaking Policy" was implemented in the Philippines to make the country grow,
wherein it can easily adapt to the universal language across borders. The English
language was known to be used in some subjects such as Mathematics, Science,
Literature, and Philosophy. According to Henry Gleason, the English language is
constantly growing and changing.
A commendable proficiency of English improves children's chances of
receiving a scholarship to study abroad as well as for business communication—
situations supporting or serving some significant purpose. However, it’s best to

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permit teachers to use Taglish as an instructional medium (EMI), but only in
"Remote Rural Areas" to meet the needs of public-school students who need to
really understand the lessons. The need for interventions in rural areas where
half of the students perform poorly on reading and comprehension tests, a sign of
a severe lack of English language ability.
The academic achievement of students in public schools in the Philippines
shows that they are weak regarding their capacity to deal with the challenges of
the 21st century, according to the National Assessment of Education Progress
(Mariano et al., 2020). Additionally, the National Achievement Test (NAT)
outcomes indicates that a large percentage of test-takers performed poorly on
both the reading comprehension and the writing portions of the English subject.
If students are not given the opportunity to experience reading in English
as an enjoyable and worthwhile activity while also being exposed to texts that are
not level-appropriate, it is difficult for them to develop a positive attitude towards
reading. The best way to increase second language learners' language proficiency
is to encourage extensive reading (Renandaya & Jacob, 2016). Students are given
the time, support, and opportunity to read age-appropriate materials with
interest through extensive reading.
Therefore, acquiring English is vital, as evidence, according to Abuga et al.
(2019) demonstrated that "Enhance Communication Skills and Building Self-
confidence" are the effective strategies of using English as a Medium of
Instruction. On the other hand, the instructor needs to employ the right

xiii
techniques and approaches to help students communicate in English more
effectively. A guide was created to help teachers and students both develop their
oral communication abilities. The purpose of utilizing English as a medium of
instruction is to make students competent on a global scale.
A large portion of the population in the Philippines speaks English at least
quite fluently, making it one of the largest English-speaking countries in the
world. More than 14 million Filipinos speak English, which has always been one
of the nation's official tongues. It serves as the primary language of instruction in
educational institutions and the language of commerce and law.
Statement of the Problem
This study ascertained the perceptions of teachers and students of English
as a medium of instruction in Philippine Literature. Specifically, it sought
answers to the following questions:
1. How do teachers perceive the use of English as a medium of instruction in
Philippine Literature in terms of:
1.1 Linguistic Diversity
1.2 Bilingual Approach
1.3 Cultural Sensitivity
1.4 Text Sensitivity
1.5 Language Proficiency

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2. What is the perception of the student participants towad the use of English as a
medium of instruction in Philippine Literature in terms of:
3. What challenges do the participants encounter in using English as a medium of
Instruction in studying Philippine Literature as to:
4. What recommendations may be offered in using English as a medium of
instruction in Philippine Literature based on the findings of the study.

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Assumptions
1. The use of the English language as a medium of instruction in Philippine
literature in terms of:
The researchers assumed the ineffective use of the English language as a medium
of instruction included linguistic diversity, a bilingual approach, culture
sensitivity, text sensitivity, and language proficiency. The researchers assumed
that the teachers were adequately knowledgeable to facilitate English as a
medium of instruction in Philippine literature.
2. The student participants perceive Philippine literature in terms of:
The researchers further assumed that Philippine literature is ineffective for the
students to perceive in terms of linguistic diversity, bilingual approach, culture
sensitivity, text sensitivity, and language proficiency. The researchers assumed to
reveal the pros and cons of students’ perceptions and provide feedback for
improving the acquisition.
3. It is assumed that participants encounter challenges with the use of
English as a medium of instruction in Philippine literature, which include
linguistic diversity, a bilingual approach, cultural sensitivity, text
sensitivity, and language proficiency. The researcher assumed that the

xvi
participants would be a reliable source of information that would make
this study successful.
Significance of the Study
This research is significant to many people in some or most ways. In particular,
the research can be of help to the following in one way or the other:
Students will gain a more critical grasp of English's significance in
Philippine society. They can develop a deeper respect for their own
Filipino ancestry and culture, as well as the diversity of languages and
cultures in the Philippines, by reflecting on their own experiences with
EMI in the classroom. It will also prepare them for a life in a worldwide
society. Students will be better prepared to communicate and collaborate
with individuals from all over the world if they have great English
language abilities.
Teachers will have a greater understanding of the challenges and
opportunities that come with teaching in EMI settings. They will examine
their own teaching methods and look for opportunities for improvement.
Teachers may make educated judgments on how to teach Philippine
literature in English in a way that is successful and inclusive for all
learners if they understand the research on EMI.

xvi
i
School Administrators can contribute to more inclusive and fair
language teaching in their classrooms. Administrators may establish
school environments that support all learners, including EMI learners, by
acknowledging the range of student needs and preferences.
Parents and Guardians can encourage their children's language
development at home. Parents can provide their children with the
additional language help they need to succeed by recognizing the issues
that EMI learners encounter.
Future Researchers will have a better knowledge of the difficulties and
potential associated with EMI training in the context of Philippine
literature. This understanding can be applied to the development of more
effective EMI techniques and support systems for teachers and students. It
will also assist them in investigating the effect of EMI on student learning
outcomes such as academic achievement, language competency, and
cultural identification.
Scope and Limitation of the Study
This study is limited to determining the perceptions of teachers and
students about the use of English as a medium of instruction in Philippine
literature classes.

xvi
ii
The participants of the study are fifteen (15) second year English major
students and two (2) teacher who are presently teaching at the Universidad de
Manila.
Moreover, the researchers will utilize descriptive phenomenological
psychological method to understand and describe the prior experiences of the
participants using English as a medium instruction. In order for this study to
address the research questions, several delimitations were established. The study
was limited to a very specific population of Second year English students who are
currently taking the Philippine Literature subject and two teachers who had years
of experience as a classroom teacher. The interview will be conducted and
observed in three (3) weeks and will be done by November 2023. Demographic
profiles were not considered since the focus of the study was the narratives and
experiences of teachers and students.
This study was conducted because it can provide valuable insights into
the perceptions of teachers and students about the use of English as a medium of
instruction in Philippine literature classes, as well as the benefits and challenges
of this approach. Also, it can help policymakers and educators make informed
decisions about the use of English as a medium of instruction in Philippine
schools.

xix
References
Abuga et al. (2019, April 1). Effectiveness in Using English as a Medium of

Instruction among Grade 12 Students at Bestlink College of the Philippines.
https://ojs.aaresearchindex.com/index.php/aasgbcpjmra/article/view/
1222?
fbclid=IwAR2X4dI5XUr759lY4hVAGxoKPONPlUG6IbLVEMNeEpp5u13Z
aa68oQl3Pc#:~:text=It%20is%20used%20more%20in,as%20its
%20medium%20of%20instruction
Afiyanti, N, R, I. (2021, May 28). Students Perception of the use of English as

Medium of Instruction.
Retrieved from https://www.semanticscholar.org/reader/3f41d7fa
40bfe985b 349d6b139f6b6e4a2e1d0e0
British Council. (2018). Content and language integrated learning.

Retrieved from https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/content-
language-integratedlearning
History | Department of Education. (n.d.).

https://www.deped.gov.ph/about-deped/history/
Hurtado, S., & Guillermo-Wann, C. (n.d.). Diverse learning environments:

Assessing and creating conditions for student success.
Retrieved from https://www.heri.ucla.edu/ford/DiverseLearning
Environments

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Itorralba, M. (2022, October 1). English as a medium of instruction: 30 points to

consider.
Research-based Articles. https://simplyeducate.me/2022/10/01/english-
as-a-medium-of-instruction/?fbclid=IwAR1bvpuXr_axm7i1gcrQX1CPR
LARZyVZTfu38 lImrIj2E_7Jq3XHP3Rbc_c#google_vignette
Lynch, M. (n.d.). Examining the impact of culture on academic
performance. Retrieved October 30, 2020, from
https://www.huffingtonpost.com/
matthew-lynch-edd/educationculture_b_1034197.html
Mariano et al. (2020). USING EXTENSIVE READING IN IMPROVING

READING SPEED AND LEVEL OF READING COMPREHENSION OF
STUDENTS.
ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.31838/jcr.07.15.153
Olejarczuk, E. (2023). Students’ Perspectives on English as a Medium of

Instruction (EMI) in the Case of an Interpersonal Communication Course in
English.
/lu_portal/apgads/PDF/LINCS-2022/lincs.2023.09_olejarczuk.pdf
Panthee, D. (2020 December 31). Teacher’s Perception of English as Medium of

Instruction in Nepalese Community Schools.
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46467/34730
State of English in the Philippines: Should we be concerned? | British Council.

(n.d.).
https://www.britishcouncil.ph/teach/state-english-philippines-should-
we-be-concerned2#:~:text=by%20Mike%20Cabigon&text=English%20h
as%20always%20been%20one,medium%20of%20instruction%20in
%20education.
Tang, K. N. (2020). Challenges and importance of teaching English as a medium

of instruction in Thailand International College.
Journal of English as an International Language, 15(2), 97-118.
Vu, N. T. (2020). A case study of constructivist learning and intercultural

communicative competence in English-majoring pre-service teachers.
Journal of English as an International Language, 15(2), 52-76.
Zainura, S. (2019 April 29). Students’ Perception on the Use of English as a

medium of Instruction.
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Perception-on-the-Use-of-English-as-a-of-Zainura/9f65c4a51d03f5
cd8f6ece84adc525cce77a09ca

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Study.com. (n.d.). Linguistic Diversity.

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definition-and-lesson.html
Republic of the Philippines Department of Tourism. (n.d). Languages.

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%E2%80%94Filipino%20and%20English.

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i
Chapter II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This chapter presents the theoretical and conceptual frameworks upon
which the study is based. It explains the views of the research. In this chapter,
related literature studies were also presented to encapsulate the basis of the
present study by associating it with past research.
Digital Divide
The digital divide denotes the gap between those able to benefit from
the digital age and those who are not. The apprehension is that people without
access to the internet and other information and communication
technologies will be disadvantaged, as they are incapable or less able to obtain
digital information, shop online, participate democratically, or learn skills and
offer skills. This gave rise in programs to give computers and related services to
people without access.

xxi
ii
The digital divide is a setback that affects people from all walks of life. It is
a multifaceted issue, but two main features define this gap: access to high-speed
internet and access to reliable devices. Many of the individuals who toil from the
digital divide face both.
In some areas, internet access is either limited, unavailable, or
unaffordable for those who could be fortified. Even with a dependable internet
connection, access to certain digital spaces can remain a dispute, always just out
of reach for those who can’t afford costly tools like laptops and software.
In a journal published by Soomroo, et.al (2020), digital divide centers on
access to various dimensions of information and communication technology
(ICT) including physical access, motivation, skills, and actual usage of digital
technologies. This divide tends to be even broader in the context of developing
countries.
Information communications technology (ICT) has the potential to
increase the quality of people’s lives. It has so much engrossed in our lives that
the digital divide prevents people with no or inadequate ICT access from effective
participation in society. For Cruz-Jesus, Vicente, Bacao & Oliveira (2016), the
emerging digital technologies embrace the potential of incredible innovation and
development prospects. Digital technologies, according to Nishikima, Ivanauskas
& Sarti (2017), have positioned enticements to increase the involvement of
individuals in social, political and economic dimensions of life. ICTs can operate

xxi
v
a vital function in the development of all countries and are even more noteworthy
for developing countries, for which technology is also being treated as a source to
accomplish the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2015
targets. However, for Wardhani, et.al. (2018) to get the most from these
technologies, countries should integrate ICT education in their strategic plans.
Rogers (2016), stated that the digital divide refers to the gap between
people who have adequate access to ICT and those who have ‘zero’ or poor access
to ICT. He further referred to this issue as an important issue for social justice in
the twenty-first century. However, given that swift advancements in technology
have occurred, the digital gap remains ever-present. For Centeno (2017), such
discriminations also exist in educational settings. The actuality of the digital gap
in different groups related to education such as among teachers and students
should be considered as a matter of concern.
The positive and vigorous role of developing technologies in education has
not remained an obscure idea now. Researchers encourage teachers to utilize
technology in order to improve their instruction whenever possible. Since
technology use in educational settings is considered to be helpful in increasing
the access and quality of learning, as what Domingo & Garganté, (2016) posited.
Teachers’ access to ICT is of utmost connotation. Digital exclusion will prevent
them from taking advantage of technology affordances in their teaching practices.
Accordingly, the problem of the digital divide among teachers of all settings

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v
needs to be examined. Such investigations help taking necessary measures to
remove or
at least minimize this problem among educators. They would also help to support
the SDGs (United Nations, 2015) which pursue to even out disparity to global
access and participation in education.
Studies investigating teachers’ access to digital technologies, explaining
specific access types, have not been adequately conveyed in the existing
literature, whereas such research in the setting of developing countries is totally
absent in the literature. Further, the focus of existing work has been mostly
limited to measuring physical access to digital devices. However, this issue is
more shaded, involving different facets - motivational, physical, skills and usage
access of ICT.
In the 1990’s and early 2000’s the digital divide was mainly depicted as
the breach in technology access. It is the gap that exists in most countries
between those with ready access to the tools of information and communication
technologies, and the knowledge that they provide access to and those without
such access or skills. That changed in the latter part of 2000 where the focus
moved away from access and towards digital literacy.
As highlighted by Vie (2018), the world now faces a new instantaneous of
the digital divide where students are often more technologically adept than their

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instructors. The argument was that instructors (teachers) had to get closer in
digital literacy to their students, especially in the use of Web 2.0 technology such
as podcasts, blogs, wikis and social networking sites. Vie (2018), further
discoursed that did not so much concerning the access to technology, but rather
the level of digital literacy, competence or capability.
Zubiri and Tomacruz (2016) found out that in the Philippine context,
educational inequality is clearly seen between the costly private schools and the
free public education in the country, where economic poverty remains a chief
obstacle to accessing quality (private) education. A majority of public schools, in
contrast to their private counterparts, remain disadvantaged, as they are
characterized by high teacher-student ratios, insufficient school infrastructure,
scarce instructional materials, and inadequate teacher trainings, among others.
Inequality in access to digital media alleviates the present divide in
educational opportunities in modern-day society. This has repercussions for
one’s educational outcomes, which are heavily affected by the unequal learning
conditions present in the Philippine educational landscape, compounded by one’s
ability (or inability) to acquire access to learning resources, which now cross over
both traditional and digital media.
Digital Accessibility

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vii
Education and school practices can be defined and demonstrated as a
praxis involving many and diverse actors, entities, relationships, and viewpoints,
as well as influencing and challenging issues of concern. For Salavati (2013) this
picture is based on a research including three projects limited in time and
purpose, and each addressing specific subjects and areas of concern. The reality
for teachers in contemporary Swedish classrooms, for example, is much more
complex; as stated above, demands come from all directions. One challenge is to
include and use digital technologies in the schools. In a time period of four years
(2008-2012), the number of interactive whiteboards in compulsory schools in
Sweden tripled (from 11% to 33%).
Skolinspektionen (2012) posited that the use of tablet-devices in schools
increased 10% between 2008 and 2012 and, by 2015, the number of tablet-
devices increased to 40%. Since four years ago, more children are allowed to
bring their own private devices for education and learning purposes. In addition,
all teachers at the high school level and almost all teachers at the compulsory
school level have their own individual computers.
Skolverket (2016), said that the availability of digital technologies in
classrooms has also increased in the last couple of years. Although digital
technologies are implemented in education and teaching, various reports from
Swedish authorities have stated that the use of digital technologies for education

xx
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have been limited and highly dispersed. In fact, these reports state that the
technologies are more often used in schools.
Despite the challenges of utilizing digital technologies in education and
teaching, the significance of the implementation and use of digital technologies in
school education should not be underestimated. This importance has been
recognized and tackled, not only by scholars and researchers, but, also, on
regional (south of Sweden), national (Sweden), and European (European Union)
authority levels.
According to the Swedish Digital Commission (2015), the digital nature of
modern life has achievedsupremacy and, as such, digitalization has highly
influenced crucial aspects of society, including growth, sustainability, welfare,
equality, safety, economy, and democracy. This digitalization has changing
impact on the society. It comprises a strong and powerful influencing force on
how education is to be carried out and what is expected of the future generation.
The espousal and use of digital technologies has stated that school children must
and teachers should have admittance to modern learning tools that are required
for contemporary education.
In his research, Tallvid (2015) who centered on one-to-one computing
initiatives, found that from an all-encompassing point of view, classroom
activities can seem pretty much unchanged by these distributed investments.
However, he further affirms that, from a more detailed perspective, a number of

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changes within the school’s organization have been required to integrate 1:1 into
the classroom. For instance, teachers’ lesson planning and students’ technology
use are affected. Therefore, as he asserts, technology does affect the daily life of a
school organization.
Material Access
The concept of material access to appear comprises physical access and
other types of access that are required to reach complete disposal and
connections such as conditional access (subscriptions, accounts, pay-per-view).
For Van-Dijk (2016) the concept of skills access is divided into three types of
skills that often assume the following order: first a computer user has to acquire
operational skills, then s(he) has to develop and apply information skills and
finally strategic skills (the capacity to use computer and network sources as
means for particular goals in society). Usage access is the final stage and ultimate
goal of the process of technological appropriation in the shape of particular
applications.
Digital instructional materials are becoming an increasingly prominent
resource for teachers. Nearly all teachers consult some form of online tools and
resources. For Tosh, et.al. (2019), ninety-five percent of elementary teachers and
97 percent of secondary teachers have reported using Google to plan instruction,
and more than half of both elementary and secondary teachers report referring to

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Pinterest, Teachers Pay Teachers, and their state department of education
websites to do this planning. In addition, currentdiscoveries from the American
Teacher Panel demonstrate that teachers’ use of standards-aligned and content-
specific websites has increased over the past several years. The consumption of
digital learning tools (websites, apps, and online resources used for instructional
purposes) is universal; teachers consider that digital learning tools have
significant value, and many educators would like to use digital learning tools
more often.
However, teachers’ insufficient information about these materials’ quality
and effectiveness. This information is especially indispensable because
confirmation recommends that teachers seek supplementary materials, including
those found online, to fill gaps in comprehensive curriculum materials. Although
attempts exist to appraise the quality and standards alignment of comprehensive
curriculum materials, there is little research on the standards alignment, quality,
and effectiveness of digital materials.
As a result, teachers might depend on trial and error or anecdotal advice
from peers instead of rigorous evidence and research when selecting digital
materials. Moreover, the use of digital materials bestows exceptional obstacles,
for example, the need for specific technological hardware or internet access,
concerns about internet safety, and teachers’ perception that they lack adequate
training to use digital materials.

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Klein (2019) posited that digital materials normally emerged to play an
accompanying role in teachers’ instruction associated with all-inclusive
curriculum materials. Educators utilized comprehensive curriculum materials
(versus digital materials) for the bulk of their instructional time. Fewer than 20
percent of teachers reported using any one of their digital materials for more than
half of their instructional time. Comparatively, nearly two-thirds of teachers
suggested that they used a single comprehensive curriculum material for at least
half of their instructional time.
Gardner (2011) explained that physical resources are at the center of the
system and students and teachers interact mainly with technology and materials.
These resources regulate the work spaces of the center. Three areas are dedicated
to the use of multimedia equipment and technological resources: audio, video,
and computer rooms. Another area is devoted to reading and writing; it includes
printed materials.
Media and technologies vary in their capacity for speed of implementation
and flexibility in up-dating. For instance, blogs are much quicker and easier to
develop and distribute than video. Teachers and instructors then are much more
likely to use technology that is quick and easy to use, and students likewise will
expect such features in technology they are to use for studying. However, what’s
‘easy’ for instructors and students to use will depend on their digital literacy.

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Motivational Access
Teachers’ motivations in using digital technologies vary from person to
person. Motivation is a force that pushes an individual to act and perform specific
tasks and actions. For Pinder (2014), a person, if motivated, will attain good
results as compared to the others who lack motivation. Motivation can either be
intrinsic,
which is involved with the rewards of the job itself or extrinsic, which is related to
the rewards surrounding a job. Intrinsic rewards are more satisfying and
motivating to an individual.
For Carson and Chase (2019), in order to augment the classroom teaching,
teachers’ motivation becomes extremely crucial. The attributes of instruction by
the teacher defines the knowledge gained by the students and the achievement of
the learning outcomes. The factors that contribute to the teaching effectiveness
are the teaching styles, pedagogy adopted by teachers and the manner in which
the instructions are given to the students.
Han et.al. (2015) stated that these behaviors relate to the teachers’
motivation factors, thereby resulting in an effective teaching-learning experience
for the students. The teacher motivation indirectly influences the quality of
teaching practice through the engagement in the professional learning activities

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by the. Such specialized learning activities may be related to the adoption and use
of technology in the class. Some motivation theories also explicate the effect of
motivation on the teachers’ willingness to adopt new tools. For Rao (2016), the
teachers who follow Theory Y are thought to be professionally updated and more
motivated in adopting new ways of teaching. They are more likely to be partaking
in the professional society activities, consulting and invited as a guest lecturer.
According to Chigona (2014), the Herzberg’ Motivation–Hygiene theory
was adopted to understand the factors that motivate teachers when using
technology for teaching and learning. The consumption of technology consents a
well collaborative classroom learning experience resulting in an increased
student engagement. A teacher becomes an important part of the entire teaching-
learning activity with the focus on achieving the desired results. A teacher
communicates the beliefs about the purpose and the processes related to
learning, which has an impact on the students’ attitudes.
The motivation theorists concluded that students’ response is different to
the classrooms focused on “task-oriented learning” and the one focused on the
“ability oriented” learning. The students are motivated and put in more effort in
the classroom, which is focused on the “task-oriented learning.” The teachers
should be driven to create more “task-oriented learning classrooms,” and the
implementation of technology can help them design such interactions, which
benefits the students. A teachers’ goal orientation and achievement orientation

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decide the use of technology and new pedagogical methods. The teachers’
motivation to use technology in teaching is influenced by the satisfaction derived
from using ICTs, sense of achievement obtained by engaging in the professional
activities, responsibility and fulfillment of individual expectations.
In most cases, the utilization of technology in teaching is a means, not an
end. As such, it is important that students and teachers do not have to devote an
abundant apportion of time on discovering how to use educational technologies,
or on making the technologies work. For Bates (2020), the exclusions of course
are where technology is the area of study, such as computer science or
engineering, or where learning the use of software tools is important for some
aspects of the curriculum, for instance computer-aided design in architecture,
spreadsheets in business studies, and geographical information systems in
geology. In most cases, though, the purpose of the study is not to learn how to use
a particular piece of educational technology, but the study of history,
mathematics, or biology.
The implementation of ICT in higher education is reliant on many factors,
including the motivation level of the teachers, the infrastructure provided to the
teachers, training programs conducted to use technology, the attitude of the
teachers, their self-belief and the social influence (SI). For Schepers and Wetzels,
(2007),thebehavioral intention (BI) which is described as a feeling to adopt and
use a particular model plays an integral role in the use of ICT in the curriculum.
There are a number of research studies to support that BI is one of the significant

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predictors in the use of technology. It has also been used by researchers to
explain the BIs to use technology in different contexts, including education and
teaching. The enthusiasm to use technology depends on whether it is easy to use
and suitable for the teaching process.
For Wigfield and Eccles (2000), the expectancy-value theory of
achievement motivation mentions that an individual’s choice, persistence and
performance is explained by their beliefs about how well they perform an action
which is expected and to the extent they value the activity. In a study conducted
by Al-Emran et al. (2018) the TAM was studied with reference to the mobile
learning adoption by the students and the teachers’ adoption of technology in
higher education has been studied through meta-analytic structural equation
modeling approach. The findings of the study confirmed that perceived
usefulness and PEOU explain the users’ behavior for computing technology in
higher education in Norway. Teachers’ motivation to adopt technology, Teo
(2011) concluded that the pre-service teachers’ perceived effectiveness of e-
learning for teaching and learning is one of the constructs of their intention to
use technology.
Arteaga Sánchez et al. (2013) investigated the factors that determine the
acceptance of the WebCT learning system among the students. The study
included six constructs, which assesses the learning system usage in terms of
computer SE; technical support; attitude; perceived usefulness; PEOU and the
system usage. The main reasons associated with the teachers’ decision to utilize

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or not to utilize ICT are related to their attitudes. Teachers’ attitude either
positive or negative effect has an impact on how they employ and adopt the
technology The authors found that perceived usefulness by the respondents
directly affects the usage of WebCT and the PEOU has an indirect impact on the
usage of WebCT.
Skills Access
ICT competence is defined as being able to handle a wide range of varying
technologies for various purposes. According to Prestride (2012), ICT aided
teaching is the most appropriate skill required of a teacher, unfortunately, it is
the least possessed by many. This may be because it is barely been part of their
training course. Prestride (2012) outlined some of ICT packages required of a
secondary school teacher as data processing, word processing, use of internet, use
of spreadsheet, use of presentation software like PowerPoint and e-mail. These
ICT packages are important to teachers because they assist in creating lesson
plans, analysing and setting students’ tests, acquiring new knowledge and
presenting lesson in a clear way among others.
According to Bordbar (2015), teachers’ computer competence is a major
predictor of integrating ICT in teaching. According to Al-Oteawi (2012), majority
of teachers who reported negative or neutral attitude towards the integration of
ICT into teaching and learning processes lacked knowledge and skills that would
allow them to make “informed decision”. A study by Peralta, and Costa (2017)

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suggested that teachers with more experience with computers have greater
confidence in their ability to use them effectively. To conclude, Jones (2015)
reported that teachers competence relates directly to confidence. Teachers’
confidence also relates to their perceptions of their ability to use computers in the
classroom, particularly in relation to their children’s perceived competence.
A very important determinant of teachers’ levels of engagement in ICT is
their level of confidence in using the technology. Teachers who have little or no
confidence in using computers in their work will try to avoid them altogether.
According to BECTA (2004), much of the research proposes that this is a major
barrier to the uptake of ICT by teachers in the classroom. Some studies have
explored the reasons for teachers’ lack of confidence with the use of ICT. Beggs
(2010) asserted that teachers’ “fear of failure” caused a lack of confidence.
On the other hand, Balanskat et al., (2016) discovered that limitations in
teachers’ ICT knowledge makes them feel anxious about using ICT in the
classroom and thus not confident to use it in their teaching. Many teachers who
do not consider themselves to be well skilled in using ICT feel anxious about
using it in front of a class of children who perhaps know more than they do. On
the other hand, teachers who confidently use technologies in their classrooms
understand the usefulness of ICT. Cox et al. (2015) established that teachers who
have confidence in using ICT identify that technologies are helpful in their
teaching and personal work and they need to extend their use further in the
future.

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Digital Utilization
Digital technologies offer a channel that can drive forward the
personalization agenda. In fact, they can drive forward both of the contrasting
approaches to personalization. They can generate structured learning agenda and
central control of learning through resources such as a Virtual Learning
Environment (VLE) and support the ambitions of the high-performance learning
institution. On the other hand, they can also support the student-centered
approach by offering learners greater opportunity to plan their own learning and
explore the almost unlimited sources available.
For Banyard (2015), the question then concerns the impact of these two
approaches. Sharples (2010) pointed out that digital technologies are personal,
user centered, networked, ubiquitous and durable, and that these are the key
qualities (by different names) of lifelong, personalized learning. There are clear
benefits of digital technologies for learning. For example, they are motivating for
learners, and their value is recognized in numerous reports. However, there is an
argument that the optimistic rhetoric that supports educational use of digital
technologies is overblown and short of evidence.
A further challenge comes from concerns about how digital technologies
are used in learning. For example, Harris et al. (2009) argued that current use of

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technologies tends to be focused on skills required by teachers to integrate them
into their classroom, rather than students’ learning needs. Most digital
technologies in use in the classroom were not created as educational tools but
have been adopted by educators for pedagogical purposes. The affordances of
these facilities or devices are not defined by their features but by the way they are
adapted and used.
McLoughlin and Lee (2015) give the example of blogging which involves
the skills of typing and editing which are not affordances in themselves but allow
other
affordances of sharing and interaction. They go on to suggest that we observe the
following affordances in social software; connectivity and social rapport,
collaborative information discovery and sharing, content creation and knowledge
information aggregation. This breadth of affordances that digital technologies
offer brings new challenges for educators because they are not sufficient for
effective learning to take place. To facilitate learning using digital technologies, it
is necessary for educators to develop an understanding of what these
technologies can offer.
Digital Receptiveness
There is an enormous body of research about using digital technology in
schools, in classrooms and among teachers and students, but often these studies
focus on only one or two phenomena of education and technology, thus isolating

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the object of study from the broader context of a school. Wikeley et.al. (2015)
found out that unless a more inclusive view is adopted in the efforts of developing
a school, there is little chance of innovation programs having any lasting. Wong
and Li (2011) investigated the connection between information and
communication technology (ICT) implementation and pedagogical change. They
decided that organizational interventions and pedagogical interventions
interacted with each other in effecting changes in student learning.
Korhonen et al. (2014) presented an inventive school community model,
which talks the development of four elements: students’ learning and learning
environments, teachers’ professionalism, leadership and partnerships, as central
to the advancement of educational innovation related to versatile use of digital
technology. The model is general, which leaves considerable room for
interpretation in examining how current practices in a school should be evaluated
and improved.
The attention in the present study was in discovering the critical elements
to be considered and the development processes needed in schools for reforming
school education. The precise focus was on the use of digital technology: how new
digital technology has been applied and how it could be used to improve
pedagogical and knowledge practices.
School is a complex object to study: it consists of various executive levels,
from the national policy level to classrooms; various actors, such as school staff

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and pupils inside a school as well as parents and local school administrators
outside a school; contradictory aims, such as aiming to ensure pertinent
capability levels for pupils in the future, but concurrently, conveying on the
traditions and history of society. For the intricacy of a school as a research object,
the theoretical background for the present study is multifaceted: research about
school improvement, research about innovation, research about pedagogical
practices, especially the collaborative knowledge creation traditions and studies
about digital technologies in education.
The motive for leaving the external administration outside the approach of
the study was sensible: we wanted to produce a model for schools for their own
use, to reflect and improve those practices that they are able to change
themselves. An individual school can seldom affect upper-level administrative
decisions, but schools always possess some autonomy to make changes in the
work of teachers and pupils.
As Lemke (2001) emphasized, edifying researchers should be explicit
about the level of phenomena and the primary unit of analysis that the
investigation is focusing on, but also be aware of the influence of the phenomena
at upper and lower levels. Leclerc et al. (2012) investigated individual principals
and teachers and made school-level conclusions based on these data. This was
similar to work by Peck et al. (2009) when they were investigating innovations in
schools.

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Digital Literacy
Digital literacy is the ability to find, evaluate, organize, use, and
communicate information in all its various arrangements, most particularly in
situations requiring decision making, problem solving, or the acquisition of
knowledge. In a published article in Skyline College Journal (2021), digital
literacy is a combination of research skills, critical thinking skills, computer
technology skills, and communication skills. Information literacy is essential for
academic success, effective functioning in the workplace, and participation in
society as knowledgeable citizens.
The Association of College & Research Libraries defines digital literacy as a
set of integrated abilities surrounding the philosophical discovery of information,
the perception of how information is produced and valued and the use of
information in creating new knowledge and participating ethically in
communities of learning.
The 1989 American Library Association (ALA) Presidential Committee on
Information Literacy formally defined digital literacy (DL) as attributes of an
individual, stating that a person, to be considered an information literate, must
be able to recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate,
evaluate and use effectively the needed information.

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The Alexandria Proclamation of 2005 defined the term as a human rights
issue:
"Digital literacy empowers people in all

walks of life to seek, evaluate, use and create
information effectively to achieve their
personal, social, occupational and educational
goals. It is a basic human right in a digital
world and promotes social inclusion in all
nations."
The United States National Forum on Information Literacy defined digital
literacy as the capacity to know when there is a need for information, to be able to
identify, locate, evaluate, and effectively use that information for the issue or
problem at hand. A number of other efforts have been made to better define the
concept and its relationship to other skills and forms of literacy. Other
educational outcomes related to information literacy include traditional
literacy, computer literacy, research skills and critical thinking skills. Digital
literacy as a sub-discipline is an incipient topic of interest and counter measure
among educators and librarians with the beginning of misinformation, fake news,
and disinformation.
Academicians have argued that, in order to maximize people's
contributions to a democratic and pluralistic society, educators should be
challenging governments and the business sector to support and fund
educational initiatives in information literacy.

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Wastiau et al. (2013) surveyed the importance of digital literacy in schools.
The investigation analyzed thirty-one European countries, finding teachers
mainly
used ICT to prepare for lessons, and rarely used ICT in the classroom. In
addition, the study mentioned the importance of improving ICT use at school to
reduce the gap between home and school for students. Therefore, in the study it
was important when assessing the ICT competence to include the skills and
attitude of the teachers and students.
The Importance of Digital Equity in Education
Resta & Laferriere (2015) posited that government initiatives aimed to
equip classrooms and build teacher capability in technology use encounter
acceptance, sustainability and scalability challenges. Among all these issues, the
most precarious challenge is meeting digital equity among students, teachers,
and administrations. For ICTs to empower education, there is a need to launch
policies and initiatives that provide students and teachers with equitable access
to digital technologies.
While universities and other higher education institutes are considered as
the key sources of skilled workforce upon which a knowledge society is built, the
significance of ICT becomes more intense in universities to help build a
knowledge

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society, making faculty’s ICT access an important area of investigation. Such
investigations carry even more importance in emerging countries such as
Pakistan,
given the higher prevalence of the digital divide problem in their contexts. Apart
from the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan’s ICT initiatives to
strengthen the quality, productivity, and efficiency of academic and research
activities in Pakistani universities highlighted in its own reports, there is not
sufficient literature available which provides much evidence on technology
practices in the universities of the country.
Teachers’ Experiences on Digital Divide
Historically, the digital divide has been examined, discussed, investigated,
and researched for years. The term first emerged in a report by the U.S.
Department of Commerce in 1996 and was utilized to describe a divide between
the “haves” and the “have nots,” those who did or did not own a computer. For
Dolan (2017) the digital divide focused on access to technology. Today, the digital
divide can encompass frequent characteristics of computer access, including
differences in software, broadband, various demographic groups, and if access is
used as a producer or a consumer. In recent years, reviews regarding the digital
divide have started to focus on computer users’ proficiency with technology and
the differences among those who possess the knowledge to utilize computers and
the Internet to their greatest capacity and those who do not.

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The digital gap is authentic and has serious life-long implications. Many
low-income students are powerless to access the tools that are often necessary to
succeed in and outside of the classroom. For McLaughlin(2016), there are
countless ways that an absence of internet access can affect a student’s academic
presentation. Students without the internet cannot make connections with
teachers or classmates, complete research, or access online homework help. For
parents and families, absence of internet access can often mean missing out on
information or losing out on a direct line of communication with schools and
teachers.
In a recent study, Valadez and Duran (2017) theorized that the digital
divide characterizes the technology gap between the rich and the poor, but the
authors experienced the term was naive in depicting the maximum impact of the
digital divide. While the digital divide, as a broad concept, defined the division
between individuals who have access to technology and those who do not, the
digital divide also describes inequalities in technology and learning.
Researchers in higher education have widened the explanation of the
digital divide to replicate the disparities in access to information and technology
across the variables of race, ethnicity, income, education, and gender. For
Mossberger, Tolbert, & Stansbury (2013), several aspects are involved in these
disparities, including access, skills, economic opportunity, and democracy. The
access divide denotes to whether an individual has home access to a computer,

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internet, and email and whether access is available outside of the home, at work,
school, the library, or the home of a friend or relative. For example, the individual
may not have access at home or school, but may have access at their public
library branch.
The skills divide denotes the individual’s level of technological and
information literacy competence. For example, does the individual know how to
find a specialist for a medical condition? Can the individual use word processing
software to write a letter? The economic opportunity divide refers to the
individual beliefs about computers and economic advancement. The democratic
divide gauges the attitudes and experiences of individuals concerning the
relationship of information technology to their political principles or actions,
In the United States, studies of the digital divide now focus more on the
global picture and what is happening in third-world countries. Consequently,
fewer U.S. resources, projects, and programs are addressing the digital divide
Carvin (2016) said that U.S. government squandering to close the digital divide
has decreased. For example, government funding for education technology grants
to the states was expected to be cut from $279 million to zero for the 2008 fiscal
year.
Digital divide research started with the observation of the number and
categories of persons who have a computer and network connection at their
disposal. This is a case of having a particular technological opportunity. The
technological orientation of this early digital divide research led to the

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equalization of media or technology access with physical access. Currently, the
majority of this research still focuses on physical access. Some have extended the
concept of access for this purpose; others have added the concepts of (digital)
skills or competencies and media or technology use and applications. Here, a
model that extends the concept of access wa used as a framework to reveal the
main achievements of digital divide research.
The succession of types of access that characterizes this model was
validated in multivariate research. This succession is elaborated because media or
technology access should be seen as a process with many social, mental and
technological causes and not as a single event of obtaining a particular
technology. For Bucy and Newhagen (2014), material access is preceded by
motivational access and succeeded by skills access and usage access. When the
full process of technology appropriation is completed, according to this ideal
scheme, a new innovation arrives and the process starts again, wholly or partly.
Teachers’ Challenges on Digital Divide
For a lesson to be successful, a teacher must not only control the
knowledge on best practice in delivering the content, but be apparent in how the
content and pedagogical knowledge interrelate within the classroom. Shulman
(1986) examined this point three decades ago, and called it Pedagogical 8
Content Knowledge (PCK). The PCK was expanded by Koehler and Mishra
(2009) who integrated Technology Knowledge as a third knowledge domain that

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teachers should possess. The framework model then became known as the
Technological, Pedagogical, and Content Knowledge framework (TPACK). The
framework encourages a teacher in effectively integrating ICT with purpose and
value, promoting meaningful use of ICT, stressing that not all use of the
technology will have a beneficial impact.
Robertson (2011) posited that the causes that appear to affect the
effectiveness in the use of ICT by the teacher are technology access, teacher
competence and appropriate preparation. He found that the lack of meaningfully
technology use in classrooms indicates a need for increased teacher preparation.
He expressed that using technology meaningfully was a necessary ingredient for
increasing student motivation, learning and engagement. Using technology
meaningful would require planning and preparation by the teacher. Teacher
preparation was further explored by Males (2014), whose research found that the
creation of a digital repository such as Learning Management System or Google
Drive for classes was an effective tool in aiding a teacher to implement a 1:1
device into the classroom.
According to Johnson et al. (2013), when integrating ICT into the
classroom there is a wide range of tools available for teachers to. The realizations
of how these tools are used and integrated into the curriculum by the teacher
differ in the degree to which they are meaningful for learning. Laliberte (2019)
investigated the idea of how teachers could incorporate educational technology

l
tools to improve the learning of the students. His research established some
variety in the integration of technology, which was primarily projects, internet
research, and differentiated instruction methods. Similarly, Sipilä (2011)
initiated that educational organizations have not developed in parallel with
technological advances; teachers in basic education are still using ICT mainly for
informational, organizational,
evaluative, and lesson planning activities.
Canada Newswire (2012) revealed a significant difference between
teachers and students in motivation when teachers used the ‘usual’ tools
(presentation software and email) on a daily basis. They considered these tools
ineffective for learning by the teachers; nevertheless, the students stated that the
more useful the technology, the more significant the lesson was in learning.
Therefore, the selection of technology by the teacher is important, and must
engage meaningful learning of the students within the classroom.
The study by Lei and Zhao (2017) demonstrated that not all ICT use has a
beneficial impact on teacher learning. The research found well-accepted
technologies used by teachers such as, ‘surfing’ the Internet, emailing friends and
word-processing for notes probably had little beneficial impact on student
academic performance. The educational technologies that did have a positive
outcome (meaningful use) on student achievement were the least popular by the
students.

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Even though teachers may be willing to use ICT, MacDonald (2018)
recognized that barriers can exist that restrain teachers in the use of ICT through,
filtering, blocking, limited access to computers, poor infrastructure and
bandwidth. The funding of teacher training enhanced support in the use of ICT
resources and infrastructure, and provided support in the use of ICT for the
curriculum. However, with the majority of the focus being on hardware
implementation, Hunter (2013), posited that schools have invested enough in the
professional development of teachers to use the technology effectively. With the
improvement of the ICT infrastructure, other factors have been highlighted as
possible barriers.
Tondeur, van Keer, van Braak, and Valcke (2018) established barriers that
could affect the Meaningful Use of ICT. These barriers were ICT planning,
support and training, which had a significant effect on the use of ICT, and school
policies that were often weak and underutilized in this area. Mumtaz (2010)
acknowledged other barriers that could prevent teachers from using ICT
effectively. These barriers were the ICT experience of the teacher, onsite support
for teachers, supervision of students while using ICT, lack of ICT specialized
teachers and the time required to integrate technology into the curriculum and
financial support.
Teachers’ Recommendations on Digital Divide

lii
Time and resources have to be devoted by schools into the decisive
professional development of teachers’ ICT Skills. The speculations cannot be a
quick fix, but a long-term efficient school approach that initially assesses the ICT
Skills of the students and the teachers of the school. Allowing schools to tailor
specific professional development to the requirements of the individual teacher is
helpful.
The study of Grigg (2016) demonstrated the varied range in ICT Skills of
the teacher. The study has suggested a link between teacher ICT Competence and
Meaningful Use of ICT in the classroom. The research was partial to one private
secondary school; therefore, further research could be instigated into widening
the sample range to include coeducational schools, primary as well as other
secondary schools. The larger sample range would improve the cross sectioning
of the sample range, providing additional insight into the extent of the Digital
Divide and meaningfulness in the uses of ICT across all sectors of schools.
The instruments used to gauge the teachers, and students’ ICT
Competence could be adapted specifically to a schools’ future ICT plan.
Supplementary research could then be decided on using the data from the ICT
Skills of the teacher and student to create specific individual learning conduit for
the teachers of the school. Once the teachers had completed the individual
pathway, they would then re-analyse the data to observe if any difference had
occurred with the Digital Divide and the Meaningful Use of ICT in the classroom.

liii
Assessment of these results would then be pre-required and a post study to
detect if the personalized learning of the teacher had improved the Meaningful
Use of ICT usage in the classroom. The study conducted by Groff (2013) has
demonstrated that the ICT competence of the teacher, when compared with the
competence of his/ her students, is likely to have an effect on the Meaningful Use
of ICT in the classroom. Higher levels of the Meaningful Use of ICT were
apparent when the Digital Divide was in favor of the teacher.
However, even when the Digital Divide was in approval of the teacher, the
rating of the Meaningful Use of ICT was only at the Developing level. Further
research would benefit schools in understanding how to support teachers to
improve the use of ICT in the classroom. The findings of this study would suggest
that a first step in improving the use of ICT in classrooms would be to ensure
teachers have a level of ICT competence at least proportionate with the average
student in their classes. To realize this, ongoing professional learning and
support for all teachers would be required.
Teachers’ Experiences on Digital Literacy
Technological development the world over has instructed curriculum
planners and practitioners to integrate the use of digital tools in school
curriculum implementation, For Prensky (2016), the use of digital tools for
teaching different subjects and for research is a global phenomenon, and
progressive schools are making efforts to improve their digital infrastructure in

liv
order to enhance their teaching. In an educational context, digital literacies are
nearly always concerned with improving critical thinking relating to subject
understanding.
As Future Lab (2018) put it in their work, they are concerned with
‘research and evidence on developing digital literacy and digital participation in
the classroom and for them ‘digital literacy means knowing how technology and
media affect the ways in which we go about finding things out, communicating
with one another, and gaining knowledge and understanding’. Appropriately
designed digital technologies, can enable a more critical understanding of
subjects and disciplines than that afforded by information literacy alone.
Digital literacy as a separate precept of education is difficult to perceive,
understand and assess. Some researchers have made an effort to meet these
challenges by creating a comprehensive framework for digital literacy. Eshet-
Alkalai’s (2014) specified digital literacy framework includes five types of literacy
skills: photo-visual literacy, reproduction literacy, information literacy,
branching literacy, and socio-emotional literacy.
Moersch (2016) fashioned the Levels of Technology Implementation
(LoTi) framework used to assess technology integration levels of educators. This
has been adapted into a new version titled the 16 LoTi Digital-Age Survey, which
is based on the levels of teaching innovation framework. It is used to determine
the teaching innovation levels of educators. The Partnership for 21st Century

lv
Skills framework includes an Information, Media, and Technology Skills
subframework as one of four key elements. The other elements are Core Subjects
and 21st Century Themes, Learning and Innovation Skills and Life and Career
Skills. Although the Partnership separates the elements for discussion and
assessment purposes, it presents all components as fully interconnected and a
part of the larger process of teaching and learning in a 21st century environment.
Gilster (1997), one of the first scholars to use the term “digital literacy”,
says it can also be viewed as a positive attitude and awareness by teachers and
learners to use digital tools appropriately in an effort to access, integrate,
evaluate, synthesize and analyze digital information resources as well as co-
constructing and extending knowledge boundaries in the educational arena. He
further identified four key competences, namely assembling knowledge,
evaluating information, searching, and navigating non-linear routes in order to
discover patterns and relationships. Assembling knowledge involves
accumulating constitutive data and processing it by intellectual procedures into
meaningful and usable units. Evaluation information involves accreditation,
authentication and relating to diverse situations and contexts.
In support of the above views, Gallardo-Echenique, De Olivera, Marque-
Molias and Esteeve-Mon (2015) say that digital literacy is a convergence of
several literacies including elements of ICT literacy, information literacy, media
literacy and visual literacy. In the circumstance of township secondary schools,

lvi
the set of skills and practices involving digital tools create English learning
opportunities and access to content knowledge by learners in the digital age.
According to Rokenes & Krumsvik (2016) digital literacy covers an
awareness, attitude, and ability of individuals to appropriately use digital tools to
identify, manage, access, integrate, create media expressions, communicate with
fellow learners, analyze, evaluate, construct new structures of knowledge, and
enable constructive social action.
Lankshear, Green, and Snyder (2015) asserted that literacy education
carries on to involve students learning and using old skills, but applying them in
new ways using innovative technologies and new media. There is currently no
requirement that teachers demonstrate that they are digitally literate and capable
of applying those skills utilizing 21st century technologies.
Monroe (2014) called for an essential pedagogy for the digital age.
According to her, the digital literacy issues facing those non-white poor students
on, what she calls “the other side” of the digital divide. Monroe says that the
majority of these issues revolve around merging writing theory and pedagogy
with nonwhite, indigenous people. As areas on the other side of the digital divide
become engrossed in electronic media, the impact of technology on This short of
a digital voice in the developing digital spaces marginalizes the ethnically diverse.
Some of this responsibility to narrow the digital literacy disparities that lead to
digital divides inherently falls on teachers, thus, it falls on College of Education

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(COE) faculty to teach candidates how to best integrate technology into their
learning designs as a means of action oriented critical pedagogy and as a part of
the process of becoming innovative teachers.
Teachers’ Challenges on Digital Literacy
Challenges exist to teacher planning integrating digital literacy in the
process. Dever & Lash (2013) stated that poor administrative supports, lack of
time, and additional school schedules are three main barriers to teacher.
Moreover, unpredictable events, such as when administrators change the daily
school schedule, challenge teacher planning. When this occurs, teachers must
adjust their schedules and time according to their administrators’ request to
accommodate additional school activities such as aligning test schedules,
completing paperwork, or organizing synchronous and asynchronous classes.
These interruptions force teachers to take into account what students would miss
when such adjustments are made and plan when to include missed lessons.
Additionally, lack of guidance and support from the school’s administration
create challenges to teachers’ literacy.
Collaborative involvement in planning can assist teachers in making
decisions about instructional materials and classroom resources, as well as in
creating schedules to improve instruction and schooling for their students. In
addition, when teachers and administrators’ come together to solve shared
problems teachers are empowered and develop a sense of autonomy in their

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teaching. While planning is a significant component to effective instruction there
is a shortage of studies that examine planning for technology integration.
Hutchison and Colwell (2016) assert that when planning to integrate technology,
it is important to consider the academic content first and then select digital tools
that align with that content and their pedagogical goals.
Similarly, Gormley and McDermott (2013) conducted a case study that
examined the structure of lessons when teachers planned to integrate digital
literacies. The participants were 12 teachers attending graduate school who were
participating in an afterschool practicum over a six-week period. Students in the
program were struggling readers and writers. The researchers were interested in
the structural elements of an after-school digital literacies program. The lessons
the teachers 37 planned included lesson openings, which was a challenging
question related to the instructional theme.
The second structural element of teachers’ lessons was a focus on the
students’ fluency. During this part of the lesson, the students assessed their
fluency by recording their reading on the Audacity website. Then, they had the
students create graphic panels using the website Kerpoorf. Teacher highlighted
that thinking and planning the lessons provided opportunities for them to learn
how to integrate these literacies into their teaching. In addition, the findings
suggested that the digital literacies emphasized the social nature of learning, and
that almost all children worked collaboratively as they read, composed and
searched the Internet for information.

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According to Pahomov (2014), teachers’ active participation in the digital
environment improves their digital competence levels, thereby developing
solutions to real-life problems. For Moodley (2013), critical thinking involves the
ability to carry out logical, mental constructions clearly and rationally, explore
problems, integrate all available information, and arrive at a hypothesis or
solution through systematic means. In his study the concept of digital tools refers
to critical thinking support tools that can be used to make logical relationships
and interpret data for possible options to human problems.
Digital literacy includes the ability to read, interpret, analyse and write
comprehensible textual matter for communication, transfer, storage and retrieval
in English learning contexts. Newlands and Handley (2016) view digital literacy
in formal learning contexts as being subject related, but also view it as a learning
skill that needs to be taught and supported.
In a study conducted by Rwodzi (2018) on South Africa’s digital literacy
experiences in English language teaching, he found that tertiary education in
South Africa faces many challenges. In general, students who enter tertiary
institutions lack proper preparation for the academic courses they enrol for.
Jaffer-N’gambi and Czerniewicz (2007) state that a lack of computer skills,
integration of learning experiences with ICTs and previously attained constructs
of knowledge, and an incapacity to engage with learning material at a higher
cognitive level, are common problems among students.

lx
In view of the challenge mentioned, a number of studies have been carried
out on digital literacy and teacher competence, but this exploration focuses on
initiatives by teachers as they adapt to the digital literacy in English and its
pedagogy. Even though technology cannot address all the educational challenges
faced by learning institutions and individuals, it has the potential to widen
conventional English teaching and learning activities under certain
circumstances.
Thanasoulas (2001) contended that students who do not come from
suitable educational backgrounds are unable to accurately understand and
interpret information that is presented to them through technology. For
computer technology to support cognitive functions and encourage higher
learning outcomes, teachers have a duty to reconceptualise the way digital tools
are used in the integration of theory and practice.
Semi-structured interviews conducted by Rwodzi (2018) revealed that
some participants lack skills in teaching digital literacy because they do not have
access to training facilities. This lack of skill is particularly common for teachers
who have been teaching for some time and who did not receive any formal
training on the teaching of digital literacy in secondary schools. The fact that
digital literacy is not formally examined in any subjects except Computer
Applications Technology

lxi
(CAT) makes it optional for teachers to focus on teaching it in class. Despite the
above-mentioned situation, young participants in this study raised concerns over
the use of abbreviated language, emoticons and images common on the social
media.
According to Humphrey (2017), teachers’ concern about cyber linguistics
is about the pillaging, savaging, and wrecking of the purity of the English
language. Participants also raised issues of cyber bullying, shortage of digital
devices and 166 vandalism of digital equipment. The participants’ main concern
was that the content constructed and used for digital literacy practices was not
examined. The scarcity of computer technology in township secondary schools is
a serious threat to the teaching of digital literacy in English. The situation is
further exacerbated by school policies that forbid the use of cell phones during
classes.
Teachers’ Recommendations on Digital Literacy
A policy is designed to provide control and management techniques of a
system. While defining the term “policy” in general, in this study policy refers to
guidelines informed by legislation and traditional practices of groups, entities,
institutions, and government departments for their operations. In relation to the
focus of the study, Rwodzi (2018) recommended that the Department of Basic
Education should include pedagogical strategies to assist teachers in using and
teaching digital literacy related to English.

lxii
The policy on digital literacy pedagogics needs to be supported by training
that provides skills for all practicing English teachers. The policy should also
clearly point out how procurement of digital equipment in schools and use by
learners can be facilitated. The guidelines should empower teachers on how to
use digital literacy in the teaching of English.
The policy should prescribe the strategies and network connections to be
used. It should be more explicit on the strategies and provide detailed description
of the process. In this way standardization will be attained and teachers could
benchmark their teaching and use of digital literacy on some level. The policy
should be amended from time to time in order to shape teacher and learner
relationships and participation in cyberspace.
In support of the policy, monitoring tools and annual evaluation reports
should be submitted in order to monitor progress on development and challenges
in the implementation strategy of digital literacy. The current position on the use
and teaching of digital literacy makes it optional for teachers to participate
because it is not assessed at the end of the academic program.
In one of the researches on teacher resilience, it is understood that as an
adjustment to varied situations and an improvement of competence in the face of
adverse conditions, teachers try to improve their digital literacies. Windle (2010)
defines resilience as the process of effectively negotiating, adapting to, or
managing significant sources of stress or trauma. Teachers’ adaptation to new
methods and paradigms in teaching and adjusting to classrooms with audio

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visual material is part of resilience. In this study, resilience in English teaching
needs to be studied in order to make a pragmatic affiliation to digital literacy. The
inclusion of teacher resilience in her research is a challenge to understand
teachers’ initiatives to adapt to new methodologies.
According to Blau, Peled & Nusan (2016), digital literacy in the English
intellectual puzzle consists of digital tools, subject content knowledge, adaptation
to new learning and teaching material and the pedagogic content knowledge. It
was the inadequacy and lack of authentic pedagogic strategies that prompted me
to explore teachers’ initiatives as part of their resilience to teach digital literacy in
resource-constrained public schools.
Intervention Program
When teachers of young children do have the opportunity for some lived
interaction with students—over videoconference, for example—researchers
suggested sticking to the kind of explicit, systematic instruction that has been
proven effective for teaching how to read words in an in-person setting. But
many teachers won’t have the same amount of face-to-face time that they’ve had
in previous years, and schools say they’re relying more on digital tools. In a
nationally representative EdWeek Research Center survey, 63 percent of
educators involved in K-2 reading said that they or the teachers they work with

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are using tech-based reading programs somewhat or much more frequently than
they were before the school shutdowns.
The survey also asked which core and supplemental programs respondents
had used to teach students how to read during remote learning. Two of the most
popular resources were digital programs that target lessons to students based on
the specific skills they need practice with: Lexia and iReady. In general, most
research on technology-based programs for teaching early reading has looked at
how effective these programs are in combination with classroom teaching.
One 2013 review from education researchers Alan C.K. Cheung of the
Chinese University of Hong Kong and Robert Slavin of Johns Hopkins University
looked at 20 studies spanning students in grades 1-6. The strongest effect sizes
came from studies in which teachers worked with students in smallgroup
settings, using technology that was closely aligned to their curriculum. Cheung
and Slavin found a smaller positive effect for stand-alone supplemental
programs, like Lexia. On the whole, though, the average effect size across all
studies was much stronger for younger students (grades 1-3) than older students.
Other papers have also made the case that teacher implementation,
unsurprisingly, plays a big role in reading program effectiveness. Two meta
analyses, from 2012 and 2014, both found that programs that included teacher
training and support were more effective than those that did not. (These papers
included studies with a range of K-12 students, though, not just young learners.)

lxv
It is hard to know how effective digital reading programs will be if students
are working through them at home. These programs are designed to be a part of,
or a complement to, in-person instruction. The effectiveness could be
compromised, and there’s also the potential for students to feel isolated and
withdraw from learning, said Timothy Shanahan, a professor emeritus at the
University of Illinois at Chicago and an author of the National Reading Panel
report. “Trying to stretch these [programs] to be more than they are, more than
intended, might be OK, but I’m worried about it,” he said.
Synthesis
The related literatures used and cited in this study proved to be helpful in
the outcomes of the research. From most theses, dissertations and journals,
including the retrieved articles from the internet, valuable insights, concepts and
ideas can be drawn, which may prove or disapprove the researcher’s own
perception and views.
One such work is that of Grigg (2016), where the effects of digital divide
between students and teachers as regard to the meaningful use of technology
were discussed. His work emphasized whether digital divide existed, and if and
when, whether this affected the use of technology. This work was very much

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i
similar to that of the present study as the researcher proved that digital divide
does exist within and between the teachers of Manila.
Bates (2015) stated in his research that technologies’ role in education
goes back at least 2500 years. Oral communication was the earliest means of
education and over time, as various technologies have been developed,
technologies have increasingly been used to facilitate oral communication. This
was beneficial in the current study because it focused on the evolution of digital
technologies the difference was technology before was only used for
communication, the purpose of using technology nowadays is use
communication, online teaching and online learning.
For Pearson (2015) due to high demands of student achievement and
accountability, if teachers felt the use of technology had a positive outcome on
their students' learning it was more likely they would integrate it into their
practice. It was similar to the present study because online learning somehow
brings good effects in teaching-learning process like catching students’ attention,
applying PowerPoint animations and using lesson videos. Using innovations in
online teaching makes online learning more interesting and enhances students
learning.
The present study was comparable to Banks (2017) research since changes
in technology enable teachers to access information on a global scale through the
Internet to improve their learning on using digital technologies and students use

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Internet resources to enrich learning experiences. The current study, on the other
hand, focused on teacher's use of digital technologies in teaching.
The study of Laurillard (2012) had similarities to the current study since it
also addressed the strong relationship between education and technology.
Laurillard’s study recognized technologies as being important drivers for
education, even though most technologies used in education have not been
specifically developed for educational purposes.
Wright (2015) focused on improving the way pupils are taught, it is
important that students learn to use computers to improve their work and
prepare for careers in a world where computers have been as a common as the
pencil and paper. It is similar to the current study because the focus of both
research is on technology, the difference is the respondents of the study. Wright
(2020) used learners as the respondents while the current study will be using
teachers to know their experiences and challenges in using digital technologies.
Gaffney’s (2010) research was important in this study because it addressed
the complex decision-process for teachers’ considerations in adopting
technological innovations. Teachers’ decisions were influenced by their
personality, experiences, professional knowledge, and relationships. The current
study also wants to know the teacher’s experiences and personal skills in using
digital technologies under the new normal.

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Ottestad’s (2013) research focused on correlations between the attitude
and behavior of the school leader regarding the use of digital technologies in the
school and the attitude and behavior of the teachers regarding the use of digital
technologies. It follows that the perspectives of school leaders on technical
infrastructure and support influence their leadership and vision for the
educational use of technologies. These factors in turn became important for the
development and encouragement of teachers' educational practice using digital
technologies. It was important in this study because the output of this research
was the basis for digitalization intervention program. It was different in a way
that digitalization today should not only depend on the decision and personal
perception of leaders. It is a must for the department to have digitalization
intervention program to address teachers’ experiences and challenges in using
digital technologies.
However, the present study contrasted with some of the works and studies
conducted by various researchers. For instance, Yousef and Dajani’s (2014) study
revealed the benefits accrued to the teachers who participated in a professional
learning community. They investigated a group of Palestinian English language
teachers’ views of collaborative learning communities and the impact of these
learning circles on their instructional practices. They found that collaborative
learning communities offered the teachers not only the chance to observe,
examine, and reflect on their own learning but their colleagues’ practices, as well.
Hence, their effective collaboration necessitated more than physical togetherness

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among teachers. Furthermore, their collaborative learning community led to
deeper learning and offered opportunities for them to help one another find
alternative solutions for their instructional problems. Moreover, the teachers
reported that participating in the learning circles improved their ability to talk
about their practice and their confidence and cultivated a culture of collaboration
and learning among the members of the group.
In contrast with the above-mentioned research, the present research
posited that though collaboration among teachers is important and vital to the
educational field, the researcher speculated the role of self-management and
learning in the digital world. Digital literacy, though may be taught and learned
with others, involved also self-training through different factors of motivations.
Theoretical Foundation
This study was anchored on the Theory of Digital Divide postulated by Jan
van Dijk (2013). He developed a framework that hypothesized that there is an
economic and social gap between the population of a nation and their access to
technologies pertaining to information and communication. The economic the
inequality increases in the macro economy that extends to regions within a nation
– between nations, geographic areas and demographic areas.
The theory of the digital divide of Jan A.G.M. van Dijk was developed over
a ten-year period, culminating in its full and mature presentation and

lxx
explanation in book form. The core of the theory posits that inequalities of
personal position and background result in inequalities in resources for the
individual, which lead in turn to inequalities of access and finally to disparities in
participation by the individual in society. That participation in turn feeds back to
positional characteristics which forms a full feedback loop. The fundamental
assumption is that inequalities are perpetuated throughout the entire process of
accessing and using technologies in society.
The model steps are for the individual and imply time lags, although time
is not given formal prominence in the theory. The individual’s positional
characteristics are indicators known in the digital divide literature to be
influences on technology access and use. These characteristics for van Dijk theory
contribute to inequalities in digitally-related resources for persons. Personal
characteristics are posited also to influence resources. A person’s age, gender,
intelligence, and health can impact extent of resources. For instance, mental
(knowledge) resources available would be different for a young, intelligent,
healthy female versus an elderly, ill, and less intelligent male. The personal
characteristics similarly can contribute to amount of time available for digital
activities, for instance certain illnesses might limit time available.
The theory of van Dijk, modified from inequalities among combinations of
personal and positional categories impact the amounts of resources a person has.
Hence, the resources including time, material, social, cultural and knowledge-
mental, are also unequally distributed. In the theory, unequal resources

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combined with the unequal process of developing access led to the full factor of
access.
The access process steps are delimited in the theory as a circular process of
motivation for access, access to material hardware and software, developing ICT
skills and gaining access to usage. This feedback process takes place over time
and often through iterative steps. Finally, once overall access is achieved, almost
certainly with inequalities, access leads to societal impacts, which include
impacts on the economy, culture, politics, institutions, and through social
networks, and in geographical locations.
Van Dijk has developed a context for evaluating access that is supported by
a particular theory but that is also appropriate to serve as a stepping stone for an
unbiased elucidation of highlights of digital divide research in general because it
is so broad. Van Dijk calls his theory resources and appropriation theory. It is a
version of structuration theory (resources) and acceptance theory
(appropriation).
The core argument of the theory can be abridged in the following
statements: 1. Definite disparities in society produce an inadequate distribution
of resources. 2. An unequal distribution of resources causes unequal access to
digital technologies. 3. Disproportionate access to digital technologies also
depends on the characteristics of these technologies. 4. Disparate access to digital
technologies brings about unequal participation in society. 5. Unequal
participation in society reinforces categorical inequalities and unequal
distributions of resources.

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Conceptual Framework
In the educational context, digital technologies have drastically altered the
manner in which individuals acquire new information, resulting in information-
and knowledge-based societies. As such, the learning process has been
considerably revised by the new modes of meaning making and knowledge
gaining brought about by the emergence of such technologies. As a result,
thereof, the education sector has been radically transformed by the digital age in
numerous ways.
Insofar as digital technologies have the capacity to transform all sectors of
society, the efficient use of such technologies by individuals has the capacity to
change one’s life trajectories. One’s encounters with digital technologies may
affect his or her life outcomes in terms of educational advantages, future
employment and earnings, opportunities for social and civic involvement.
For Zubiri and Tomacruz (2016), access to ICTs may possibly influence
one’s educational outcomes in many ways. From improving teaching
performance to enhancing psychosocial aspects (confidence, self-esteem, and
self-efficacy) to enabling individuals to have higher objectives for their highest
educational attainment in their lifetime, access to digital technologies play a
significant role in directing one’s life pathways beginning with the experiences
they have with the use of ICT.

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The following figure shows the flow where the research went. The
graphical representation shows the experiences, challenges and
recommendations on digital divide and literacy as to access, utilization and
receptiveness. Through the findings of the research, an intervention program was
proposed to be used in schools to address teacher’s technological needs under the
new normal.
Teachers’ Digital Divide

and Literacy
Challenges in Recommendations
Experiences in digital divide and
digital divide and in digital divide
literacy: and literacy:
literacy:
 Access  Access
 Access >Material
>Material >Material
>Motivational >Motivational
>Motivational >Skills
>Skills >Skills
 Utilization  Utilization
 Utilization
 Receptiveness  Receptiveness
 Receptiveness
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iv
Figure 1.
A Research Paradigm on Exploring Teachers’ Digital Divide and Literacy: An

Intervention Program
Definition of Terms
The following terms are defined operationally for a better understanding
of this study:
Availability refers to opportunities for teachers to materially access different
digital technologies in teaching.
Challenges refer to the trials and tribulations teachers go through following the
use of digital devices.
Digital accessibility refers to the availability of tools, equipment and other
necessary gadgets which can be used in the teaching-learning process.
Digital Divide refers to the gap between teachers as regard to technological
know-how, usage, and accessibility.
Digital Receptiveness refers to the degree of responsiveness of teachers in the
use of technology.

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Digital Utilization refers to the ability of teachers to use and consume digital
technologies in education.
Experiences refer to the personal accounts of teachers as to the use of digital
technologies and devices, as well as knowledge and skills in using them.
Intervention Program is a series of activities done to address teachers’
problems and needs in using technology, as well as for their professional
development.
Internet Connectivity refers to ways that the technology used by the teachers
can connect to the internet. This is needed for online teaching,
communication, and attending online seminars for professional
development.
Literacy refers to the teachers’ skills and ability to find, evaluate, and
compose clear information through writing and other media on various
digital platforms. It is evaluated by the teachers’, composition, typing skills
and ability to produce text, images, audio and designs using technology
Material Access refers to the ability of teachers to gain access to internet-
connected devices such as, but not limited to laptops, desktops, cellular phones
and wifi connections.
Motivational Access refers to the drive and enthusiasm of teachers in using
gadgets in their teaching.
Recommendations refer to a suggestion or proposal as to the best course of
action, especially one put forward by an authoritative body.
Skills are the expertise of teachers in using and navigating digital technologies in

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performing their job, which may include, but not limited to texting,
sending e-mails, computing grades, and using Microsoft excel.
Skills access is the ability of teachers to use their expertise in computer
manipulations.
Teachers as used in the study, are all the teachers of Bagong Barangay
Elementary School who may or may not be using digital technologies in
delivering their lessons and assessments online.

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Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
This chapter deals with the research design of the study, research locale,
respondents of the study, research instrument, tool validation and reliability,
data gathering procedure, ethics protocol, and statistical treatment to be used.
Research Design
This study used the Descriptive Phenomenological Method for the lived-
context of the participants, converging on their perspectives and the personal
beliefs of the researcher. For Giorgi (2009) the method allows the researcher to
keep the tone of the participants in the research without abridging their views out
through analysis. Rather, it is the subjective-psychological perspective of the
participant that captures my interest as the researcher. Intrinsically, it is not only
the “reactions” and “behaviors” that are included in the data, but also the

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thoughts, impressions, feelings, interpretations, and understandings of the
participants’ experiences that the researcher will be scrutinizing.
According to the study of Broome (2011), the Descriptive
Phenomenological Psychological Method is a five-step system of research that
holds Husserlian Phenomenology as its philosophical foundation. Because
Husserl was a philosopher, Giorgi (2009) needed to modify Husserl’s method to
be useful for psychology. In doing so, Giorgi’s (2009) five-step method provides
the systematic rigor of “science” while not reducing his treatment of the persons
studied.
Phenomenology is concerned with the study of experience from the
standpoint of the individual, ‘bracketing’ taken-for-granted assumptions and
usual ways of perceiving. Phenomenological approaches are based in a model of
personal knowledge and subjectivity, and emphasize the importance of personal
perspective and interpretation. As such they are powerful for understanding
subjective experience, gaining insights into people’s motivations and actions, and
cutting through the clutter of taken-for-granted assumptions and conventional
wisdom.
Fr Husserl (2002), phenomenological research has overlaps with other
essentially qualitative approaches including ethnography, hermeneutics and
symbolic interactionism. Pure phenomenological research seeks principally to
describe rather than explain, and to start from a perspective free from hypotheses
or preconceptions. Phenomenological methods are particularly efficient at

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bringing to the fore the experiences and perceptions of individuals from their
own perspectives, and therefore at challenging structural or normative
assumptions. Adding an interpretive dimension to phenomenological research,
enabling it to be used as the basis for practical theory, allows it to inform, support
or challenge policy and action.
Research Locale
The study was conducted at Bagong Barangay Elementary School, which is
one of the eleven schools in District VI of Manila. It is located at J. Zamora St.
Pandacan, Manila. The school enjoys a rich history as one of the oldest
community elementary schools in Pandacan, established in 1961.
There are eight (8) master teachers and sixty-three (63) teachers who are
currently teaching in this school. Out of these, twenty (20) teachers were selected
purposively to be the participants.
Participants
The participants of this research study were the teachers at Bagong
Barangay Elementary School, Division of Manila. A total number of twenty (20)
teachers with at least three years’ experience were selected as participants.

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Table 1
Distribution of Teacher Participants
Participants Number of
Participants
Teacher I 3
Teacher II 7
Teacher III 7
Master Teacher I 2
Master Teacher II 1
TOTAL 20
The participants’ years of service were reflected in the participants’
responses in the questionnaires distributed to them. Teachers who were at least
three years in service were considered in the study.
Sampling Technique
For this study, the researcher employed the purposive sampling which is
also referred to as a judgmental or expert sample. The main objective of a
purposive sample is to produce a sample that can be logically assumed to be
representative of the population. This is often accomplished by applying expert

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knowledge of the population to select in a nonrandom manner a sample of
elements that represents a cross-section of the population.
For Ames, Glenton and Lewis (2019), in a qualitative evidence synthesis,
large amount of data due to a large number of studies can weaken the
researcher’s ability to perform a thorough analysis. Purposive sampling of
primary studies for inclusion in the synthesis is one way of achieving a
manageable amount of data.
In the journal, Laerd Dissertation (2012), purposive sampling embodies
a group of different non-probability sampling techniques. Also known
as judgmental, selective or subjective sampling, purposive sampling relies on
the judgement of the researcher when it comes to selecting the units that are to
be studied. Usually, the sample being investigated is quite small, especially when
compared with probability sampling techniques. Unlike the different sampling
techniques that can be used under probability sampling, the objective of
purposive sampling is not to randomly select units from a population to create
a sample with the intention of making generalizations from that sample to the
population of interest.
The main goal of purposive sampling is to focus on particular features of a
population that are of interest, which will best enable the researcher to answer
his research questions. The sample being studied is not representative of the
population, but for researchers pursuing qualitative or mixed methods research
designs, this is not considered to be a downside. Rather, it is a choice, the

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purpose of which varies depending on the type of purposing sampling technique
that is used.
Research Instrument
To collect the data needed for this study, the researcher prepared a
researcher-made and validated interview guide that measured the teachers’
experiences, challenges and recommendations on digital divide and literacy.
The interview guide was divided into two (2) parts namely: Part I – Profile
of Participants and Part 2- Teachers’ Perception on Digital Divide and Literacy.
Part 1 – Profile of the Participants, presented questions about the
personal standpoint of the teacher-participants at the time of the study. It
included only the question about the years in service of the participants as this
was needed in the inclusion criterion.
Part II – Teachers’ Perceptions on Digital Divide and Literacy, uses open-
ended questions. The structured interview consisted of questions that focused on

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the challenges, experiences, and recommendations of the teachers in digital
divide and literacy as to accessibility, utilization and receptiveness.
The interview guide for the teacher-participants consisted of five parts: Ice
Breaker Questions topic introduction, problems and challenges, solutions and
interventions, and general recommendations. This utilized qualitative questions
about recommendations, challenges, and experiences of the participants on
digital divide and literacy.
English language was used as a medium of communication in the conduct
of interview to the teacher-participants. However, they were given the option to
answer in any language they were comfortable with. The responses were
thematically analyzed to obtain the general response of the participants of the
study regarding digital divide and literacy.
Tool Validation
The interview guide was submitted to the adviser for suggestions and
improvement and presentation. Corrections and suggestions were considered to
finalize the instrument. To test the validity, effectiveness, and reliability of the
instrument, this was submitted to 1 public school district supervisor, 2 principals,
an IT expert, and an English teacher.
Data Gathering Procedure

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The study explored the experiences, challenges and recommendations of
teachers in digital divide and literacy as to accessibility, utilization and
receptiveness of teachers in ICT.
It considered the following procedural steps:
After noting the suggestions given by the experts during the preliminary
defense, revision of Chapters 1-3 immediately followed to secure permit to
conduct the study from the Office of Graduate School.
The researcher asked permission from the Department of Education-
Manila to conduct the study upon approval of which, the guide questions, was
constructed and validated to obtain needed information from the teachers.
Online interviews of participants were held as data gathering procedure.
The chosen participants were asked about their time availability for the conduct
of the interview.
A semi-structured interview guide was used to keep the interactions
parallel while allowing individual perspectives and experiences to emerge, which
according to Patton (2012) can help in the discovery of participants’ personal
perspectives on the topic.
Participants were interviewed on the language they could freely expressed
themselves with. The researcher noted both the verbal and non-verbal responses.
The researcher noted down the nonverbal gestures and cues observed during the

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interview while verbatim responses of the participants were audio-recorded and
transcribed after the session. Debriefing sessions were also provided to the
participants after the said interview.
Suggestions and recommendations for the improvement of the study from
the interviewees were considered in the final draft of the research output. After
which, the study was presented to the research adviser and the panel statistician
for critiquing in preparation for oral defense.
Ethics Protocol
In order to uphold the university’s standards on quality and integrity, the
researcher employed professional standards in conducting the study, especially in
administering the interview guide to the teacher-participants. The researcher also
guaranteed privacy and anonymity and gave adequate information regarding the
nature and purpose of the research to ensure the assurance of all data to be
gathered from them and it would be upheld with ethical standards and utmost
confidentiality according to the Data Privacy Act of2012. It would only be used
for the purpose of research and advancement of quality education. They were also
informed that their participation in the study is voluntary and with no
compensation at all. The participants were also to withdraw from participating at
any point and under any circumstances, and that their participation in this study
would not pose any risks and discomfort to them.

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Data Analysis
The Descriptive Phenomenological method in Psychology uses a five-step
method of data analysis based on some principles of phenomenological
philosophy. In each step, the researcher explained the procedure and its parallel
theoretical concept that supported its purpose and character. Therefore, the data
analysis was done once the interview has been transcribed and the text has
become the “empirical evidence” analyzed for its psychological implications.
The first step of the phenomenological psychological method was for the
researcher to assume the phenomenological attitude. The phenomenological
attitude is unlike the natural attitude or everyday way of understanding the
world. In the phenomenological attitude, the research “brackets” his or her
everyday knowledge to take a fresh look at the data. In other words, the
researcher puts aside his or her presuppositions, theoretical, cultural,
experiential, or otherwise. The concept of “bracketing” comes from Husserl’s
(2008/1931) epoché in which the researcher allows him or herself to be present
to the data without positing its validity or existence. This means that the

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researcher allows herself to see the data as it appears without doubt or disbelief.
Additionally, the researcher did not posit the real existence of any object or state-
of-affairs that is given to consciousness. Rather, because it was given to
consciousness, the researcher took the object (or state-of-affairs) as it presented
itself rather judging its veracity from the objective perspective. So, the bracketing
and withholding of existential positing allowed the researcher to see and thus
described what was present for consciousness from the participant’s first-person
perspective
The second step in the data analysis required the researcher to read the
entire simple description to get a sense of the whole experience the “naïve
description” provided by the participant was taken in the natural attitude in the
way that he or she would experience things in the mode of everyday living from
the commonsense perspective. This was done without a critical ordinary,
everyday experiences. However, the researcher remained in the
phenomenological attitude that “puts out of action” all common-sense
presuppositions in order to conduct a critical reflection about the participant’s
experience in order to describe how it was phenomenally experienced.
The third step in the data analysis was the segregation of “meaning units”
within the narrative so that the data can be dealt with in manageable. As the
researcher went through the narrative text in a subsequent reading(s) with the
purpose of determining where places of meaning shift within it. The stream of
experience in consciousness has “landmarks” in a way that is analogous to how
we see the windings, rapids, and falls in a water stream. The researcher got the

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meaning units of each of the experiences given by the participants. To distinguish
the meaning units, the researcher marked the meaning unit demarcations with a
forward slash (/) at the cleavage between two meaning units, but each meaning
unit was identifiable by its numerical labeling at its beginning point. The
numerical identification was expressed in superscript. Therefore, the meaning
unit began with a superscript font numerical identifier and end with a forward
slash. It was acceptable to combine or divide meaning units as one’s familiarity
with the data provides clarity about better places for their distinctions. Overall,
the researcher did commit to the initial descriptions and battle through them as a
rule.
The fourth step was changing the meaning units into psychologically
sensitive descriptive expressions of each of them. The researcher took the
phenomenon at the psychological level to practice science rather than the
transcendental level which is to practice philosophy. It was individualized rather
than taken as a whole. The meaning units were re-expressed in the third-person
while remaining faithful to the meanings expressed by the participant. The
change to the third-person language did not change the meaning content, but
assisted the researcher in remaining in the phenomenological attitude. Taking
each meaning unit in its third person form, the research transformed it into a
statement that expressed its essential psychological meanings. The
transformations required the researcher to use Husserl’s (2008) intellectual
procedure known as imaginative variation to determine the essence of the
phenomenal structure of the experience. Imaginative variation was performed by

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the researcher by changing qualities of the object being analyzed so as to
determine which qualities were essential and which were present but not
required.
Sokolowski (2008) pointed out that concept of parts and wholes is not
original in phenomenology but was actually developed by Greek philosophers
Plato and Aristotle. Nevertheless, the concept expresses the idea that the “whole”
of some things or states-of-affairs cannot be reduced to its parts. In other words,
the value of the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Parts were regarded in
phenomenology to fall into two distinctions: pieces and moments. Pieces were
parts that can subsist separately and detached from the whole to which they
belonged. There was an identifiable independence about pieces apart from the
whole that moments do not have. Moments on the other hand, were dependent
upon their whole and had their essential identities as being a part of the whole.
Each constituent must therefore, hang together interdependently with the others
forming a general (whole) psychological structure. Consequently, there may be
psychological aspects of one or more of the individually situated experiences that
one could find to be a “piece” which was more like an element. Pieces or elements
can subsist on their own and therefore would not be constituent (moments) of the
general structure. The researcher applied a descriptive word or phrase to the
constituents based on their psychological givenness. This was not a process of
thematizing or merely creating nominal categories. The constituent “title” must
be descriptive of its psychological meaning. These constituents were put together
in a descriptive paragraph which was the general descriptive psychological

xc
structure, that is, the structure was the outcome (results) of the analysis. All other
“pieces,” whether psychological or not, were set aside for the later and broader
discussion with the extant literature in dialog with one another.

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CITY OF MANILA

EXPLORING TEACHER AND STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH AS A

Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Stylistics and Discourse Analysis

Dimla, Jazelle Anne

Guk-ong, John Harold

Obrar, Mary Zey

Sapon, Angelo Vincent

UNIVERSIDAD DE MANILA-GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

and limitations of the study.

The English language is strengthening its place as a worldwide lingua

franca in an era of unmatched globalization. The convergence of technologies and

linguistic framework in response to the need for a shared linguistic medium.

worldwide in adopting English as a medium of instruction. In teaching Philippine

Literature, it is important to recognize the role of the English language in shaping

the literary landscape of the Philippines.

Using English as a medium of instruction in teaching Philippine Literature

UNIVERSIDAD DE MANILA-GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

distinct regions or social spheres, enriching the tapestry of Philippine literature.

literary demands of a globalized world, thus shaping the trajectory of Philippine

Literature for years to come.

English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) in Philippine Literature sheds

effective English communication to facilitating meaningful relationships and

successfully transmitting teachings. Despite these obstacles, it underscores the

resourcefulness of teachers who have devised creative solutions to overcome

them. One notable strategy involves streamlining course content to enhance

comprehension. Teachers actively involve students by encouraging them to

express themselves in English, fostering a more immersive learning experience

economic prosperity. As institutions aim to develop students' language skills and

professional competencies, English is being used more frequently in higher

framework for education, so the intricate relations between language and

education have had a major impact on both educational achievements of students

UNIVERSIDAD DE MANILA-GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

English is one of the languages used for instruction in the Philippines,

communication due to their linguistic, social, and cultural characteristics (Lynch,

n.d.). Thus, students from diverse cultural backgrounds should be able to

communicate clearly in English. The use of language of instruction consequently

affects students' overall communicative abilities and English proficiency (British

Linguistic diversity refers to the wide range of languages and dialects

be categorized in several ways. One common way is through genetic

members of the Indo-European language family. According to the Philippine

Department of Tourism, the national language is Filipino. English is also

UNIVERSIDAD DE MANILA-GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

spoken in the Philippines are: Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon or Ilonggo,

Bicol, Waray, Kapampangan, and Pangasinense. The linguistic diversity factors

In teaching Philippine literature, a bilingual approach is recommended

classroom. There are several benefits to using a bilingual approach in the

classroom. These benefits can include improved language proficiency in both

languages, increased cognitive flexibility, enhanced cultural understanding, and

greater academic achievement. Bilingual approaches can be categorized by the

level of language use. In subtractive bilingualism, one language is gradually

are used equally in the home and in the community.

Learning Philippine literature makes us culturally sensitive (M. Grasso

2018). It is the ability to understand and appreciate the cultural backgrounds,

UNIVERSIDAD DE MANILA-GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

people from different cultures. Cultural awareness, understanding, and

competence are the common ways we can categorize cultural sensitivity.

advanced text sensitivity. Knowing this will be helpful to communicate more

effectively and to create a more positive and inclusive world.

To understand a certain language and to be able to comprehend it in

several ways, language proficiency is important in teaching Philippine literature.

because it is a way of honoring and preserving the Filipino language. Philippine

literature is a vital part of Filipino cultural heritage, and it is important for