Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ØAir pollution: The presence of contaminants or pollutant substances in the air that
interfere with human health or welfare or produce other harmful environmental
Effects. (United States Environmental Protection Agency (2007).
ØDiversion from anti-Vietnam war activism
ØConcern of wealthy people
ØPoor exposed to sever pollution
ØTreatment and control of Infectious disease (influenza, tuberculosis, and
typhoid fever) were known
ØLong term effect of environmental pollution disease such as arteriosclerosis,
heart malfunctions, stroke, and cancer.
q Pollutants regulated by National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP)
as described in 40CFR61 (as of July 1, 1998). These are called hazardous air pollutants.
v Health Effect
v Chronic effects: Long-term, low concentration exposures.
Example lung cancer, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), ischemia, stroke.
v acute effects: Short-term, high-concentration exposures industrial accidents such as the Bhopal
tragedy.
v Health studies
v Epidemiological studies
v Toxicological studies
• In patients with hemolytic anemia (red blood cells destroyed faster than
they can be replaced), the CO production rate was 2–8 times higher and
blood COHb concentration was 2–3 times higher than in normal person
(WHO 2000).
• A US study estimated that 6 per cent of the congestive heart failures and
hospitalizations in the cities were related to an increase in CO
concentration in ambient atmosphere (WHO 2000).
• Less soluble NO2 and O3 penetrate to the pulmonary region. 𝐶$ = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
• Lippmann et al. (2000) reported that four of five size fractions (PM40 PM10-40 PM10
PM2.5-10 PM2.5) were associated with increased in morbidity and mortality.
• An association between elevated PM10 levels and hospital admissions for pneumonia,
bronchitis, and asthma was observed by Pope (1989). Long-term particulate exposure
was associated with an increase in risk of respiratory illness in children (Dockery et al.,
1989).
USEPA, 2004
Example of gas to acid
production
• SO2 concentration 10 ppm, NO2 concentration 5 ppm PM2.5
concentration 245 µgm-3.
• 𝑆𝑂! + 2𝑂𝐻 → 𝐻! 𝑆𝑂"
• 𝐻! 𝑆𝑂" + 2𝑁𝐻# → 𝑁𝐻" ! 𝑆𝑂"
• 1 mole (64 g) SO2 produces 1 mole (132 g) ammonium sulfate .
$%×(#!(#!)
• 10 𝑝𝑝𝑚 𝑆𝑂! = = 28.6 𝑔𝑚+#
$%%×!!."×$%&'
Effect of O3 on plants
Ozone: Ozone enters leaves through stomata during normal gas exchange. As a strong
oxidant, ozone causes several types of symptoms including chlorosis and necrosis.
Effects of Ozone Depletion
• Higher levels of UV-radiation hitting
the earth
• Eye cataracts
• Skin cancer (right)
• Weakened immunity
• May disrupt ecosystems
• May damage crops and forests
Corrosion of metals: oxidation reaction
• SO2 or SO3 reacts with CaCO3 and form CaSO4 and gypsum
(CaSO4. 2H2O) which are more soluble in water than CaCO3
resulting in deterioration of monuments and other
infrastructures.
• Large particles and lead particles from weapons fire can cause
abrasion on surface.
How to communicate the pollution level to
public?
Air Quality Index
• Air Quality Index (AQI): includes the
pollutants CO, SO2, NO2, particulate
matter, and O3.
q Formation of sub-indices (I1, I2,...., In) for n pollutant variables (X1, X2...., Xn)
is carried out using sub-index functions that are based on air quality standards
and health effects. Mathematically;
Ii=f (Xi), i=1, 2,...,n
• It is recognized that air concentrations of Pb are not known in real-time and cannot
contribute to AQI.
• In India, ~ 40 automatic monitoring stations are operated where parameters like PM10,
PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, etc. are monitored continuously.
• In India, air quality is being monitored manually at 573 locations under National Air
Monitoring Programme (NAMP). In most of these manually operated stations, only three
criteria pollutants viz. PM10, sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are
measured, at some stations PM2.5 and Pb are also measured. The monitoring frequency
is twice a week.
• AQI system has been build on air quality standard and pollutant dose-response
relationships to describe air quality in simple terms which clearly relates to health impacts.
Indian National Air Quality Standard and
health criteria for AQI
Breakpoint concentration of CO
and AQI
Break point concentration of NO2
and AQI
Break point concentration of PM10 and AQI
Break point concentration of
PM2.5 and AQI
Break point concentration of Ozone
and AQI
Break point concentration of
SO2 and AQI
q SO2 is soluble in aqueous media and affects mucous membranes of the nose
and upper respiratory tract. Reduction in mean lung function values among
groups of healthy individual have been observed for 10- minute exposures at
4000 ppb (11 440 µg/m3) (Linn et al. 1984) and at 5000 ppb (14 300 µg/m3)
(Lawther et al., 1975).
Effect of NH3, Pb and corresponding AQI
q An association has been reported between exposure to ammonia and cough,
phlegm, wheezing, and asthma at high concentration.
q Pb is a toxic metal and its exposure through all routes result in increased blood
lead level. At lower concentrations, the blood lead level is proportional to air
concentration (after accounting for all resulting exposure routes).
q For example, 1 µg/m3 of annual lead level will result in 5µg/dL(on an average) of
blood lead level (WHO 2000). The effect of blood level above 10µg/dL is seen in
haematological changes in sensitive population, therefore, at moderate pollution
level the break point is proposed at 2µg/m3.
Break point concentrations of pollutants
AQI 𝐼*+ − 𝐼()
𝐼! = 𝐼() + × 𝐶! − 𝐵()
calculation 𝐵*+ − 𝐵()
𝐼! = 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝
𝐼"# = 𝐴𝑄𝐼 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝐵"#
𝐼$% = 𝐴𝑄𝐼 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝐵$%
𝐵"# = 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐵$% = 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐶! = 𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝
Problem of AQI
• A monitoring station in the Delhi city recorded following 24-hr
average concentration of NO2, PM2.5 and PM10 and 8-hr average
concentration of CO on January 24, 2023. What would be the AQI of
the day?
Pollutants Observed
Subindex
concentration
(µg/m3) or ppm
CO (ppm) 115
2.6
NO2 0.05
122
(ppm)
PM2.5 390
237
PM10 345
386
𝐼*+ − 𝐼()
𝐼! = 𝐼() + × 𝐶! − 𝐵()
𝐵*+ − 𝐵()
Human health risk estimation
Exposure assessment and dose
Ø Exposure assessment is a process of characterizing,
estimating, measuring and modelling the magnitude,
frequency and duration of contact with and agent as well as
number and characteristic of population exposed (Vallero,
2014)
Ø Aggregate exposure: Sum of exposure of an pollutants
from different routes (ingestion, inhalation, and
dermal).
B. Nutrient curve
ADVERSE • Curve A
e
rv
HEALTH
• Precautionary principle.
cu
EFFET
er
nc
• Curve B
Ca
OR
A.
MORTALITY
• Essential metals and nutrients
LD50
• Optimal range
LD95
Excess leads to adverse health effect
LD5
•
DOSE
• Essential or toxic depends on oxidation state
1. What is the difference in steepness of curve A and C?
2. What does the steepness mean in curve A and C? • Curve C
• Non cancerous adverse health effect (e.g.
• Lethal dose (LD5, LD50, LD95) cough, cold, fever, etc.)
• 90 percentile range • Steepness of the curve: potency or severity.
Uncertainties in data extrapolation
𝐸G = B 𝐶H ×𝐼𝑅HG ×𝑡HG
A person is exposed to Benzene concentration
HI#
100 µgm-3 for 2 hrs per day for 100 days.
What would be the time averaged exposure?
𝐸! = Daily exposure for the jth group (mgday−1)
ü Exposure target:
ü Person 𝑛 = 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 (𝑒. 𝑔. 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑒𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
ü organ 𝑗 = 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
ü Absorption, distribution, metabolism and
𝐶" = 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑒𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑚𝑔𝑚#$ )
elimination (ADME)
𝐼𝑅"! = 𝐼𝑛ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑡ℎ 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 (𝑚$ ℎ#% )
• Average daily dose (ADD): used for non-cancer 𝑡"! = 𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑒𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑡ℎ 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 (ℎ𝑑𝑎𝑦 #% )
risk
𝐼
𝐴𝐷𝐷 =
𝑊×𝑡
• I= Intake dose (µg) =concentration (µgm-3)
Parameters Setting
X inhalation rate (IR, m3day-1) X exposure
time (days) Outdoor near In car while
Indoor Other outdoor
home driving
• W= body weight (kg)
Formaldehyde
• t= Averaging time (days) concentration 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.7
(mgm-3)
• Body burden should be estimated for the chemicals that can bioaccumulate
• Metals Pb, Hg, Cd,
• Metalloids As
• Organic compounds from incomplete combustion e.g. PAHs
• Halogenated aromatic compounds PCBs, polybrominated biphenyls, organochlorine
pesticide such as DDT
Inhaling aerosol 𝐶. 𝐼𝑅. 𝑅𝐹. 𝐸𝐿. 𝐴𝐹. 𝐸𝐷 𝐶 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑔𝑚!"
=
(particulate matter) 𝐵𝑊. 𝑇𝐿 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑛ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑚" ℎ!#
𝑅𝐹 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐸𝐿 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (ℎ𝑑𝑎𝑦 !# )
𝐸𝐷 = 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐴𝐹 = 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐵𝑊 = 𝐵𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑇𝐿 = 𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠)
Inhaling vapor 𝐶. 𝐼𝑅. 𝐸𝐿. 𝐴𝐹. 𝐸𝐷 𝐶 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑚𝑔𝑚!"
=
phase 𝐵𝑊. 𝑇𝐿
contaminants
Commonly used human exposure factors
e
rv
HEALTH
cu
𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝐷𝑜𝑠𝑒 (𝐿𝐴𝐷𝐷)
er
EFFET
nc
Ca
OR
A.
C. Non cancer curve
• Time weighted average exposure
concentration for each activity in every
microenvironment should be calculated. LD5
LD50
LD95
DOSE
Problem:
If a person inhales air with 100 µgm-3
aerosol with a mean aerodynamic
diameter of 5 µm at the rate of 0.007
m3min-1, approximately how much PM will
be deposited in tracheobronchial region in
an 8-hour day? How much would be
trapped nasally? How much would make
to small bronchi and alveolae?