DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF BENIN.

A TECHNICAL REPORT ON

CORROSION STUDIES.

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

(CHE 401)
 TITLE PAGE

TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: CORROSION STUDIES

AIM OF EXPERIMENT: TO EXAMINE THE EFFECT OF pH ON THE

RATE OF CORROSION MILD STEEL.

NAME: OTARU KEHINDE AGBAGONODE

MAT. NUMBER: ENG2002074

SERIAL NUMBER: 85

GROUP NUMBER: B4

LEVEL: 400 LEVEL

COURSE CODE: CHE 401

EXPERIMENT NUMBER: EXPERIMENT 3

NAME OF INSTRUCTORS: Mr. MOSES OGHENEVO

DATE OF EXPERIMENT: 18/10/23

DATE OF SUBMISSION: 23/10/23

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
numbers
1 An older vehicle shows the effect of corrosion 1
2 mechanism of corrosion 6
3 effect of conductivity on the rate of corrosion 7
4 effect of diffusion on the rate of corrosion 8
5 effect of temperature on the rate of corrosion 9
6 effect of the type of ions on the rate of corrosion 9
7 the effect of PH on the rate of corrosion 10
8 effect of electrochemical potential on the rate of 11
corrosion
9 different types of corrosion 15
10 Buffer capsules 18
11 Coupon steel sample 18
12 PH meter 19
13 Corrosion cell kit 19
14 Weighing balance 20
15 Corrosion study kit 21
16 Side view of the corrosion study kit 21

LIST OF TABLES

Table…………………….…………………..………………………….23

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

Title page………………………………………………………………….….. I
List Figures and tables…………………….…………………..……………….II
Table of contents…………………………………………………………..…..III
Abstract …………………………………………………………………….…IV
Introduction…………………………………………………………………… 1- 4
Theory……………………………………………………………………..……5-17
Description of Apparatus ……………………..………...…………………….18-21
Procedure ………………………………………………………………..……..22
Result and analysis …………..………..…………………………………..…...23
Discussion…..……………………………………………………………...….24-26
Conclusion ……………………………….………………………………...….27
Recommendation …………………………………………..………………….28
References ………………..……………………………………………………29
Appendix ……………………………………………………………………30-31

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 ABSTRACT
Corrosion is a significant problem as it leads to the deterioration and degradation
of materials, particularly metals, when they come into contact with their
surrounding environment. This problem includes safety risks, economic cost,
structural degradation, energy inefficiency, Aesthetics, reduced longevity of
materials e.t.c

The corrosion studies experiment was carried out with the aim of examining
the effect of pH on the rate of corrosion of mild steel with the use of a corrosion
study kit apparatus and then using the weight loss method to estimate the corrosion
rate of the mild steel. Three sets of steels coupons each containing three steel
samples were weighed and immersed into each of the corrosion cell having
different pH of 4, 7 and 9 that is the acidic, neutral and alkaline environment
respectively. The samples were withdrawn from their respective cells after two
days, dried, scrubbed and reweighed to determine their weight loss and the
corrosion rate for each of the mediums.

From the result obtained as presented in the results section of this report the
weight loss for each of the medium that is the acidic, neutral and alkaline medium
are 0.03 g, 0.02 g and 0.01 g respectively and the corrosion rate for each of this
medium is 5.141 x 10⁵ mils/yr, 3.42 x 10⁵ mils/yr and 1.72 x 10 ⁵ mils/yr
respectively hence we can inferred that corrosion rate of mild steel is faster in
acidic environment than in the neutral and alkaline environment. And also the
corrosion rate of mild steel is least in alkaline environment this is because alkaline
inhibit the corrosion of mild steel by using up the hydrogen ion necessary for the
oxidation of the mild steel

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 INTRODUCTION
Corrosion is defined as the physical interaction between a metal and its
environment which results in changes of the metal’s properties and which
may lead to significant functional impairment of the metal, the environment
or the technical system of which they form a part. this interaction is often
of an electrochemical nature. It can also be referred to as a natural process that
converts a refined metal into a more chemically stable oxide. It is the gradual
deterioration of materials (usually a metal) by chemical or electrochemical reaction
with their environment. Corrosion is a destructive phenomenon that, besides its
economic effects, is detrimental to metals' appearance and can cause
equipment/structural component failure.
EFFECTS OF CORROSION
The effects of corrosion are obvious all around us. The etching of metallurgical
samples and the way a battery works are examples of electrochemical processes.
Visit a junk yard and observe the rusted hulks that were once someone's shiny new
car. Non-functional farm machinery often litters the landscape because it costs too
much to haul it away to a landfill. Approximately 20% of the iron and steel
products manufactured each year are used to replace objects that have been
discarded due to rust damage1. Figure 1 is a photograph of a truck ravaged by

1
corrosion typical of damage brought primarily by road salt used for winter de-
icing.
ECONOMIC EFFECT OF CORROSION
Losses sustained by industry as a result of corrosion can be divided into direct and
indirect losses.
DIRECT LOSS
➤ Cost of replacement, overhauling or rebuilding the corroded equipment and
components such as condenser lubes, pipelines including necessary labor.
➤ Increased expenditure resulting from all kinds of protective measures (paints,
lacquer, coating, metallic coatings, use of corrosion resistant alloys) put in place to
extend the life or prevent accidental failure of process equipment.
INDIRECT LOSS
Indirect losses while more difficult lo estimate, are nevertheless important and add
substantial monetary value to the direct losses.
Typical examples of indirect losses include:

 Loss of product may occur due to leak Caused by corrosion damage. The
case of gas leaks or flammable liquids this can be potentially dangerous
 Loss of production resulting from the removal from service of equipment
damaged accidentally by corrosion and the possible shut-down of the
process plant. For example, the replacement of a corroded tube in an oil
refinery may cost a few hundred naira, but the shutdown of the unit while
repairs are underway may cost some thousands of naira per dour in lost
production. A case in point is the shut-down of the FCC unit in KRPC due to
extensive intergranular corrosion of the cyclones.

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  Loss of efficiency may result, for example, from reduced heat transfer due
accumulated corrosion products because the clogging of the pipes with
necessitates increased pumping capacity.
 Decreased quality of products due to possible contamination by corrosi
products. For example, lead equipment is not permitted in the preparation
food and beverages while lead piping cannot be used water for drinking
purposes because of toxic properties of lead sails.
 Compilation of the technology and higher dimensional allowance in the
design of plant component (over-design) to compensate for corrosion. This
is usually common in the design of reaction vessel, boilers, condenser tubes,
buried and tanks.
Losses sustained by industry and municipalities as a result of corrosion amount to
billions of naira annually. The costs associated with corrosion are high. Several
studies over the past 30 years have shown that the annual global cost of corrosion
is estimated to be US$2.5 trillion, which is equivalent to 3.4% of the global GDP
(2013). By using available corrosion control practices, it is estimated that savings
of between 15 and 35% of the cost of corrosion could be realized; i.e., between
US$375 and $875 billion annually on a global basis. These costs typically do not
include individual safety or environmental consequences. Through near misses,
incidents, forced shutdowns (outages), accidents, etc., several industries have come
to realize that lack of corrosion management can be very costly and that, through
proper corrosion management, significant cost savings can be achieved over the
lifetime of an asset. To achieve the full extent of these savings, corrosion
management and its integration into an organization’s management system must be
accomplished by implementing a Corrosion Management System (CMS).

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Of all materials, the most serious offenders are the metals most widely used-iron
and steel. Under unfavourable conditions, all metals corrode-none are completely
immune. Corrosion can be prevented by eliminating the corrosive conditions. In
the processing industries, this is generally not possible; therefore, it is more
feasible to change materials and use various corrosion control measures, for the
engineer in control or eliminate conditions, ho must have a workable knowledge of
the of corrosion.
The experiment present a study on the effect of PH on the corrosion of mild steel
using the corrosion study apparatus where different samples of mild steel are
subjected to different PH mediums which includes the acidic, basic and neutral
medium and using the weight loss analysis to study this effects. The corresponding
loss in weight after the experiment is calculated and hence use to estimate the
corrosion rate of the mild steel.

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 THEORY
Corrosion is one of the most common phenomena that we observe in our daily
lives. You must have noticed that some objects made of iron are covered with an
orange or reddish-brown coloured layer at some point in time. The formation of
this layer is the result of a chemical process known as rusting, which is a form of
corrosion. Corrosion in general, is a process through which refined metals are
converted into more stable compounds such as metal oxides, metal sulfides, or
metal hydroxides. Likewise, the rusting of iron involves the formation of iron
oxides via the action of atmospheric moisture and oxygen. If we look at the science
behind corrosion, then we can say that it is a spontaneous/irreversible process
wherein the metals turn into a much more stable chemical compound like oxides,
sulphides, hydroxides, etc.
WHY METALS CORRODE
The main cause of corrosion is as a result of the instability of metals in their
refined forms. Most metals are found in nature as ores which are metallic oxides
and salts. General corrosion occurs when most or all the atoms on the same metal
surface are oxidized, damaging the entire surface. Most metals are easily oxidized:
they tend to lose electrons to oxygen (and other substances) in the air or in water.
As oxygen is reduced (gains electrons), it forms an oxide with the metal. When
these metals undergo refining processes, they become unstable and undergo
corrosion to go back to their natural state. This can happen naturally in the

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environment or it can be sped up in the laboratory or slowed down by humans
using preventive measures.
Example of Corrosion Damage
i. Attack of cast–iron pipelines and other metal structure.
ii. Deterioration of chemical and oil field equipment such as boilers, storage
tanks, pressure vessel, heat exchangers and pumps.
iii. Rusting of metal structure in the atmosphere
iv. Pitting of oilfield equipment due in individual or combined effects of
oxygen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide.
v. Severe corrosion of well head equipment.
CORROSION MECHANISM

The corrosion of steel can be considered as an electrochemical process that

occurs in stages, Initial attack occurs at anodic areas on the surface, where
ferrous ions goes into solution. Electrons are released from the anode and
move through the metallic structure to the metallic structure to the adjacent
cathodic sites on the surface, where they combine with oxygen and water to
form hydroxyl ions. These react with the ferrous ions from the anode to
produce ferrous hydroxide which itself further oxidized in air to produce
hydrated ferric oxide. (i.e. red rust). However, after a period of time,

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polarisation effects such as the growth of corrosion products on the surface
cause the corrosion process to be stifled. New reactive anodic sites may be
formed thereby allowing further Corrosion

Figure 2 : mechanism of corrosion

FACTORS THAT AFFECT CORROSION

There are several factors influencing the rate of corrosion including diffusion,
temperature, conductivity, type of ions, pH value and electrochemical potential.
The rate of corrosion can be controlled or reduced by applying anti-corrosion
coatings or corrosion protection techniques including composite repair compounds,
metal repair putties and reinforcement wrap.

 CONDUCTIVITY : For corrosion to occur there must be a conductive

medium between the two parts of the corrosion reaction. Corrosion will not
occur in distilled water and the rate of corrosion will increase as the
conductivity increases due to the presence of more ions in the solution. The
corrosion rate of steel reaches a maximum close to the normal ionic content
of sea water. Fresh water corrodes steel to a lesser extent than brackish or
estuarine water, with sea water usually being the most corrosive to steel.

Figure 3: effect of conductivity on the rate of corrosion

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  DIFFUSION In the majority of cases, the corrosion rates of metals are
controlled by the diffusion of reactants to and from the metal surface.
Freshly exposed bare steel surfaces will corrode at a greater rate than those
covered with a compact layer of rust. The corrosion rate is also heavily
controlled by the diffusion of oxygen through the water to the steel surface.
In areas where oxygen diffusion is prevalent, corrosion appears to occur at
faster rates. High flow areas, such as in the vicinity of bell mouths, will tend
to exhibit higher corrosion rates because of the increased oxygen levels,
although erosion is also a factor. Areas covered by a thin, conducting
moisture film will corrode faster than areas under immersion. Therefore the
hullage space at the top of ballast tanks and at the top of double bottom
tanks where air has become trapped tends to corrode more quickly than
deeply submerged areas where there is a lower availability of oxygen

Figure 4: effect of diffusion on the rate of corrosion

 TEMPERATURE: As corrosion rates are determined by diffusion, diffusion rates are
also controlled by temperature. Steel and other metals corrode at faster rates at higher
temperatures than at lower temperatures. As a result, under-deck areas and regions
adjacent to the engine room, or to heated cargo tanks, will tend to corrode faster or
preferentially. One of the features of the modern double hulled tanker with fully
segregated ballast tanks is that when the cargo tanks are fully loaded, the empty ballast

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 tanks act as a vacuum flask or thermos-bottle and retain the heat in the cargo for
significantly longer periods than the single hull design. This increase in temperature of
the cargo/ ballast bulkhead combined with the cooler outer shell bulkhead (in the
underwater regions) produces a complex set of corrosion conditions and results in an
increase in the corrosion rate of the steel in the ballast tanks. Corrosion rates in the cargo
tanks themselves will also be higher due to the increased temperature.

Figure 5 : effect of temperature on the rate of corrosion

 TYPE OF IONS : Some types of ions present in sea water or in cargoes are
more corrosive than others. Chloride ions are usually the most destructive
with sulfate and other sulfur containing ions also presenting major problems.
Chloride ions have a destructive effect on the protective properties of any
rusts produced by preventing the formation of the more protective, densely

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 packed oxides. Sulfur containing ions become involved in additional
electron generating reactions within the rust itself which in turn forms a
cyclic, self-regenerating process. This can produce intensive pitting on the
inner bottoms of cargo tanks in oil and product carriers. The sulfur can
originate from both the inert gas system and from cargoes containing sulfur,
such as sour crude oil.

Figure 6 : effect of the type of ions on the rate of corrosion

ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY (PH) : pH is a measure of the acidity or

alkalinity on a scale of 1 to 14. pH 7 is neutral. In neutral sea water, the pH is
around 7.5 which mean that the hydrogen ions (acid) and hydroxyl ions (alkali) are
almost in balance. Under such circumstances, the reaction that balances the iron
dissolution is the reduction of dissolved oxygen to form hydroxyl ions. If however
the environment becomes more acidic and the pH falls closer to 1, then there is a
greater quantity of hydrogen ions than hydroxyl ions present in the solution. The
excess hydrogen ions can become involved in the balancing (cathodic) reaction
which results in the evolution of hydrogen gas. As both the hydrogen ions and the
hydrogen gas can diffuse very rapidly, the steel can corrode faster. This is a
common effect when carrying cargoes such as pet-coke, sulphur and sour crude
oils. Under alkaline conditions, where there is an excess of hydroxyl ions and the
pH levels tend towards 14, steel cannot corrode and remains unaffected. Many of
the blisters which are found in ballast tanks, particularly in the double bottoms, are
filled with a high pH fluid. When the blister caps are removed, the steel is bright

10
underneath. However, it will begin to corrode once the cap is removed, so once one
or two of a group of blisters have been checked and the liquid found to be alkaline,
the remainder of the blisters should be left intact.

Figure 7 : the effect of PH on the rate of corrosion

ELECTROCHEMICAL POTENTIAL

Every metal takes up a specific electrochemical potential when immersed in a

conducting liquid. This potential is called the half-cell potential as it can only be
measured by comparing it to another known reference potential produced by a
reference electrode. Common reference electrodes are the Saturated Calomel
Electrode (SCE), silver/silver chloride and copper/copper sulfate reference
electrodes. The potential that a metal takes up in a solution can determine if and
how fast it will corrode. The potential can be changed by connecting it to another
dissimilar metal (as in galvanic corrosion or by using sacrificial anodes) or by
applying an external potential, as occurs with an active cathodic protection system

of the type employed on the external hull.

Figure 8 : effect of electrochemical potential on the rate of corrosion

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CLASSIFICATION OF CORROSION

Corrosion can be classified into three categories based on the environment.

 Atmospheric Corrosion: The types of atmospheres are described as rural,

industrial, or marine.
 Aqueous Corrosion: Carbon steel pipes are used to transport water and are
often submerged in water. The higher the acidity level of the water, the
faster the corrosion rate of attack.
 Soil Corrosion: The rate of soil corrosion on carbon steel varies. Soil with
high moisture content, high acidity, high dissolved salts, and high electrical
conductivity are the most corrosive.
TYPES OF CORROSION
1. Uniform corrosion: This is considered the most common form of corrosion
wherein an attack on the surface of the metal is executed by the atmosphere.
The extent of the corrosion is easily discernible. This type of corrosion has a
relatively low impact on the performance of the material. For example, a
piece of zinc and steel immersed in diluted sulphuric acid would usually
dissolve over its entire surface at a constant rate.
2. Localized Corrosion: As the name suggests, localized corrosion attacks one
part of the metal. There are three types of localized corrosion
a. Crevice corrosion: Whenever there is a difference in ionic concentration
between any two local areas of a metal, a localised form of corrosion
known as crevice corrosion can occur. For instance, this form of
corrosion mostly occurs in confined spaces (crevices). Examples of areas
where crevice corrosion can occur are gaskets, the undersurface of
washers, and bolt heads. All grades of aluminium alloys and stainless
steels also undergo crevice corrosion. This is mainly because of the
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 formation of a differential aeration cell that leads to the formation of
corrosion inside the crevices.
b. Filiform corrosion: It occurs when water breaks through the coating
underplated or painted surfaces. This type of corrosion starts at places
where there are small flaws in the coating. It eventually spreads and
causes weakness in the structure.
c. Pitting: - Pitting Corrosion is very unpredictable and, therefore, is
difficult to detect. It is considered one of the most dangerous types of
corrosion. It occurs at a local point and proceeds with the formation of a
corrosion cell surrounded by the normal metallic surface. Once this ‘pit’
is formed, it continues to grow and can take various shapes. The pit
slowly penetrates metal from the surface in a vertical direction,
eventually leading to structural failure if left unchecked. For example,
consider a droplet of water on a steel surface, pitting will initiate at the
centre of the water droplet (anodic site).
3. Intergranular Corrosion: Intergranular corrosion is an attack on or adjacent
to the grain boundaries of a metal or alloy. Intergranular corrosion occurs
due to the presence of impurities in the grain boundaries that separate the
grain formed during the solidification of the metal alloy. It can also occur
via the depletion or enrichment of the alloy at these grain boundaries. For
example, Aluminum-base alloys are affected by IGC. The most effective
means of prevention is the proper selection of alloy and/or suitable heat
treatment.
4. Galvanic Corrosion: When there exists an electric contact between two
metals that are electrochemically dissimilar and are in an electrolytic
environment, galvanic corrosion can arise. It refers to the degradation of one

13
 of these metals at a joint or at a junction. A good example of this type of
corrosion would be the degradation that occurs when copper, in a salt-water
environment, comes in contact with steel. For example, when aluminium
and carbon steel are connected and immersed in seawater, aluminium
corrodes faster, and steel is protected.
5. Environmental Cracking: This type of corrosion is the result of a number of
conditions in the environment, such as temperature, chemicals, and stress.
There are four kinds of environmental cracking:

a. Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC): Stress corrosion cracking can be

abbreviated to ‘SCC’ and refers to the cracking of the metal as a result of
the corrosive environment and the tensile stress placed on the metal. It
often occurs at high temperatures. For example, stress corrosion cracking
of austenitic stainless steel in chloride solution
b. Corrosion fatigue
c. Hydrogen-induced cracking : This is a corrosion of the piping by grooves
that are formed due to the interaction of a corrosive agent, corroded pipe
constituents, and hydrogen gas bubbles. The bubbles usually remove the
protective coating once it comes in contact with the material.
d. Liquid metal embrittlement

6. Metal Dusting: :Metal dusting is a damaging form of corrosion that occurs

when vulnerable materials are exposed to certain environments with high
carbon activities, including synthesis gas. The corrosion results in the break-
up of bulk metal to metal powder. Corrosion occurs as a graphite layer is
deposited on the surface of the metals from carbon monoxide (CO) in the
vapour phase. This graphite layer then goes on to form meta-stable M3C
species (where M is a metal) that usually move away from the metal surface.

14
 In some cases, no M3C species may be observed. This means that the metal
atoms have been directly transferred into the graphite layer
7. High-Temperature Corrosion: High-temperature corrosion, as the name
suggests, is a type of corrosion of materials (mostly metals) due to heating.
Chemical deterioration of metal can occur due to a hot atmosphere that
contains gases such as oxygen, sulphur, or other compounds. These
compounds are capable of oxidising the materials (metals in this case)
easily. For example, materials used in car engines have to resist sustained
periods at high temperatures, during which they can be affected by an
atmosphere containing corrosive products of combustion.
8. Flow-Assisted Corrosion: This occurs when wind or water dissolves a
protective oxide layer on the surface of a metal, and then exposes the metal
to deterioration.

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 9. Microbial Corrosion: Microbial corrosion, which is also known as
microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC), is a type of corrosion that is
caused by microorganisms. The most common one is chemoautotrophs.

Both metallic and non-metallic materials, either in the presence or absence

of oxygen, can be affected by this corrosion.

Figure 9 : different types of corrosion

WEIGHT LOSS ANALYSIS OF CORROSION

This method is a quantitative technique used to monitor and measure corrosion in

metallic structures, whether it's from external or internal factors. It involves

16
tracking changes in weight over specific time intervals, making it a straightforward
way to assess corrosion. By using coupons placed in a particular environment, you
can remove and clean them after a set time, typically between 60 to 180 days.
Then, you record the weight difference at these intervals. The collected data can be
plugged into established engineering formulas to calculate corrosion rates. This
approach is ideal for assessing corrosion in complex structures. Some variations of
this weight loss analysis incorporate probes, offering detailed information about
corrosion events, and polarization data to gauge corrosion rate fluctuations.
Additionally, factors like atomic weight, density, charge number, and Faraday
constant aid in estimating corrosion rates, and the data obtained can also be used to
estimate thickness reduction.

METHOD OF INHIBITING CORROSION

Preventing corrosion is of utmost importance in order to avoid huge losses. The

majority of the structures that we see and use are made out of metals. This includes
bridges, automobiles, machinery, household goods like window grills, doors,
railway lines, etc. While this is a concerning issue, several treatments are used to
slow or prevent corrosion damage to metallic objects. This is especially done to
those materials that are frequently exposed to the weather, saltwater, acids, or other
hostile environments. Some of the popular methods to prevent corrosion include,

 Painting and Greasing

 Periodic Cleaning of Metal Surface
 Use of Corrosion Inhibitor or Drying Agents
 Electroplating
 Passivation
 Biofilm Coatings

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 Galvanization
 Anodization
 Anti-Corrosion Protective Coatings

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS

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1. Buffer capsules- Buffer Capsules are perfect for quick and easy pH meter
calibration. They are mixed with distilled or de-ionized water so form acidic,
neutral or alkaline solution. The buffer capsules were used to make an
acidic, neutral and alkaline solutions with PH of 4, 7, and 9 respectively.

FIGURE 10: BUFFER CAPSULES

2. Coupon steel sample- A coupon is a small sample of the material under test
that has been prepared in such a way that it's failure mechanism will be
representative of the larger production pieces. When you're making large
products, it's both hard, complicated and expensive to test them. Small
coupons are cheap to make in large enough numbers to have statistically
significant results and only need small machines to test them. This was the
type of steel used for the purpose of this experiment.

FIGURE11:COUPON STEEL SAMPLE

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3. pH meter - A pH meter is a scientific instrument that measures the
hydrogen-ion activity in water-based solutions, indicating its acidity or
alkalinity expressed as pH. It was used to check and confirm the pH level of
the buffer samples made.

FIGURE 12:PH METER

4. Distilled water–This is water that has been boiled into vapor and condensed
back into liquid in a separate container. Impurities in the original water that
do not boil below or near the boiling point of water remain in the original
container. Thus, distilled water is one type of purified water
5. Corrosion cell kit– This is a one-liter electrochemical cell that is designed to
maximize flexibility. Its unique two-piece design can accommodate a wide
range of sample geometries and makes it easy to clean. The cell top has
seven access ports in which the steel coupons are inserted. This is where the
corrosion was expected to take place during the experiment.

FIGURE 13 :CORROSION CELL KIT

20
6. Weighing balance: The weighing scale is an apparatus used to know the
exact weight of a substance. In this experiment it was used determine the
weight of the mild steel coupons.

FIGURE 14: WEIGHING BALANCE

7. Corrosion studies kit apparatus: It makes use of simple items of equipment
in a series of tests designed to demonstrate corrosion situations, how they
can be recognized and avoided. The simple equipment includes;
 Corrosion cells: They contain the test solution in which the coupons
are immersed. It is used to observe the corrosion process.
 Air control valves: They are used to control the flow of air in the
experiment. It can either be put on or off.
 Mild steel coupons: These are the samples used to demonstrate the
effect of corrosion.
 Nylon screws: They are used to attach the coupons to the corrosion
cells.
 Flexible tubes: This connects the air control valve to the bubbler in the
corrosion cells.
 Bubbler: It helps to incorporate air into the solution to agitate the
environment.

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 Air control
Air control valve valve
Electrical terminals for Solution
anode connection
Nylon screw
Flexible tubes
Switch Corrosion cell

Bubbler Mild steel

coupon

FIGURE 15:CORROSION STUDIES KIT

FIGURE 16: SIDE VIEW OF THE CORROSION STUDIES KIT APPARATUS

22
 PROCEDURE

1. Three solutions were made in corrosion cells by dissolving P H capsules with

PH values of 4, 7 and 9 respectively in 600 ml of water.
2. The solution was stirred properly and the P H values checked again with the
use of a PH meter.
3. The coupons were washed, dried and their weights were recorded.
4. Three coupons were clamped asymmetrically around the bubbler with the
use of the nylon screw in each of the corrosion cells.
5. The lids were fitted into the vessels so that the steel coupons were fully
immersed in the solution and switched on.
6. The reaction was allowed to continue for 2 days then the coupons were
removed, rinsed and dried.
7. The coupons were reweighed and the difference in the weights were
recorded.

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 RESULT

TABLE 1: CALCULATED VALUES

pH VALUE 4 7 9
INITIAL VALUES (g) 7.31 7.55 7.61
FINAL VALUES (g) 7.28 7.53 7.60
WEIGHT LOSS (g) 0.03 0.02 0.01

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 DISCUSSION
The adverse effects of corrosion to engineering materials has awaken the interest
of various engineering discipline to study the mechanism of corrosion so as to
profile solution to these adverse effects by seeking for means to prevent and limit
the rate of corrosion of engineering materials . This experiment is a study of the
effect of PH on the corrosion rate of mild steel,

The test specimens (coupons which are made from mild steel) were subjected to
different PH that is acid medium of PH 4, neutral medium of PH 7 and alkaline
medium of PH 9 it can been seen from table 1. That there was a loss in the weight
of the mild steel for the different medium at the end of the experiment indicating
that corrosion has taken place since there was a reduction in the initial weight of
the mild steel. The weight loss for the acidic medium is 0.03 g, for the neutral
medium 0.02 g, and finally for the alkaline medium is 0.01 g, this implies that the
rate of corrosion mild steel will be higher in acidic medium, follow by neutral
medium and finally the alkaline medium.

As shown in the appendix section of this report the corrosion rate calculated
for the acidic medium is 5.41 x 10⁵ mil/yr, the neutral medium is 3.42 x 10 ⁵
mils/yr, and finally the alkaline medium is 1.72 x 10 ⁵ mils/yrs, this implies that,
the corrosion of mild steel is more pronounced in an acidic medium compared to
neutral or alkaline environments and this is due to several key factors which
includes

 Proton Attack: In acidic solutions, there is a high concentration of protons

(H⁺ ions). These protons readily react with the metal, promoting the
dissolution of iron (Fe) as iron ions (Fe²⁺). This proton attack is the initial

25
 step in the corrosion process, making it more aggressive in acidic
environments.
 Lower pH: Acids have a low pH, which means they are more corrosive. The
low pH further facilitates the dissolution of the metal and the formation of
iron ions, which accelerates the corrosion process.
 Hydrogen Evolution: The reaction of protons with iron produces hydrogen
gas (H₂) as a byproduct. The evolution of hydrogen gas can create pores and
defects in the protective oxide layer on the steel's surface, making it more
vulnerable to further corrosion.
 Reduced Passivity: In some environments, steel can form a protective
passive layer (typically iron oxide) that inhibits further corrosion. However,
in acidic media, this passive layer is less stable and can be disrupted more
easily, allowing corrosion to continue.
 Pitting Corrosion: Acidic solutions can induce pitting corrosion, where
localized areas of the steel surface are attacked more intensively. These pits
can penetrate deeper into the metal, causing more damage.

In summary, the higher corrosion rate of mild steel in acidic media is primarily due
to the corrosive nature of acids, the abundance of protons, and the ease with which
they react with the metal. This results in more rapid dissolution of the steel and the
formation of rust, leading to increased corrosion in acidic environments.

The corrosion rate of mild steel in alkaline medium is generally slow this
can be explained from the reaction below

4Fe + 302 + 6H20 = 4Fe(OH)3

This reaction shows that the corrosion of iron takes place in the acidic medium
that is in the presence of H+ as we see and Fe is converted to Fe²+. Alkalis are
compounds that have OH ions in them, i.e, they liberate hydroxide ions on

26
dissociation. They are generally bases and they react with acids to neutralize the
solution to produce water. The hydroxyl ions are basically consuming the protons
or H+ present in the reaction to form water. Thus, the reaction medium doesn't
have any hydronium ion left and the oxidation reaction of iron cannot proceed.
Hence, we can say that an alkaline medium inhibits the rusting of mild steel
because of the non-availability of H+ ions which reduces oxidation of Fe to Fe+2
ions

Generally, When it comes to corrosion, not all metals behave equally with
changes in pH. However, Iron is very typical when it comes to its behaviour at
different pH levels. Iron does not require a low pH for it to corrode or rust. In
theory all it needs is exposure to oxygen in the air. The presence of water
accelerates the rusting. If an acid is also present the corrosion is even faster. In
practice it does not even need to be an acid. The rusting of Iron is accelerated by
the presence of ions dissolved in the water. The ions can come from substances
such as sodium chloride (common salt) or a weak acids

It was observed that the acidic solution (pH 4) showed a reddish-brown

colour, this colouration is as a result of the oxidation of iron (II) ion ( Fe²+ ) which
is green in colour to iron (III) (Fe³+ ) which is reddish-brown in colour, this colour
is more prominent in the acidic medium because corrosion rate that is the oxidation
of the iron ion is faster in acidic medium when compared to that of the basic
solution (pH 9) which showed a pale-yellow color while for the neutral solution of
pH 7 showed a clear solution with greenish substances on the coupon indicating
the presence of iron (II) ions (Fe²+).

Within the limits of experimental errors the results and inferences made
from the experiment are accurate since from literature we know that in the
acidic environment the corrosion of mild steel occurs at a higher rate due to the
increased in the number for hydrogen ions present in the reaction medium for the
oxidation of the iron, also alkaline environment inhibit the corrosion of mild steel
since the hydrogen ion present are neutralized by the hydroxyl ions of the alkaline
hence the reaction medium is deficient of hydrogen ions which are required for the

27
oxidation of the iron, and finally non of the medium that is acidic, neutral and
alkaline medium can cause corrosion in the absence of oxygen, hence for corrosion
to take place there must be a present of oxygen. In general, the relative acidity of
the aqueous solution is the most important factor in the corrosion rate. At low pH
the evolution of hydrogen tends to eliminate the possibility of protective film
formation, so steel corrosion continues, but in alkaline solutions, protective films
are created and reduce the corrosion rate.

CONCLUSION
It can be inferred from the experiment that the corrosion rate of mild steel is faster
in acidic medium which is 5. X 10⁵ mils/yr than in neutral medium which is 3.42 x
10 ⁵ mils/yr and in the alkaline medium which is 1.71 x 10 ⁵ mils/yr and also an
alkaline solution tends to inhibit the corrosion of mild steel and the reasons for all
this have been discussed extensively in the discussion parts of this report.

28
 RECOMMENDATIONS
 Other factors that affect corrosion such as temperature, position in the
activity series e.t.c should also be studied in the future so as to be well
acquainted with the problems post by corrosion
 .Different metallic samples like aluminum, copper, zinc and others can be
made available alongside the mild steel coupons in order to compare the rate
of corrosion between the several samples.
 Other corrosion monitoring techniques such as electrical Resistance,
Hydrogen Penetration, Linear Polarization Resistance e.t.c should be
encouraged in the future for better accuracy and prediction of the rate of
corrosion
 The exposure time of the mild steel or the duration of the experiment should
be increased so as to get more significant changes in the weight of the
specimens after corrosion.

29
 REFERENCES

 Callister, W. D. (1997). "Material Science and Engineering an Introduction", John Willy and
sons Inc. 4th Edition. pp. 550 -554

 Amadi, S.A. (2000). "Corrosion Control", Department of Chemical Engineering RSUST.

Volume I, Journal of School of Engineering, pp 32.

 Schweitzer, P.A. (1968). "Hand Book on Corrosion Resistant Piping", Industrial Press
Incorporate, Second Edition, pp 1.

 Ibert M. L. (1970). "Corrosion Resistant Material", Noves Data Corporation (1976). 3rd
Edition, pp 4-7.

 Chuka, C. E., Odio, B. O., Chukwuneke, J. L., & Sinebe, J. E. (2014). Investigation of The
Effect of Corrosion on Mild Steel in Five Different Environments. International Journal of
Technology Enhancements and Emerging Engineering Research, 3(7), 306-310.

 Freeman, R. A., & Silverman, D. C. (1992). Technical note: error propagation in coupon
immersion tests. Corrosion, 48(6), 463-466.

30
 APPENDIX

W1 = weight of coupon before corrosion (g)

W2 = weight of coupon after corrosion (g)
T = Time of exposure (secs)
P = corrosion rate in g/s
pH = Potential of hydrogen
CALCULATION
For a pH value of 4: Average value = 7.07+6.98+7.88/3 = 7.31g
For a pH value of 7: Average value =7.33+7.40+7.92 = 7.55 g
For a pH value of 9: Average value = 7.69+7.85+7.30 = 7.61 g
FINAL VALUES;
For a pH value of 4: Average value = 7.05+6.95+7.85/3 = 7.28 g
For a pH value of 7: Average value = 7.37+7.31+7.91/3 = 7.53 g
For a pH value of 9: Average value = 7.69+7.85+7.29 /3 = 7.60 g
31
 Weight loss = Initial value – Final value
For a pH value of 4:
Weight loss = 7.31g – 7.28 g = 0.03 g
For a pH value of 7:
Weight loss = 7.55 g – 7.53 g = 0.02 g
For a pH value of 9:
Weight loss = 7.61 g – 7.60 g = 0.01g

CORROSION RATE:
( W1- W2)K/A.S.T where;

K = constant (3.45×10^6)

S = specific gravity of mild steel = 7.85g/cm³

A = area of the rectangle =L×B = 3.9×1.2= 4.68

W1 = weight of coupon before corrosion in g

W2 = weight of coupon after corrosion in g

T = Time of exposure (secs)

P = corrosion rate in mil/yr

Time; 48 hours = 0.0054794yrs

In calculating the corrosion rate, we use the formula above;

For a pH value of 4: At W1 – W2 = 0.03g

P = 0.03×3.45^6/0.0054794×4.68×7.85 = 5.141×10^5mil/yr

For a pH value of 7: At W1 – W2 = 0.02g

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 P =0.02 ×3.45^6/0.0054794×4.68×7.85 = 3.42×10^5mil/yr

For a pH value of 9: At W1 – W2 = 0.01g

P = 0.01×3.45^6/0.0054794×4.68×7.85 = 1.72×10^5mil/yr

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