808988 research-article2018 ALH0010.

1177/146978 741880 8988Active Learning in Hi gher EducationBuc kley and Lee

Article

Active Learning in Higher Education

2021, Vol. 22(1) 37 –48

The impact of extra-curricular © The Author(s) 2018

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activity on the student experience sagepub.com/journals-permissions

https://doi.org/10.1177/1469787418808988DOI: 10.1177/1469787418808988 journals.sagepub.com/home/alh

Patrick Buckley
University of Limerick, Republic of Ireland

Paul Lee
University of Limerick, Republic of Ireland

Abstract
Extra-curricular activities including clubs, fraternities and societies have been part of the fabric of higher level
institutions since their origin. A significant body of educational research has investigated the impact of these
activities on academic performance and the acquisition of discipline complementary skills and competencies.
In the modern context, driven by forces such as marketization and massification, higher level educational
institutions find themselves competing to attract students on the basis of the lived student experience. In
this article, a large qualitative survey is used to capture data on the impact of extra-curricular activity on the
lived student experience. In addition to supporting existing theories on the academic and skills acquisition
effect of extra-curricular activities, the article contributes by identifying a wide range of additionalities to the
student experience that participants attribute to their participation in extra-curricular activities.

Keywords
education, employability, extra-curricular activity, skills development, student experience

The modern higher education context

Two macro-level trends are significantly altering the environment that modern higher education
institutions operate in. The first macro-level trend is towards increased participation in higher level
education and is commonly referred to as massification (Hornsby and Osman, 2014). Until
relatively recently, only a comparatively small elite within the population were able to access
higher level education (Hornsby and Osman, 2014). However, this status quo has been disrupted
in recent years. Marginson (2016) reports that one-third of the global school leaver age group
participates in higher education and participation rates are increasing by 1% per year. A second
trend occurring in parallel is often referred to as marketization. There is a significant shift in the
38 Active Learning in Higher Education 22(1)
funding models which support higher level institutions. In order to cover shortfalls caused by
declining financial

Corresponding author:
Patrick Buckley, Department of Management and Marketing, Kemmy Business School, University of Limerick, Limerick,
Republic of Ireland.
Email: Patrick.Buckley@ul.ie
support from the state, institutions are moving towards a model that conceptualizes students as
consumers (Harrison and Risler, 2015). Governments and students demand that universities focus
on employability so that investment in tuition can be quickly repaid by gainful employment (Elwick
and Cannizzaro, 2017).
Taken together, these trends present significant challenges to traditionally structured
institutions. Larger cohorts of students mean fewer supports for students and difficult transitions
from earlier education. They can lead to negative effects at both the individual (alienation, lack of
motivation, lack of social engagement) and institutional level (high drop-out rates). The focus on
economic outcomes mandates that institutions be responsive in providing students with the skills
that are demanded by future employers. Institutions seek to build positive relationships with
alumni, in the hope of future donations, but also to receive other benefits such as institutional
advocacy, participation in institutional governance and acting as an institutional ambassador
(Gallo, 2012). Numerous studies have found that the student experience and the sense of belonging
generated by that experience have a significant impact upon the altruistic behaviour of alumni
(Iskhakova et al., 2017; McAlexander et al., 2005).
There is a long tradition of extra-curricular activities in higher level institutions (Sequeira and
Daly, 2012). Extra-curricular activities are ‘non-academic activities that are conducted under the
auspices of the school but occur outside of normal classroom time and are not part of the
curriculum’ (Bartkus et al., 2012: 698). Student societies, ranging from cultural and social
organizations (including fraternities and sororities) to student publications and athletic groups,
provide an enormous range of extra-curricular activities (Bartkus et al., 2012). However, as extra-
curricular activities generally do not involve a grade or academic credit, and participation is
optional and voluntary for the student, their wider contribution to the academy and society is
difficult to quantify (Seow and Pan, 2014). Most of the research exploring extra-curricular activities
has done so from a utilitarian perspective, relating extra-curricular activities to educational
outcomes for the students involved. Within this, two coherent research agendas can be identified.
The first investigates the direct effect of participation in extra-curricular activities on academic
performance. The second looks beyond outcomes directly tied to college curricula and investigates
how extra-curricular activities support the acquisition and development of so-called ‘soft’ skills
such as interpersonal skills, project and time-management and motivation management skills.

Academic performance
Education is seen as being a public good, with an educated citizenry seen as being beneficial at the
individual, public and community level (East et al., 2014). This perspective creates an imperative
for higher education institutions to help students to learn, with modern universities generally seen
as having three main missions: teaching, research and public service. This mandate creates a need
to measure educational quality and outcomes, a continuing and highly contested challenge at both
philosophical and practical levels (Noaman et al., 2017). This debate notwithstanding, academic
performance as measured by the achievement of grades and a final degree award are a major
concern of stakeholders such as students and parents. Its importance is illustrated by the volume of
work which investigates the impact of extra-curricular activities on academic performance.
 Buckley and Lee 39
The literature suggests three main models which explain the impact of participation in
extracurricular activities on students’ academic performance (Seow and Pan, 2014). Arguably the
earliest model, the Zero-Sum model, views the resources a student uses to engage in academic
study, such as time, engagement, cognitive capacity and so on, as limited, finite resources
(Torenbeek et al., 2010). From the perspective of the Zero-Sum model, a student who spends time
or other resources on extra-curricular activities is allocating their resources sub-optimally in terms
of academic achievement. Put simply, the time devoted to extra-curricular activities is at the
expense of academic study. This model motivated academic policies such as the 2.0 Rule in the
United States, which mandated that students must maintain a grade average higher than a particular
norm before being allowed to participate in extra-curricular activities (Seow and Pan, 2014).
The Zero-Sum framework has been largely superseded in the literature by what Seow and Pan
(2014) refer to as the Development model. This model suggests that extra-curricular activities have
a positive, though indirect effect on academic performance because of the non-academic and social
benefits of participation. Turning first to the non-academic effects of participation in extra-
curricular activities, many suggest that participants develop a wide range of competencies that
support academic achievement such as time-management, personal organization and team-work
(Larson et al., 2006). Also noted are personal development effects such as increased resilience
(Thompson et al., 2013). Numerous social effects that have a positive effect on academic
achievement have been proposed. It is suggested that participants in extra-curricular activities build
social capital and social networks which promote discipline and conformance to institutional norms
and expectations (Stuart et al., 2011). Students with a strong social connection to their educational
institution built by extra-curricular activities are likely to be more motivated and have improved
academic performance (Osterman, 2000). Chan (2016) suggests that extra-curricular activities
should strengthen mental health, promote engagement and improve academic performance.
The third theoretical model in the literature is the Threshold model. This model extends the
development framework by suggesting that extra-curricular activities have a positive effect on
academic performance up to a certain point but contends that beyond a certain point excessive
participation can become detrimental to achievement if the time investment becomes so great that
it displaces academically focused activities (Seow and Pan, 2014). It is also important to note that
most studies which demonstrate the Threshold model include activities such as part-time jobs or
caring for relatives which can add significant time and emotional burden to the participants in such
studies.

Competence and skill development

Institutions and the qualifications they offer are generally focused on the development of
discipline-specific skills. This is driven by imperatives including ensuring graduate employability,
professional exemptions and the increasing volume of technical knowledge required, particularly
in the ‘hard’ disciplines such as science, medicine and engineering. However, while excellent
disciplinary skills are a pre-requisite for employment, employers now look for a range of
complementary competences and skills in potential recruits (Clark et al., 2015). Students
themselves recognize this and see extra-curricular activities as an important way of acquiring these
skills (Thompson et al., 2013).
Maher and Graves (2008) conducted a meta-analysis of a number of studies investigating the
complementary skills demanded by graduate employers. Specific items identified include
communication skills, which are seen as the ability to present information clearly and persuasively
as well as the ability to influence others. The ability to work in and manage teams as well as network
with others and build relationships is highly valued. Employers also value problem-solving skills,
which are described as the ability to identify key issues and develop practical solutions to
40 Active Learning in Higher Education 22(1)
contextually sited problems. Self-confidence is noted as a key enabler of efficiency and
productivity and thus is highly valued by employers. The skills identified are not domain specific
(e.g. self-confidence) and many of them are described with reference to concepts such as values
and personality traits. These skills are difficult to develop in the lectures and tutorials that are
associated with traditional academic instruction (Fink, 2013). There is a substantial body of work
that recommends supplementing or supplanting these techniques with active learning approaches
that emphasize experiential learning activities and opportunities to reflect on those activities
(Cavanagh, 2011). Examples of such learning activities include writing to learn (Fink, 2013),
problem-based learning (Spronken-Smith and Harland, 2009), computer-based instruction and e-
learning (Clark and Mayer, 2016), assessment for learning (Sambell et al., 2012), role-playing
(Race, 2010), simulations (Wiggins, 2016), gamification (Buckley et al., 2016) and peer teaching
(Bovill et al., 2011). These activities help students to develop specific complementary skills while
also improving their self-efficacy (Race, 2010).
The imperative to understand how to facilitate students in developing these skills has directed
attention towards the impact of extra-curricular activities on competency and skill development.
This interest is closely linked to the Development model discussed previously which suggests that
extra-curricular activities enable students to develop competences and skills that support academic
achievement. However, rather than viewing this skill development as a means to the end of
academic achievement, the literature contends that taking a wider perspective on graduate
employability mandates that the development of transferable skills that are valued by employers
be seen as an end itself. Studies have demonstrated significant relationships between participation
in extra-curricular activities and employer desired skills such as communication and team-working
(Clark et al., 2015), problem solving (Larson et al., 2006) and self-motivation, although
establishing definitive causation is difficult in these contexts. Clark et al. (2015) note that it is
difficult to assign relative credit between structured academic programmes and extra-curricular
activities in developing these skills.
In the context of the employability agenda, students often have difficulty recognizing the
employability skills they have acquired (Burke et al., 2005). Significant meta-cognitive reflection
is required to be able to recognize and enumerate these skills. Participation in extra-curricular
activities can help students internalize their acquisition of these skills. The process of joining
structured organizations as well as participating in specific activities such as budgeting, event and
project management that are tagged as such, makes students explicitly aware of the skills they are
acquiring. Graduates need to be able to evidence these skills to potential employers.
Disciplinespecific skills can be summarized efficiently using grades and degree classifications.
However, evidencing skills embedded within these courses and also those complementary to them
can be more challenging. Greenbank (2015) suggests applicants can also use extra-curricular
activities to demonstrate they possess qualities that employers desire. Extra-curricular activities
can be documented as part of a portfolio. In an educational or professional development context,
ePortfolios are collections of digital artefacts that evidence the students’ efforts, progress,
improvement and achievements (Nguyen and Ikeda, 2015). E-portfolios have been shown to
positively impact upon students’ self-regulated learning skills (Zimmerman, 2008).
The literature on participation in extra-curricular activities can be summarized as being broadly
positive. The dominant models describing the relationship between extra-curricular activities and
academic achievement, the Development and Threshold models, both identify the relationship as
positive, albeit with caveats in the case of the Threshold model. However, the literature has yet to
reach a consensus as to which model best describes the impact of extra-curricular activities on
academic performance. There is a need to contribute further empirical data to this debate.
Similarly, the work exploring the impact of extra-curricular activities on complementary skills
is also positive, with a range of studies showing that participation develops skills prized by
 Buckley and Lee 41
employers such as communication, team-work and problem solving. However, it is clear that there
are significant gaps in our understanding of the effects of extra-curricular activities participation,
and our understanding of the effect of participation on students lacks depth (Clark et al., 2015). In
terms of employability, most of the work is quantitative and investigates the impact of extra-
curricular activities on specific complementary skills. Studies that focus on specific skills acquired
as a result of extra-curricular activities may fail to identify other skills that are being developed in
parallel. There is a need to further explore the competences and skills that participants report
developing through participation in extra-curricular activities. Most studies on the effect of extra-
curricular activities have been directed by the employability and marketability agenda.
Understanding how extra-curricular activities impact upon students’ future careers is a vital
consideration; however, too narrow a focus on outcomes related to employability runs the risk of
overlooking other benefits that may be associated with participation in extra-curricular activities.
There is a need to explore this issue by questioning whether other benefits or positive outcomes are
associated with participation in extra-curricular activities.

Methodology
This research is largely exploratory in nature. In this context, a grounded theory study capturing
qualitative data was the most appropriate research method. A free-form survey asking three
openended questions was created. Participants were asked what they liked about participation in
extracurricular activities, what they disliked about participation and what being involved in extra-
curricular activities meant to them on a personal level. Participants were asked to provide open-
ended, unstructured, textual answers. The questionnaire was distributed electronically to 5078
participants active in extra-curricular activities in a higher level institution in the Republic of
Ireland, representing approximately 37.6% of the total student population in the institution. A total
of 849 valid surveys were returned, a response rate of 16.7%. The data were collected in 2017.
In all, 52.9% of the respondents were female, with the balance of 47.1% identifying as male. As
one would expect from a survey of college/university age students, the age of the majority of the
respondents clustered between 18 and 23 (18 years old = 10%, 19 years old = 20.8%, 20 years old
= 17.9%, 21 years old = 15.7%, 22 years old = 11.7%, 23 years old = 4.65). A total of 13.7% of
respondents were between 24 and 30 years old while 5.7% of respondents were over the age of 30.
In all, 74.9% of respondents were undergraduate students. 9.9% were postgraduate students, while
15.2% were Erasmus or international students studying in the university temporarily. Further
breakdown of the undergraduate population shows that 41.6% of respondents were in the first year
of their studies, 25.4% of respondents were in their second year, 18.1% were in their third year and
14.9% were in their fourth year.
The analysis was performed in two phases. The first phase was coding the data which involved
three steps, an initial coding stage, an aggregation stage and a final review stage. In the first step,
the questionnaire responses were read sequentially. Any benefits or drawbacks associated with
extra-curricular activities were coded using the respondent’s words. One rater coded the data. A
response could be coded to multiple themes if appropriate. In the aggregation phase, a second
review of the data was conducted, with a view to recoding responses in order to aggregate similar
concepts. The review step consisted of a final pass through the data to verify the coding process
and correct any errors in the preceding phases. After the textual coding was completed, the final
codes were divided into two groups, depending on whether the code referred to a complementary
employability skill or another benefit or positive outcome associated with extracurricular activities.
The second phase of the analysis was quantitative in nature, and consisted of calculating the
percentage of responses which contained each code. This analysis was not intended to be
statistically descriptive of the population. However, the proportion of respondents who mention a
42 Active Learning in Higher Education 22(1)
particular effect has informational value, and this analysis provided a relatively straightforward
metric to indicate the relative occurrence of concepts in the data, in order to aid interpretation of
the data set.
Results
Impact on academic performance
The demands that extra-curricular activities place on participants were clearly recognized by
respondents. Quotes such as extra-curricular activities being ‘very time consuming during the
semester when I should be focusing more on college work’ and ‘it takes up so much time!!!! It is so
easy to get sucked in and then realise all of your other commitments have been neglected!’ were
typical exemplars of the comments offered. In total, 32% of respondents noted time as being a
concern with extra-curricular activities. From the perspective of academic performance and
commitment to studies, respondents clearly noted the tension that can exist between extra-curricular
activities and academic endeavour. Some went so far as to identify extracurricular activities as
being a potential cause of stress. In addition to the magnitude of the time commitment involved,
respondents also noted the challenges that can be presented by scheduling issues.
On the contrary, the analysis does not suggest that this is a problem beyond the ability of
participants to address. There was clear recognition among respondents that this was a challenge,
and most were clear about the trade-offs involved. For example, one respondent commented that
there are ‘many amazing clubs and not enough time to be involved in them all unfortunately’. These
comments are representative of rational engagement with extra-curricular activities and clear
recognition of the need to balance extra-curricular activities with commitments in other life
spheres. A sizable proportion of respondents observed that this tension can be a positive influence
and credited it with helping them to develop skills in time-management and prioritization.

Competence and skill development

Respondents identified a wide range of abilities that they felt were developed by extra-curricular
activities. The most commonly mentioned attribute was self-confidence. Participants identified a
causal link between participation in extra-curricular activities and increased self-confidence –
‘Being involved and getting responsibility in the club gave me a huge sense of belonging. It
definitely helped my self-confidence’. In total, 15% of respondents identified improved self-
confidence as a direct benefit of extra-curricular activities.
Team work was identified by participants as being a skill that was significantly developed by
extra-curricular activities. Over 14% of respondents discussed the importance of extra-curricular
activities in developing team-work skills. Extra-curricular activities provide participants with the
opportunity to get ‘involved in a group which works together in order to create and run a society
which people can connect and engage with’. As well as offering the experience of working in a
team, extra-curricular activities were also seen as offering individuals the opportunity to grow into
leadership roles. Respondents recognized that extra-curricular activities can lead to conflict and
arguments, and referred to the challenge of dealing with difficult personalities, but generally saw
this as a learning experience rather than an insurmountable challenge.
Participants felt that general problem-solving skills were significantly developed by extra-
curricular activities, with 10% of respondents discussing this. Participants felt extra-curricular
activities honed a wide range of problem-solving skills including project management, budgeting
and team management. One respondent noted that ‘it has been a great learning experience which
has complemented the academic experience in the university and has helped to boost social skills,
management skills, organizational skills and a whole range of life skills which stand the test of
time’. Often, this skills development was discussed in terms of performing specific activities such
 Buckley and Lee 43
as planning events, managing and leading student organizations, creating and monitoring budgets
and communicating events to the wider community. The development of these skills was often seen
as being symbiotic with college/university work.
Another skill set that respondents identified as being significantly improved by extra-curricular
activities were communication skills. Approximately 6% of respondents identified their
communication abilities as being enhanced. Respondents commented that extra-curricular
activities have ‘improved my communications skills as we needed to speak in front of hundreds of
people during our meetings at the beginning of the year’. Respondents particularly identified public
speaking in this context as being both a challenge and something that was improved by extra-
curricular activities.
Self-management is the ability to independently manage time and tasks and effectively plan and
prioritize. Four percent of the respondents directly discussed extra-curricular activities as
sharpening these skills. One respondent noted ‘I’ve matured and learned to manage time’. This
was considered a personal boon by respondents. Improved prioritization skills were not directly
noted by respondents, although as discussed in the section on the impact of extra-curricular
activities on academic performance, there was recognition of the need to be careful in choosing
commitments, a process which requires effective prioritization.

Other benefits of extra-curricular activities

The responses offered by participants described a wide range of benefits associated with
participation in extra-curricular activities. The dominant theme running throughout the responses
received was that of the creation of social ties. Approximately 63% of respondents noted that extra-
curricular activities had allowed them to create new friends.
What is particularly revealing is the emotive nature of the words and terms used by respondents
to describe the relationships they built through extra-curricular activities. Two motifs particularly
highlight this. The first is regular (15% of respondents) usage of the term ‘family’ to describe the
nature of the relationships created by participation. Some representative examples of these
comments would be ‘It’s a family. We’re all great friends and we met doing the same thing we all
love’, ‘The friends I have made through my club are the best friends I have ever had. We are more
like a family’ and ‘What I like most is the sense of family and belonging within a club’. The second
dominant motif was the recurring expectation that the relationships formed through extra-curricular
activities would be lifelong. One respondent suggested that ‘the friends I made through clubs and
societies are friends for life’.
The use of such emotionally powerful and personal terms to describe the relationships built
through participation is a strong indicator of their importance to individuals. The social ties created
by extra-curricular activities are identified as being one of the indirect benefits that enables
improved academic performance. These deep networks are also important in enabling a range of
other benefits that participants gain.
Approximately 15% of students mentioned extra-curricular activities and the social networks
enabled by it as being a source of stress relief. Respondents felt extra-curricular activities were a
source of support: ‘I also like how no matter what club you are in you always have someone there
for you, whether it’s about your course or personal life there is always someone around to talk to
or give you advice’. Many respondents observed that study can be stressful and time-consuming,
and credited extra-curricular activities with giving them space and time to relax and relieve stress.
Respondents perceived that extra-curricular activities, particularly those involving sports and
other physical activities, benefitted their physical health as well. Respondents saw the physical
benefits as being synergistic with mental health benefits. ‘Furthermore, getting out and about to
exercise when most are lying in watching TV creates a massive sense of pride and enhances both
44 Active Learning in Higher Education 22(1)
my physical and psychological health’. Another interesting theme that emerged was that
extracurricular activities were often contrasted positively with recreational activities that involve
the consumption of alcohol.
Respondents noted that extra-curricular activities built affinity with the university and campus
community. Approximately 16% of respondents noted that being involved helped individuals to
feel connected to, involved in and responsible for the wider institution. This relationship invoked
reactions such as pride ‘I have a great sense of pride to say that I represented [the university] to
people’ and purpose ‘makes you feel like you have a sense of purpose in university rather than just
being there to get a degree’.
Approximately 5% of respondents specifically noted how important extra-curricular activities
had been in helping them to manage the transition to higher level education. One respondent
observed that ‘I would be miserable and depressed without my society and most likely would have
dropped out by now’. Many of the respondents who noted this effect were clear on the positive
impact of extra-curricular activities on retention. The importance of extra-curricular activities in
building a support network of peers was often commented on in this context.
Another important transition associated with undergraduate and postgraduate education occurs
when students transfer between countries and institutions. Several respondents noted that
extracurricular activities provided a support structure that can ease this transition. One respondent
stated, ‘It doesn’t make me feel like I am 5000 km away from home. It has given me a family to be
a part of’. Other respondents noted that extra-curricular activities added depth to their study abroad
experience. International and visiting students considered it to be an important part of their
international experience.
Another significant impact noted by respondents was the ability to contribute to a larger
community for altruistic reasons. Approximately 11% of respondents noted this as being
significant. Respondents clustered the perceived beneficiaries into three main groups. The first
group were other students. Respondents, particularly those in leadership roles, felt they had been
given the opportunity to lead a group or team and they had the opportunity to get involved in
something bigger than themselves. Respondents often emphasized the transitory nature of extra-
curricular participation and the importance of recruiting and developing the skills of new students,
as well as a sense of affording newer students the same opportunities they themselves received.
One respondent spoke of the responsibility of ‘passing on information older members taught me.
Being someone to help first [years] enjoy their college life’ while another spoke of ‘having positive
contact with new members’ and ‘sharing the experiences I had with new members to help them
enjoy their time in the university’.
A second group that respondents felt derived benefits from extra-curricular activities was the
wider community. Some student clubs and societies are explicitly founded with the goal of
engaging with the wider community, through mechanisms such as homework clubs, fundraising
and charity work. Others, while not directly focused on communal engagement, perform activities
that benefit the wider community beyond the university. For example, some clubs may introduce
children and teenagers to their sport. Respondents felt that such activities allowed them to ‘to shape
the future of young people and give them a lifelong interest in a great sport and healthy lifestyle’.
Respondents noted that there were beneficial outcomes to all parties involved in these activities,
with the participation in such activities offering ‘an opportunity to give back’.
The third perceived beneficiary is the university itself. Respondents generally felt that
extracurricular activities were an important part of the students’ experience on campus. ‘It means
being a part of the community and getting to share experiences with some great people, while
making an impact on the campus in terms of events and activities’. This contribution was felt to
have an important positive effect on the university with respondents feeling they are contributing
to making the university a better place to go to. Respondents in sport-orientated clubs often noted
 Buckley and Lee 45
both the honour and the value of representing the university. These contributions enhance the
reputation of the university, particularly among potential students.
A final benefit that was ascribed to extra-curricular activities was the provision of new
challenges and opportunities. Many sports and activities require a critical mass of participants
before they can become viable, which can often be a significant constraining factor in other
contexts. The nature of a university is such that even sports and activities with low overall levels
of interest in the general population will still reach the threshold required to make them viable.
This enables a wide variety of clubs and many different types of events. Respondents enjoyed the
stimulus to ‘do new and challenging things, meet new people’. Extra-curricular activities were also
seen as enabling international travel.
The data collected suggest that extra-curricular activities are valued for more than just how they
directly or indirectly affect academic performance. Respondents credited extra-curricular activities
with supporting, broadening and deepening their overall experience of higher level education. Of
particular note is the observed strength of the impact extra-curricular activities had on the creation
of friendships and social support networks. Participation in extra-curricular activities was seen as
providing a host of opportunities for mutually beneficial engagement with other communal and
societal stakeholders and offering new challenges and opportunities for personal growth.

Discussion and conclusion

Overall, our findings on the impact of extra-curricular activities on the student experience can be
summarized from a number of perspectives. In terms of the impact on academic performance, the
data suggest that time commitments associated with extra-curricular activities need to be managed
to avoid adverse effects. The most commonly reported effect from the perspective of developing
competences and skills was increased self-confidence. Managing a club’s or societies activities,
running successful events and leading teams of their peers allow participants in extra-curricular
activities to evidence to others, but more importantly to themselves, their abilities and competency.
Respondents credited participation in extra-curricular activities with the positive development of a
range of competences and skills associated with employability including team-work, problem
solving and communication. Participants believed that improved skills in time-management and
prioritization lead to improved self-management.
The data also identify a number of benefits that respondents saw as having a positive effect on
the student experience. A clear majority of respondents believed that extra-curricular activities
facilitate the creation of strong social ties. In addition, respondents suggested that extra-curricular
activities reduce stress, improve physical health, increase affinity with the institution, allow them
to contribute positively to the campus and the wider community, and provide new opportunities
and challenges to explore. All of these were seen as contributing positively to the overall student
experience of higher level education.
These findings make a number of contributions to the literature. In the ongoing debate as to
which model best describes the impact of extra-curricular activities on academic performance, the
data gathered provide support for the Threshold model. Respondents reported the development of
skills and social capital that support academic endeavour, but there was clear recognition of the
need to balance extra-curricular activities with study and other forms of academic work. The data
also support the literature that suggests that extra-curricular activities can be a valuable way of
developing and evidencing skills and competences that are valued by employers.
Beyond any possible direct and/or indirect impact on academic performance, this research
suggests the literature must fully engage with the positive impact participation in extra-curricular
activities has on the lived student experience. This can be analysed at an individual and institutional
level. For individuals, participation in extra-curricular activities enables strong social networks,
46 Active Learning in Higher Education 22(1)
offers physical and mental health benefits and provides opportunities and challenges to participants
that can make a significant contribution to the lived experience. The effects on individuals lead to
benefits at an institutional level. First, institutions have an educational and economic incentive to
provide students with a positive educational experience. Building a sense of affinity in students is
of strategic importance to institutions in the modern context. Alumni who are positively inclined
to their alma mater are more likely to respond to alumni fund-raising and more likely to ensure
future enrolments by encouraging children, peers and other acquaintances to consider the
institution. Successful alumni positively predisposed towards their alma mater are often its most
effective ambassadors. In addition to pursuing teaching excellence and innovative research, most
institutions have a strategic imperative to contribute socially to the community in which they are
embedded. Their students are a valuable resource in helping them to fulfil this mission. The
perceived boost to altruistic behaviour prompted by extra-curricular activities is noteworthy in this
context. As well as attracting students, many institutions face significant challenges in retaining
students. Managing student transitions into institutions, both from prior educational systems and
other universities and cultures is often both a key metric and a significant challenge. The data
collected suggests that extra-curricular activities may ease difficult transitions for students.
This research is exploratory and largely qualitative in nature. The study was carried out in one
university and in one country/cultural context. The participants were mostly undergraduate rather
than postgraduate students. This places limitations on the generalizability of this study. The
response rate of 16.7% also limits the generalizability. Respondents provided self-reported textual
responses to open questions and what they report may not mirror actual behaviour. In other words,
while respondents may have reported, say, that their team-working skills had been enhanced, as no
measures were taken of their actual behaviour, this relies on their perceptions and may be subject
to effects such as wishful thinking and self-justification. The survey was distributed to voluntary
participants in extra-curricular activities. As such, individuals who participate are likely to be
positively predisposed towards it. The study design collected data from individuals currently
participating and so excluded individuals who may have dropped out prior to completion or from
those who were not engaged. It is also possible that this sample contained other less obvious biases
– for example, individuals who are attracted to extra-curricular activities may be more self-
confident. Formal higher level education aims to develop many of the skills identified by
respondents as being developed by participation in extra-curricular activities. It is difficult to
measure and compare the impact of various interventions and courses on skills development and
this entanglement places another limitation on the conclusions that can be drawn from this study.
The data were coded by only one rater; future work may look at data coded by multiple raters to
increase reliability.
These limitations call for further studies which could use quantitative experimental designs to
confirm and quantify the benefits identified in this study and also to look at extra-curricular
activities in other student populations and in other countries/contexts. Further research
investigating the relationship between time spent on extra-curricular activities and the benefits
ascribed to participation such as self-confidence and affinity to the institution is also called for.
Another research avenue suggested by this research is a more nuanced investigation of the impact
of the type of extra-curricular activity, the length of time a student has been involved and the variety
of activities a student is involved in. In addition, it would be useful to gather data from employers,
to find out whether or not they have found any tangible impact of involvement of students in these
extra-curricular activities.
One of the themes that emerged from this research is that the time commitments imposed by
extra-curricular activities can be challenging. Respondents spoke of the challenge of managing
their time commitments and managing priorities. These warnings notwithstanding, the clear
message from the data is that there are powerful benefits, with the Threshold model fitting best
 Buckley and Lee 47
with the available evidence. As such, this suggests that the most appropriate institutional-level
response is to support extra-curricular activities, but to also provide training and support to
participants so they can manage their time effectively, and develop early warning and intervention
systems to identify participants who run the risk of over-committing to extra-curricular activities.
Further research that could help shape our understanding of when individuals are at risk of this
occurring and how best to intervene is called for to help the design of such institutional structures.
Phenomena such as massification and marketization present significant challenges to traditional
higher level institutions. The rise of online learning courses and other network-enabled pedagogical
environments such as Massive Open Online Communities (MOOCs), as well as the increasing
prominence of for-profit education providers, questions the fundamental role of institutions. If
education is solely about the acquisition of discipline-specific skills, such offerings, with
comparatively low overheads and operational costs, have significant economic advantages. To re-
affirm their relevance, universities need to continue in their efforts to offer educational experiences
that move beyond the provision of discipline-specific knowledge and provide both a more holistic
education and a more compelling experience. Understanding the contribution that extra-curricular
activities make to that experience is an important step in creating institutions that can thrive in the
modern environment.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

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Author biographies
Patrick Buckley is a Lecturer in Information Management in the University of Limerick. Patrick’s research
interests include active learning, lifelong learning and the pedagogical use of technology. His work in this
area has been published in journals such as Computers and Education and Interactive Learning Environments.
Address: Department of Management and Marketing, Kemmy Business School, University of Limerick,
Republic of Ireland. [email: Patrick.Buckley@ul.ie]
 Buckley and Lee 49
Paul Lee has worked for the Students Union in the University of Limerick since 1998 and is currently Head
of Student Engagement. He is responsible for the management and development of student clubs and societies
in the University of Limerick, including the development of administrative systems that cover financial
management, health and safety, insurance and legal considerations. He serves on the University of Limerick
Arena Board of Directors and has served as Chairperson and Executive member of the Board of Irish Colleges
Societies (BICS). Address: University of Limerick, Republic of Ireland. [email: Paul.Lee@ul.ie]