Module 2 (M-2)

1. Fluid Mechanics
2. Heat Transfer
3. Refrigeration
4. Thermodynamics I & II 2023
Mechanical Engineering Dept.

Prepared By:
1. Degefa Legesse (Msc.)
2. Ashebir Dingeto (Msc.)
3. Kumera Thanaiah (PhD.)
4. Mohammed A/Kadir (Msc.)
5. Ephrem Asefa (Msc.)
6. Minwuyelet Chekol (Msc.)

Bule Hora University

Contents
FLUID MECHANICS ................................................................................................................................ 7
1. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics ....................................................................................................... 7
1.1 Application areas of fluid mechanics .................................................................................................. 8
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS ........................................................................................... 8
1.3 Properties of Fluids ........................................................................................................................... 10
2. Fluid Statics ........................................................................................................................................... 12
2.1 Pressure and Its Measurements: ........................................................................................................ 13
2.2 Pressure at a Point (Pascal‘s Law) .................................................................................................... 14
2.3 Pressure measuring devices .............................................................................................................. 14
2.4 Hydrostatic forces on a surface ......................................................................................................... 16
2.5 Buoyancy and Stability ..................................................................................................................... 17
2.5.1Archimedes‘ principle ................................................................................................................. 17
3. Integral Relations for a Control Volume ............................................................................................ 19
3.1 Basic Flow-Analysis Techniques ...................................................................................................... 19
3.2 Systems versus Control Volumes ..................................................................................................... 19
3.3 Conservation of Mass ....................................................................................................................... 21
3.4 Conservation of Momentum ............................................................................................................. 22
3.5 Conservation of Energy .................................................................................................................... 23
3. 6 The Reynolds Transport Theorem ................................................................................................... 23
3.7 Bernoulli Equation ............................................................................................................................ 25
4. Differential Relations for a Fluid Flow ............................................................................................... 26
4.1 Acceleration field of a fluid .............................................................................................................. 26
4.2 The differential equation of mass conservation ................................................................................ 27
4.3 The differential equation of linear momentum ................................................................................. 28
5. Dimensional analysis and similitude ................................................................................................... 30
5.1 Dimensional Homogeneity ............................................................................................................... 31
5.2 Buckingham‘s Pi–theorem ................................................................................................................ 32
6. Boundary Layer Concept ..................................................................................................................... 32
6.1 Flow Past Immersed Bodies (external flows) ................................................................................... 34
6.2 Drag and Lift ..................................................................................................................................... 35
7. Compressible Flow ................................................................................................................................ 35
7.1 Mach number .................................................................................................................................... 35
 7.2 Speed of sound .................................................................................................................................. 37
7.3 Flow with area change- Nozzles and Diffusers................................................................................. 38
7.4 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves ................................................................................................ 39
8. Introduction to 2D-Potential Flow Theory ......................................................................................... 39
8.1 Review of Velocity-Potential and stream function Concepts ........................................................... 40
8.2 Plane Potential Flows ........................................................................................................................ 40
8.3 Source Flow ...................................................................................................................................... 42
8.4 Sink flow ........................................................................................................................................... 42
8.5 Superposition of Basic, Plane Potential Flows ................................................................................. 43
References .................................................................................................................................................. 44
HEAT TRANSFER ................................................................................................................................... 45
1.1. Definition ......................................................................................................................................... 45
1.2. Conduction:- ............................................................................................................................... 45
1.3. Convection .................................................................................................................................. 46
1.4. Radiation ..................................................................................................................................... 47
2. One-Dimensional Steady-State Conduction .......................................................................................... 49
2.1. General heat conduction equation ............................................................................................... 50
2.2. The Thermal Resistance Concept ............................................................................................... 51
2.3. Heat transfer from extended surfaces.......................................................................................... 52
3. Two-Dimensional Steady State Conduction ................................................................................... 52
a. Finite-Difference Equations ............................................................................................................ 53
b. Finite-Difference Form of the Heat Equation ................................................................................. 53
4. Unsteady-State Conduction .............................................................................................................. 55
5. Convection Heat Transfer ................................................................................................................ 56
5.1. The Velocity Boundary Layer..................................................................................................... 56
5.2. The Thermal Boundary Layer ..................................................................................................... 56
6. Heat Exchangers ............................................................................................................................... 57
6.1. Heat Exchanger Types ................................................................................................................ 57
6.2. The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient ....................................................................................... 58
6.3. Heat Exchanger Analysis: Use of the Log Mean Temperature Difference ................................. 58
REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ................................................................................ 61
Refrigeration, refrigerator, and refrigerant ............................................................................................. 61
Important refrigeration applications: ...................................................................................................... 61
 Refrigeration Systems ............................................................................................................................. 61
Standard Rating of a Refrigeration Machine .......................................................................................... 62
Heat Engine reminder ............................................................................................................................. 62
The heat pumps ....................................................................................................................................... 63
Reversed Carnot Cycle ........................................................................................................................... 66
Reversed Carnot refrigerator-using vapor as working fluid ................................................................... 68
Vapor compression refrigeration cycle ................................................................................................... 68
The ideal Vapor compression refrigeration cycle ................................................................................... 68
Effect of various parameters on VCR Cycle:.......................................................................................... 74
REFRIGERANTS ................................................................................................................................... 74
DESIGNATION OF REFRIGERANTS ................................................................................................. 75
Required Properties of ideal Refrigerant: ............................................................................................... 76
COMMON REFRIGERANTS ............................................................................................................... 77
OZONE DEPLETION AND GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL OF REFRIGERANTS ................. 78
CONDENSERS ......................................................................................................................................... 79
Air-Cooled Condensers ........................................................................................................................... 79
Evaporative Condenser ........................................................................................................................... 79
Water-cooled Condenser ......................................................................................................................... 80
EVAPORATORS ...................................................................................................................................... 80
Finned-Tube Evaporators........................................................................................................................ 80
Shell-and-Tube Evaporators ................................................................................................................... 80
EXPANSION DEVICES .......................................................................................................................... 81
COMPRESSORS ...................................................................................................................................... 81
Compressor Principle .............................................................................................................................. 81
Types of Compressors............................................................................................................................. 81
Vapor absorption refrigeration cycle ...................................................................................................... 84
Relation b/n the vapor compression and vapor absorption systems ....................................................... 84
Thermodynamic analysis and performance of the ideal vapor absorption cycle .................................... 86
AIR REFRIGERATION SYSTEM ......................................................................................................... 88
Limitation of the Reversed Carnot cycle with gas as a refrigerant ......................................................... 88
Reversed Brayton or Joule or Bell Coleman cycle ................................................................................. 88
STEAM-INJECTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM .......................................................................... 93
Air-conditioning (AC) ............................................................................................................................... 95
 Fundamental Properties of Moist Air Dry and Atmospheric Air ............................................................ 95
Selection of suitable inside design conditions: ..................................................................................... 104
Heating and Cooling load calculations: ................................................................................................ 105
Classification of air conditioning systems: ........................................................................................... 107
Thermodynamics I .................................................................................................................................. 108
Theory and Discussion .......................................................................................................................... 108
Unity Conversion Ratios ....................................................................................................................... 109
State and Equilibrium ........................................................................................................................... 110
Processes and Cycles ............................................................................................................................ 111
Steady Flow Processes .......................................................................................................................... 112
Zeroth Law ............................................................................................................................................ 113
 ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE ....................................................................................................... 116
Types of Heating and Cooling .............................................................................................................. 119
Saturation Pressure and Temperature ................................................................................................... 119
Property Diagrams for Phase Change Processes................................................................................... 119
Other Property Diagrams of Interest ..................................................................................................... 121
Property Tables and Charts ................................................................................................................... 122
Gas Laws............................................................................................................................................... 126
Work, Heat and Energy Transfer .............................................................................................................. 130
Specific Heat, Internal Energy and Enthalpy of Ideal Gases ................................................................ 135
First Law of Thermodynamics............................................................................................................... 137
Law of Conservation of Energy ............................................................................................................. 137
Second Law of Thermodynamics ............................................................................................................. 143
Clausius statement of the second law ................................................................................................... 148
Third Law of Thermodynamics ............................................................................................................. 157
Exergy Transfer .................................................................................................................................... 165
The Decrease of Exergy Principle and Exergy Destruction.................................................................. 165
References ................................................................................................................................................. 168
Thermodynamics II ................................................................................................................................ 168
1. MIXTURE OF IDEAL GASES ..................................................................................................... 168
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 168
2: GAS-VAPOR MIXTURES AND AIR-CONDITIONING PROCESSES ..................................... 171
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 171
 Dry and atmospheric air ........................................................................................................................ 171
Dew Point, Tdp....................................................................................................................................... 172
Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures ................................................................................................. 174
3: FUELS AND COMBUSTION ........................................................................................................... 175
4: VAPOR AND COMBINED POWER CYCLES .............................................................................. 178
Carnot Vapor Cycle .............................................................................................................................. 178
Rankine Cycle ....................................................................................................................................... 180
Ideal Reheat Cycle ................................................................................................................................ 181
Ideal Regenerative Cycle ...................................................................................................................... 181
Cogeneration ......................................................................................................................................... 182
Combined Gas-Vapor and Binary Cycle .............................................................................................. 182
5: GAS POWER CYCLES ..................................................................................................................... 183
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 183
Carnot Cycle ......................................................................................................................................... 183
Otto Cycle ............................................................................................................................................. 184
Diesel Cycle .......................................................................................................................................... 184
Air Standard Dual Cycle ....................................................................................................................... 184
Stirling Cycle ........................................................................................................................................ 185
Erricson Cycle....................................................................................................................................... 185
Brayton Cycle ....................................................................................................................................... 185
Regenerative Brayton Cycle ................................................................................................................. 186
Brayton Cycle with Regeneration, Reheating and Intercooling........................................................... 186
6: REFRIGERATION CYCLES ........................................................................................................... 187
Reversed Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump ...................................................................................... 188
The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle ...................................................................................... 188
Gas Refrigeration Systems .................................................................................................................... 189
Absorption Refrigeration Systems ........................................................................................................ 189
7: THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES RELATIONS ..................................................................... 190
 FLUID MECHANICS

1. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Fluid mechanics: The science that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in motion
(fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries.
 Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids that can be approximated as incompressible
(such as liquids, especially water, and gases at low speeds).
☛ Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant density changes, such as the
flow of gases through nozzles at high speeds.
 Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over bodies such as aircraft, rockets,
and automobiles at high or low speeds.
What is a Fluid?
Fluid: A substance in the liquid or gas phase.
In a liquid, groups of molecules can move relative to each other, but the volume remains relatively
constant because of the strong cohesive forces between the molecules.
A gas expands until it encounters the walls of the container and fills the entire available space. This is
because the gas molecules are widely spaced, and the cohesive forces between them are very small.
Unlike liquids, a gas in an open container cannot form a free surface.
Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in gases.
Stress: Force per unit area.
Normal stress: The normal component of a force acting on a surface per unit area.
Shear stress: The tangential component of a force acting on a surface per unit area.
Pressure: The normal stress in a fluid at rest.

Figure 4: The normal stress and shear stress at the surface of a fluid element.

Note: - For fluids at rest, the shear stress is zero and pressure is the only normal stress.
1.1 Application areas of fluid mechanics
Fluid mechanics is widely used both in everyday activities and in the design of modern engineering
systems from vacuum cleaners to supersonic aircraft. Mechanics of fluids is extremely important in many
areas of engineering and science and plays a vital role in the human body.
Mechanical Engineering
 Design of pumps, Turbines, Air-conditioning equipment etc
 Design and analysis of aircraft, boats, submarines, rockets, jet engines, wind Turbines,
Biomedical devices, the cooling of electronic components and the transportation of
water, crude-oil and natural gas.
 Turbomachines: - fan, blower, propeller, turbine, pump etc.
 Automobile:- IC engine, air-conditioning, fuel flow, external aerodynamics, etc
☛ The heart is constantly pumping blood to all parts of the human body through the arteries
and veins, and the lungs are the sites of airflow in alternating directions. Needless to say,
all artificial hearts, breathing machines, and dialysis systems are designed using fluid
dynamics.
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
There is a wide variety of fluid flow problems encountered in practice, and it is usually convenient to
classify them on the basis of some common characteristics to make it feasible to study them in groups.
There are many ways to classify fluid flow problems, and here we present some general categories.
Internal versus External Flow
External flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe.
Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or duct if the fluid is completely bounded by solid surfaces.
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
Viscous flows: Flows in which the frictional effects are significant.
Inviscid flow regions: In many flows of practical interest, there are regions (typically regions not close to
solid surfaces) where viscous forces are negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces.
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
Incompressible flow: If the density of flowing fluid remains nearly constant throughout.
Compressible flow: If the density of fluid changes during flow.
In applications that involve high-speed gas flows, the flow speed is often expressed by Mach number
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow: The highly ordered fluid motion characterized by smooth layers of fluid. The flow of
high-viscosity fluids such as oils at low velocities is typically laminar.
Turbulent flow: The highly disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at high velocities and is
characterized by velocity fluctuations. The flow of low-viscosity fluids such as air at high velocities is
typically turbulent.
Transitional flow: A flow that alternates between being laminar and turbulent.
Reynolds Number
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the geometry, surface roughness, flow velocity,
surface temperature, and type of fluid, among other things.

Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow

Forced flow: A fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by external means such as a pump or a
fan.
Natural flow: Fluid motion is due to natural means such as the buoyancy effect, which manifests itself as
the rise of warmer (and thus lighter) fluid and the fall of cooler (and thus denser) fluid.
Steady versus Unsteady Flow
Steady: implies no change at a point with time.
Unsteady: there is variation at a point with time.
Uniform: implies no change with location over a specified region.
Periodic: refers to the kind of unsteady flow in which the flow oscillates about a steady mean.
Turbines, compressors, boilers, condensers, and heat exchangers are classified as steady-flow devices.
One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
 A flow field is best characterized by its velocity distribution.
  A flow is said to be one-, two-, or three-dimensional if the flow velocity varies in one, two, or
three dimensions, respectively.
Rheological classification of fluids: (Rheology - Study of stress – strain behavior).
Ideal fluid
 A fluid, which is incompressible and is having no viscosity
 Is an imaginary fluid because all the fluids, which exit, have some viscosity.
Real fluid
 A fluid which possesses viscosity and all fluids in practice are real fluids.
Newtonian fluid
 A real fluid, in which the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain or velocity
gradient is known as Newtonian fluid.
Example: - water, air, kerosene
Non- Newtonian Fluid
 A real fluid, in which the shear stress is not directly proportional to the rate of shear strain or
velocity gradient is known as Non - Newtonian fluid.

Figure 5: - Rheological classification of fluids

1.3 Properties of Fluids
Pressure: It is the normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. In SI system the unit and dimensionof
pressure can be written as, N/m2
Density: The density of a substance is the quantity of matter contained in unit volume of the substance.
Unit: kg/m3
Temperature: It is the measure of hotness and coldness of a system. In thermodynamic sense, it is the
measure of internal energy of a system. The units are degree Celsius and Kelvin.
Specific Weight: -The specific weight of a fluid, denoted by 𝛾 (lowercase Greek gamma), is its weight
per unit volume. Just as a mass has a weight W =mg, density and specific weight are
simply related by gravity:-

The units of 𝛾 are weight per unit volume, N/m3

Specific Gravity:- denoted by SG, is the ratio of a fluid density to a standard reference fluid, water (for
liquids), and air (for gases):

Viscosity: The property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to motion. In general, the
viscosity of a fluid mainly depends on temperature. For liquids, the viscosity decreases with temperature
and for gases, it increases with temperature.
Coefficient of compressibility/Bulk modulus: It is the property of fluid that represents the variation of
density with pressure at constant temperature. Mathematically, it is represented as,

Coefficient of Volume Expansion: It is a property that represents the variation of the density of a fluid
with temperature at constant pressure.

For ideal gas, β = 1/T where T is absolute temperature. In the study of natural convection currents, the
condition of the surrounding fluid body will affect that of the finite hot or cold regions it surrounds. In
such cases, the volume expansion coefficient can be expressed approximately as

Where 𝜌∞ the density and T∞ is is the temperature of the fluid away from the confined hot or cold fluid
region.
Surface Tension: Liquid droplets behave like small spherical balloons filled with the liquid, and the
surface of the liquid acts like a stretched elastic membrane under tension. The pulling force that causes
this tension acts parallel to the surface and is due to the attractive forces between the molecules of the
liquid. The magnitude of this force per unit length is called surface tension.
Capillary Effect: is the rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into the liquid. Such
narrow tubes or confined flow channels are called capillaries. The rise of kerosene througha cotton wick
inserted into the reservoir of a kerosene lamp is due to this effect. The capillary effect is also partially
responsible for the rise of water to the top of tall trees. The curved free surface of a liquid in a capillary
tube is called the meniscus.
Fig 2; The contact angle for a)Wetting and b)Nonwetting fluids, c) the capillary rise of water and the
capillary fall of mercury in a small-diameter glass tube and d) forces acting on a Liquid Column.
Referring to Figure 2 d), the capillary rise is calculated by

Exercises
Choose the correct answer for the following questions.
1. Which one of the following is characterized by smooth and chaotic flow patterns respectively?
A. internal and external flow C. compressible and incompressible flow
B. Viscous and Inviscid Flow D. laminar and Turbulent Flow
2. What is the significance of Reynold‘s Number?
A. It is the ratio of inertia force to viscous force
B. To identify whether the flow is compressible or incompressible
C. To identify whether the flow is Laminar, Transitional or Turbulent Flo
D. A and C
3. Which one of the following is most likely, incompressible?
A. Oil B. Water C. Fluid D. A and B
4. An ideal fluid is.
A) One which obeys Newton‘s law of viscosity B) Frictionless and incompressible
C) Very viscous D) Frictionless and compressible
2. Fluid Statics
 Fluid statics deals with problems associated with fluid at rest.
 In fluid statics, there is no shear stress in the fluid trying to deform it.
 The only stress in fluid statics is the normal stress.
 Normal stress is due to pressure
 Variations of pressure is due to only the weight of the fluid.
2.1 Pressure and Its Measurements:
 When a certain mass of fluids is held in static equilibrium by confining it within solid boundaries,
it exerts force along direction perpendicular to the boundary in contact. This force is called fluid
pressure.
It is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. Unit: 1 Pa = N/m2, 1 bar = 105 N/m2

Figure: - normal force exerted by a fluid to the boundary of surface

Pressure distribution
It is the variation of pressure over the boundary in contact with the fluid. There are two types of pressure
distribution.
a) Uniform Pressure distribution.
If the force exerted by the fluid is same at all the points of contact boundary then the pressure distribution
is said to be uniform.

b) Non-Uniform Pressure distribution.

If the force exerted by the fluid is not same at all the points then the pressure distribution is said to be
non-uniform.

Absolute, gage and Vacuum pressure

 Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is measured relative to absolute
vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
 Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure.
Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they
indicate gage pressure.
 Vacuum pressure: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.
𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠

Fig:- Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures

2.2 Pressure at a Point (Pascal’s Law)
Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all directions.

2.3 Pressure measuring devices

Pressure of a fluid is measured by the following devices:
 Manometers
 Mechanical gauges
Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing
the column of fluid by the same or another column of the fluid. They are classified as:
 Simple Manometers
 Differential Manometers
Simple Manometers
It is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure differences. A manometer contains one or
more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.
A simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its ends connected to a point where pressure is
to be measured and other end remains open to atmosphere.
 Fig The basic manometer.
Common types of simple manometers are:
 Piezometer
 U-tube Manometer
 Single Column Manometer
Simple manometer – Piezometer
 It is the simplest form of manometer used for measuring gauge pressures.
 One end of this manometer is connected to the point where pressure is to be measured and other
end is open to the atmosphere as shown in Figure.
 The rise of liquid gives the pressure head at that point. If at a point A, the height of liquid say
water is h in piezometer tube,
 Then pressure at A can be given as:
𝑃𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔𝑕 (𝑁 )
𝑚2

Fig simple manometer piezometer

U-tube Manometer
It consists of glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is connected to a point at which is to be
measured and other end remains open to the atmosphere as shown in Figure.
The tube generally contains mercury or any other liquid whose specific gravity is greater than the specific
gravity of the liquid whose pressure is to be measured.
 Fig u- tube Manometer
Pressure at point Q is determined by
𝑷𝑸 = 𝑷𝑨𝒕𝒎 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉
Mechanical Gauges: Mechanical gauges are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure by
balancing the fluid by the spring or dead weight.
The commonly used mechanical pressure gauges are:
 Diaphragm pressure gauge
 Dead-weight pressure gauge
 Bourdon tube pressure gauge
 Bellows pressure gauge.
2.4 Hydrostatic forces on a surface
A plate, such as a gate valve in a dam, the wall of a liquid storage tank, or the hull of a ship at rest, is
subjected to fluid pressure distributed over its surface when exposed to a liquid. On a plane surface, the
hydrostatic forces form a system of parallel forces, and we often need to determine the magnitude of the
force and its point of application, which is called the center of pressure.

Fig:- When analyzing hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces, the atmospheric pressure can be
subtracted for simplicity when it acts on both sides of the structure.
Fig:- Hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface completely submerged in a liquid
The magnitude of the resultant force acting on a plane surface of a completely submerged plate in a
homogeneous (constant density) fluid is equal to the product of the pressure PC at the centroid of the
surface and the area A of the surface as shown in the figure below.

The point of intersection of the line of action of the resultant force and the surface is the center of
pressure. The vertical location of the line of action is determined by equating the moment of the resultant
force to the moment of the distributed pressure force about the x-axis. It gives

Finally yp

2.5 Buoyancy and Stability

An upward force is exerted by the fluid on the body is called buoyant force.

Fig:- A flat plate of uniform thickness h submerged in a liquid parallel to the free surface
2.5.1Archimedes’ principle
The buoyant force acting on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the
body, and it acts upward through the centroid of the displaced volume.
For floating bodies, the weight of the entire body must be equal to the buoyant force, which is the weight
of the fluid whose volume is equal to the volume of the submerged portion of the floating body. That is,

Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies

An important application of the buoyancy concept is the assessment of the stability of immersed and
floating bodies with no external attachments.
Fundamental concepts of stability and instability. Shown in Fig. below are three balls at rest on the floor.
Case (a) is stable since any small disturbance (someone moves the ball to the right or left) generates a
restoring force (due to gravity) that returns it to its initial position. Case (b) is neutrally stable because if
someone moves the ball to the right or left, it would stay put at its new location. Case (c) is a situation in
which the ball may be at rest at the moment, but any disturbance, even an infinitesimal one, causes the
ball to roll off the hill-it does not return to its original position; rather it diverges from it. This situation is
unstable

Fig:- Stability is easily understood by analyzing a ball on the floor.

Metacenter
It is defined as the point about which a body starts oscillating when the body is tilted by a small angle.
The meta-center may also be defined as the point at which the line of action of the force of buoyancy will
meet the normal axis of the body when the body is given a small angular displacement.
The distance MG, i.e., the distance between the metacenter of a floating body and the center of gravity of
the body is called meta-centric height.

Exercises
1. If the weight of a body immersed in a fluid exceeds the buoyant force, then the body will
A) Rise until its weight equals the buoyant force B) Tend to move downward and it may finally sink
C) Float D) None of the above
2. The position of center of pressure on a plane surface immersed vertically in a static mass of fluid is
a) At the centroid of the submerged area b) Always above the centroid of the area c) Always below the
centroid of the area d) None of the above
3. The normal stress in a fluid will be constant in all directions at a point only if.
A) It has uniform viscosity B) It is incompressible C) It is at rest D) It has zero viscosity

3. Integral Relations for a Control Volume

3.1 Basic Flow-Analysis Techniques
There are three basic ways to attack a fluid-flow problem. They are equally important for a student
learning the subject, and this module tries to give adequate coverage to each method:
1. Control-volume, or integral analysis
 Working with a finite region, making a balance of flow in versus flow out, and determining gross
flow effects such as the force or torque on a body or the total energy exchange.
2. Infinitesimal system, or differential analysis
 seeking to describe the detailed flow pattern at every point (x, y, z) in the field
3. Experimental study, or dimensional analysis
In all cases, the flow must satisfy the three basic laws of mechanics and plus a thermodynamic state
relation associated boundary conditions:
1. Conservation of mass (continuity)
 The principle of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created nor destroyed.
2. Linear momentum (Newton‘s second law)
 The principle of conservation of momentum or impulse momentum principle states that the
impulse of the resultant force, or the product of the force and time increment during which it acts,
is equal to the change in the momentum of the body
3. First law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy)
 The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed,
but can be transferred one form to another form.
4. A state relation like 𝜌 = 𝜌(p, T)
3.2 Systems versus Control Volumes
All the laws of mechanics are written for a system, which is defined as an arbitrary quantity of mass of
fixed identity. Everything external to this system is denoted by the term surroundings, and the system is
separated from its surroundings by its boundaries. The laws of mechanics then state what happens when
there is an interaction between the system and its surroundings.
Figure:- interactions between the system and its surrounding
Systems may be considered to be closed or open.
Closed system (Control mass): A fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary.
Open system (control volume): A properly selected region in space.
Control Volume (CV): A volume in space through which fluid may flow
 It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
 Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
Volume and Mass Rate of Flow
The amount of mass flowing through a cross section per unit time is called the mass flow rate and is
denoted by𝑚. The dot over a symbol is used to indicate time rate of change.

Figure. 3.2 The normal velocity Vn for a surface is the component of velocity perpendicular to the
surface.
𝛿𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝐴…………………………………………………………….……………………3.1
The mass flow rate through the entire cross-sectional area of a pipe or duct is obtained by integration:
𝑚= 𝐴𝑐
𝛿𝑚 = 𝐴𝑐
𝜌𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑔/𝑠………………………….………………………………….........3.2
1
Average Velocity 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐴 𝑉
𝐴𝑐 𝑛
𝑑𝐴𝑐 ………………………………………………………...3.3
𝑐

The volume of the fluid flowing through a cross section per unit time is called the volume flow rate𝑽.
𝑉= 𝑉 d𝐴𝑐
𝐴𝑐 𝑛
= 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐴𝑐 = 𝑉𝐴𝐶 …………………………..…………………………………….....3.4

The mass and volume flow rates are related by

𝑉
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = ………………………………………………..………………………………..3.5
𝑣

Where v is the specific volume.

3.3 Conservation of Mass
The system is a fixed quantity of mass, denoted by m. Thus the mass of the system is conserved (remains
constant during a process) and does not change. This is a law of mechanics and has a very simple
mathematical form, called conservation of mass.
𝑑𝑚 𝑠𝑦𝑠
𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = constant or 𝑑𝑡
= 0……………………………………………………………3.6

The conservation of mass principle for a control volume can be expressed as: The net mass transfer to or
from a control volume during a time interval ∆t is equal to the net change (increase or decrease) in the
total mass within the control volume during ∆t. That is,
Total mass entering the CV during ∆𝑡 (𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) – Total mass leaving the CV during ∆𝑡 (𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) = Net change
in mass within the CV during ∆𝑡, ∆𝑚𝑐𝑣 .
In the rate form the conservation of mass principle expressed as
𝒅𝒎𝒄𝒗
Conservation of mass𝒎in - 𝒎out = 𝒅𝒕
……………………….…………..…………………….…..3.7

Where 𝑚in and 𝑚out are the total rates of mass flow into and out of the control volume, respectively, and
𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑣
𝑑𝑡
is the rate of change of mass within the control volume boundaries. In fluid mechanics, the

conservation of mass relation written for a differential control volume is usually called the continuity
equation.
Consider a control volume of arbitrary shape, as shown in Fig. 3.1.

Fig. 3.1 the differential control volume dV and the differential control surface dA used in the derivation
of the conservation of mass relation.
The mass of a differential volume dV within the control volume is dm = 𝜌dV. The total mass within the
control volume at any instant in time t is determined by integration to be
Total mass within the CV: 𝑚𝑐𝑣 =
𝜌𝑑𝑉………………………………………………………….....3.8
Then the time rate of change of the amount of mass within the control volume can be expressed as
𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑣 𝑑
Rate of change of mass within the CV: 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡
𝜌𝑑𝑉……………………………………3.9

From fig. 3.1. The mass flow rate through dA is proportional to the fluid densityρ, normal velocity Vn,
and the flow area dA, and can be expressed as
Differential mass flow rate: 𝛿𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉𝑛 dA = 𝜌(𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑑𝐴 =𝜌(𝑉. 𝑛) dA …………………….3.10
The net flow rate into or out of the control volume through the entire control surface is obtained by
integrating 𝛿𝑚 over the entire control surface,
Net mass flow rate: 𝑚net = 𝐶𝑠
𝛿𝑚 = 𝐶𝑆
𝜌𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐶𝑆
𝜌 (𝑉 . 𝑛)𝑑𝐴 ………………………………….3.11
𝒅𝒎𝒄𝒗
Rearranging Eq. 3.7 as 𝒅𝒕
+ 𝑚out - 𝑚in the conservation of mass relation for a fixed control volume

can then be expressed as

𝑑
General conservation of mass: 𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑉
𝜌𝑑𝑉 + 𝐶𝑆
𝜌(𝑉 . 𝑛) 𝑑𝐴 = 0 ……………………………3.12

The above equation 3.7, states that the time rate of change of mass within the control volume plus the net
mass flow rate through the control surface is equal to zero.
Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
During a steady-flow process, the total amount of mass contained within a control volume does not
change with time (𝑚𝐶𝑉 = constant). Then the conservation of mass principle requires that the total amount
of mass entering a control volume equal the total amount of mass leaving it.
Steady flow: 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡 (kg/s) …………………………………………………..3.13
Where mass flow rates (𝑚) = 𝜌𝑉𝐴
3.4 Conservation of Momentum
The product of the mass and the velocity of a body is called the linear momentum or just the momentum
of the body, and the momentum of a rigid body of mass m moving with a velocity 𝑣 is m𝑉. Newton‘s
second law states that the acceleration of a body is proportional to the net force acting on it and is
inversely proportional to its mass, and that the rate of change of the momentum of a body is equal to the
net force acting on the body. Therefore, the momentum of a system remains constant when the net force
acting on it is zero, and thus the momentum of such systems is conserved. This is known as the
conservation of momentum principle. In fluid mechanics, Newton‘s second law is usually referred to as
the linear momentum equation.
𝑑𝑉 𝑑
F = ma = m = (𝑚𝑉)………………………………………………………………………..3.14
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

If the surroundings exert a net moment M about the center of mass of the system, there will be a rotation
effect.
𝑑𝐻
M= 𝑑𝑡
………………………………………………………………………………………….3.15

Where H = (𝑟𝑋 𝑉) 𝜕𝑚 is the angular moment of the system about its center of mass.
3.5 Conservation of Energy
Energy can be transferred to or from a closed system by heat or work, and the conservation of energy
principle requires that the net energy transfer to or from a system during a process be equal to the change
in the energy content of the system.
𝑑𝐸 𝐶𝑉
Conservation of energy principle:𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡
…………………………………...3.16

Where 𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 are the total rates of energy transfer into and out of the control volume, respectively,
𝑑𝐸 𝐶𝑉
and 𝑑𝑡
is the rate of change of energy within the control volume boundaries.

3. 6 The Reynolds Transport Theorem

 Reynolds theorem is used in formulating the basic conservation laws of continuum mechanics,
particularly fluid dynamics and large-deformation solid mechanics.
 An analytical tool to shift from describing the laws governing fluid motion using the system
concept to using the control volume concept
 The link between the two is given by the Reynolds transport theorem.

Fig 3.3.The Reynolds transport theorem (RTT) provides a link between the system approach and the
control volume approach
Note: - Reynolds transport theorem can be simply stated as - What was already there plus what goes in
minus what comes out is equal to what is there.
Reynolds transport theorem states that the rate of change of an extensive property B, for the system is
equal to the time rate of change of B within the control volume and the net rate of flux of the property B
through the control surface.
 Let B represent any extensive property (mass, energy, or momentum).
 Let 𝛽 be the corresponding intensive property, i.e., 𝛽= B/m (property B per unit mass in any small
portion of the fluid.).
 Our goal is to find a relationship between 𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠 or 𝛽𝑠𝑦𝑠 (property of the system, for which we
know the conservation laws) and BCV or 𝛽𝐶𝑉 (property of the control volume, which we prefer to
use in our analysis).
 Fig 3.3 fixed control surface and system boundaries
 The total amount of B in the control volume is thus
𝑑𝐵
𝐵𝐶𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣
𝛽𝜌𝑑𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽= 𝑑𝑚
…………………………3.17

See text book for detailed derivation of the RTT. The results are shown below in various forms:
𝑑𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 𝑑
RTT, for fixed control volume 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑣
𝛽𝜌𝑑𝑉 + 𝐶𝑆
𝛽𝜌(𝑉 . 𝑛)𝑑𝐴………………….3.18

Generally RTT for CV implies that,Time rate of change of 𝐵 within a system is equal to Time rate of
change of 𝐵 within CV plus Net flux of 𝐵 through control surface (CS) [𝑩𝒐𝒖𝒕 − 𝑩𝒊𝒏 ]
or
𝑑𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 𝑑
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑣
𝛽𝜌𝑑𝑉 + 𝐶𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝛽𝜌 𝑉 . 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 − (− 𝐶𝑆 𝑖𝑛
𝛽𝜌(𝑉 . 𝑛)𝑑𝐴………………………3.19

Where, 𝐶𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝛽𝜌 𝑉 . 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (− 𝐶𝑆 𝑖𝑛
𝛽𝜌 𝑉 . 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵𝑖𝑛

Conservation of mass
Also called the continuity equation, the control volume form of the conservation of mass is found by
𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝑚
substituting mass in for B. This means that, B = m and 𝛽 = 𝑑𝑚
= 𝑑𝑚 = 1

For fixed CV RTT for conservation of mass becomes

𝑑𝑚 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 𝑑
𝑑𝑡
= 0 =𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑣
𝜌𝑑𝑉 + 𝐶𝑆
𝜌(𝑉 . 𝑛)𝑑𝐴………………………………………………….3.20

This is the integral mass-conservation law for a deformable control volume. For a fixed control volume,
we have
𝑑
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑣
𝜌𝑑𝑉 + 𝐶𝑆
𝜌(𝑉 . 𝑛)𝑑𝐴 = 0 ……………………………………………………………3.21

If the control volume has only a number of one-dimensional inlets and outlets, we can write
𝑑
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑣
𝜌𝑑𝑉 + 𝑖 (𝜌𝐴𝑉)𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑖 (𝜌𝐴𝑉)𝑖𝑛 = 0………………………………………………...3.22
𝑑
Suppose that the flow within the control volume is steady; then 𝑑𝑡 = 0 and the above equation reduces to
 𝐶𝑆
𝜌(𝑉 . 𝑛)𝑑𝐴 = 0 ………………………………………………………………………….......3.23
This states that in steady flow the mass flows entering and leaving the control volume must balance
exactly. If, further, the inlets and outlets are one-dimensional, we have for steady flow
𝑖 (𝜌𝐴𝑉)𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑖 (𝜌𝐴𝑉)𝑖𝑛 = 0 ……………………………………………………………….3.24
Linear Momentum Equation
The momentum equation is found by substituting momentum in for B. From this, 𝛽 is found to be
velocity. From Newton‘s second law, we have the time rate of change of momentum is equal to the net
𝑑𝐵 𝑑(𝑚𝑉 )
force. 𝛽 = 𝑑𝑚
= 𝑑𝑚 = 𝑉, Thus,
𝑑𝑚𝑉𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 𝑑
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑣
𝑉𝜌𝑑𝑉 + 𝐶𝑆
𝑉𝜌(𝑉 . 𝑛)𝑑𝐴
𝑑
𝐹= 𝐶𝑣
𝑉𝜌𝑑𝑉 + 𝐶𝑆
𝑉𝜌(𝑉 . 𝑛)𝑑𝐴……….......................................................................3.25
𝑑𝑡

One-Dimensional Momentum Flux

𝑀𝐶𝑆 = 𝐶𝑆
𝑉𝜌(𝑉 . 𝑛)𝑑𝐴…………………………………………………………………………3.26
If the cross section is one-dimensional, V and 𝜌 are uniform over the area and the integrated result is
𝑀𝐶𝑆𝑖 =𝑉𝑖 (𝜌𝑖 𝑉𝑛𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ) = 𝑚𝑖 𝑉𝑖 ……………………………………………………………….......3.27
Thus if the control volume has only onedimensional inlets and outlets, Eq. (3.25) reduces to
𝑑
𝐹= 𝐶𝑣
𝑉𝜌𝑑𝑉 + (𝑚𝑉)𝑜𝑢𝑡 − (𝑚𝑉)𝑖𝑛 ……………………………………………3.28
𝑑𝑡

Conservation of energy
𝑑𝐸
The dummy variable B becomes energy E, and the energy per unit mass is 𝑑𝑚
= e.

By substituting into general RTT equations

𝑑
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑉
𝑒𝜌𝑑𝑣 + 𝐶𝑆
𝑒𝜌(𝑉. 𝑛)𝑑𝐴................................................................................................3.29

3.7 Bernoulli Equation

The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and elevation, and is valid
in regions of steady, incompressible flow where net frictional forces are negligible.

Fig: - 3.2 The Bernoulli equation is an approximate equation that is valid only in inviscid regions of flow
where net viscous forces are negligibly small compared to inertial, gravitational, or
pressure forces. Such regions occur outside of boundary layers and wakes.
The Bernoulli equation is obtained from the conservation of momentum for a fluid particle moving along
a streamline. It can also be obtained from the first law of thermodynamics applied to a steady-flow
system. Therefore, Bernoulli equation states
The sum of the kinetic, potential, and flow energies of a fluid particle is constant along a streamline
during steady flow when the compressibility and frictional effects are negligible.
𝑷 𝑽𝟐
Steady, Incompressible flow: 𝝆 + 𝟐
+ 𝒈𝒁 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕…………………………………...3.30

Practical applications of Bernoulli’s equation

Bernoulli's equations is applied in all problems of incompressible fluid flow where energy considerations
are involved.
Following are some of the applications of Bernoulli‘s Equation:
Venturi-meter, Orifice meter, Pitot-tube.

4. Differential Relations for a Fluid Flow

Differential Relations for Fluid Flow
The differential approach provides point‐by‐point details of a flow pattern as oppose to control volume
technique that provide gross‐average information about the flow.
Indifferential analysis, all the details of the flow like velocity, density, pressure etc. are solved at every
point within the flow domain

Fig flow domain differential analysis, all the details of the flow are solved at every point within the flow
domain
In this approach, we apply our four basic conservation laws to an infinitesimally small control volume.
4.1 Acceleration field of a fluid
The Cartesian vector form of a velocity filed can be written as:
V (r, t) = 𝒊𝒖 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛, 𝒕 + 𝒋𝒗 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛, 𝒕 + 𝒌𝒘(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛, 𝒕)…………………….4.1
The flow filed is the most important variable in the fluid mechanics, i.e., knowledge of the velocity vector
filed is equivalent to solving a fluid flow problem.
The acceleration vector field can be calculated:
 Local acceleration Convective acceleration

4.2 The differential equation of mass conservation

All basic equations can be derived by considering an elemental system. Figure 1 shows the control
volume (dx, dy, dz) in which flow through each side of the element is approximately one‐dimensional.
Since the size of the element is so small, we can assume that all the fluid properties are uniform and
constant within the element.

Fig Elemental Cartesian fixed control volume showing the inlet and outlet mass flows on the x faces.
The mass-flow terms occur on all six faces, three inlets and three outlets.
The conservation of mass for the element can be written as:

After dividing by the volume of the element:

4.3 The differential equation of linear momentum

In a Cartesian coordinates, the momentum equation can be written as:

There are types of forces: body forces and surface forces.

Body forces are due to external fields such as gravity and magnetism fields. We only consider gravity
forces:

The surface forces are due to the stresses on the sides of the control surface. These stresses are the sum
of hydrostatic pressure plus viscous stresses 𝜏𝑖𝑗 which arise from the motion of the fluid:

Vorticity and Rotationality

The vorticity ξ at any given point is equal to twice of the angular velocity of a fluid element ω, and both
are related to the velocity field by

The vorticity vector is defined mathematically as the curl of the velocity vector 𝑉.

The symbol ξ used for vorticity is the Greek letter zeta.

Physically, you can tell the direction of the vorticity vector by using the right-hand rule for cross product.

Fig: - The direction of a vector cross product is determined by the right-hand rule.
If the vorticity at a point in a flow field is nonzero, the fluid particle that happens to occupy that point in
space is rotating; the flow in that region is called rotational. Likewise, if the vorticity in a region of the
flow is zero (or negligibly small), fluid particles there are not rotating; the flow in that region is called
irrotational.
Note: - when 𝛁 𝐗 𝐕 ≠ 𝟎, the flow is said to rotational flow, but when, ∇ X V = 0, the flow said to be
irrotational flow.
Stream functions
The stream function ψ is defined such that ψ(x, y) = constant is the equation of a streamline, and the
difference in the stream function between two streamlines ∆ψ is equal to the mass flow between the
streamlines.
The stream function ψ is a clever device which allows us to wipe out the continuity equation and solve the
momentum equation directly for the single variableψ. The stream-function idea works only if the
continuity equationcan be reduced to two dimensional flow.

This equation is satisfied identically if a function ψ (x, y) is defined such that Equation above becomes

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
Where 𝑢 = , 𝑣= −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Velocity potential
The velocity potential is defined for irrotational flow
The symbol ϕ used for velocity potential
Irrotationality gives rise to a scalar function ϕ similar and complementary to the stream function.
Many flows have negligible or zero vorticity and are called irrotational (potential flow).
5. Dimensional analysis and similitude
Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique used in research work for design and for conducting
model tests
Dimensional analysis is a means of simplifying a physical problem by appealing to dimensional
homogeneity to reduce the number of relevant variables.
The primary purposes of dimensional analysis are
 To generate no dimensional parameters that help in the design of experiments (physical and/or
numerical) and in the reporting of experimental results
 To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance can be predicted from model performance
 To predict trends in the relationship between parameters
Example.
The drag force, 𝐹, on a sphere is a function of approach-flow speed, 𝑈, sphere diameter, 𝐷, fluid density, ,
and viscosity, 𝜇. However, instead of having to draw hundreds of graphs portraying its variation with all
combinations of these parameters, dimensional analysis will tell us that the problem can be reduced to a
dimensionless relationship between just two independent variables:
In this instance dimensional analysis has reduced the number of relevant variables from 5 to 2 and the
experimental data to a single graph of 𝑐𝐷 against Re.
DIMENSIONS
Dimensions and Units
 Any physical situation can be described by certain familiar properties e.g. length, , area, volume,
etc. These are all known as dimensions
 The expression for a derived quantity in terms of a basic quantities is called the dimension of the
physical quantity
 Dimensions are properties which can be measured
 Units are the standard elements we use to quantify these dimensions
In fluid mechanics the primary or fundamental dimensions, together with their SI units, are:
Dimensions Symbol SI units
Mass M kg(kilogram)
Length L m(meter)
Time T s(second)
Temperature 𝜃 K(kelvin)
Electric current I A(ampere)
Amount of light C cd(candela)
Amount of matter N mol(mole)

For example, force has the same dimensions as mass time‘s acceleration (by Newton‘s second law). Thus,
in terms of primary dimensions
length 𝐋
Force (F) = mass * acceleration = {mass Time 2 } = {𝐦 𝐓 𝟐}
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡 𝑕 𝐿
Velocity = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
={ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
} = {𝑇 }

5.1 Dimensional Homogeneity

The Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity
If an equation truly expresses a proper relationship between variables in a physical
process, it will be dimensionally homogeneous; i.e., each of itsadditive terms in a physical equation must
have the same dimensions.
Examples:
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2
𝑎𝑡 2 All terms have the dimensions of length (𝐿).

Dimensional homogeneity is a useful tool for checking formulae.

Methods of Dimensional Analysis
5.2 Buckingham’s Pi–theorem
The name pi comes from the mathematical notation (𝜋), meaning a product of variables. The
dimensionless groups found from the theorem are power products denoted by 𝝅1, 𝝅2, 𝝅3, etc. The method
allows the pi‘s to be found in sequential order without resorting to free exponents.
The first part of the pi theorem explains what reduction in variables to expect:
If a physical process satisfies the principle of dimensional homogeneity (PDH) and involves n
dimensional variables, it can be reduced to a relation between only k dimensionless variables or 𝜋’s. The
reduction j =n - k equals the maximum number of variables which do not form a pi among themselves and
is always less than or equal to the number of dimensions describing the variables.
The second part of the theorem shows how to find the pis one at a time:
Find the reduction j, then select j scaling variables which do not form a pi among themselves.
Each desired pi group will be a power product of these j variables plus one additional variable which is
assigned any convenient nonzero exponent. Each pi group thus found is independent.
The Method of Repeating Variables
1. List and count the n variables involved in the problem. If any important variables are missing,
dimensional analysis will fail.
2. List the primary dimensions for each of the n parameters.
3. Find j. Initially guess j equal to the number of different dimensions present, and look for j variables
which do not form a pi product.
4. Select j scaling parameters which do not form a pi product.
5. Add one additional variable to your j repeating variables, and form a power product. Algebraically find
the exponents which make the product dimensionless. Try to arrange for your output or dependent
variables (force, pressure drop, torque, power) to appear in the numerator, and your plots will look better.
Do this sequentially, adding one new variable each time, and you will find all n - j = k desired pi
products.
6. Write the final dimensionless function, and check your work to make sure all pi groups are
dimensionless.
Similitude or similarity
Similitude is defined as the similarity between the model and prototype in every aspect, which means that
the model and prototype have similar properties.

6. Boundary Layer Concept

Fluid flow is classified as external and internal, depending on whether the fluid is forced to flow over a
surface or in a conduit. Internal and external flows exhibit very different characteristics. Boundary layer
concept is devoted to internal and external flows around bodies immersed in a fluid stream.
Internal flow
Internal flows confined by the walls of a duct. In this case the viscous boundary layers grow from the
sidewalls, meet downstream, and fill the entire duct.In internal flows, the entire flow field is dominated by
viscous effects.
External flow
External flows are unconfined, free to expand no matter how thick the viscous layers grow. External flow
is characterized by a freely growing boundary layer surrounded by an outer flow region that involves
small velocity and temperature gradients.
Internal flow entrance region
Consider a fluid entering a circular pipe at a uniform velocity. Because of the no-slip condition, the fluid
particles in the layer in contact with the surface of the pipe come to a complete stop. This layer also
causes the fluid particles in the adjacent layers to slow down gradually as a result of friction. To make up
for this velocity reduction, the velocity of the fluid at the midsection of the pipe has to increase to keep
the mass flow rate through the pipe constant. As a result, a velocity gradient develops along the pipe.
The region of the flow in which the effects of the viscous shearing forces caused by fluid viscosity are felt
is called the velocity boundary layer or just the boundary layer. The hypothetical boundary surface
divides the flow in a pipe into two regions: the boundary layer region, in which the viscous effects and the
velocity changes are significant, and the irrotational flow region, in which the frictional effects are
negligible and the velocity remains essentially constant in the radial direction.

Fig: -The development of the velocity boundary layer in a pipe

The region from the pipe inlet to the point at which the boundary layer merges at the centerline is called
the hydrodynamic entrance region, and the length of this region is called the hydrodynamic entry length
Lh.
The region beyond the entrance region in which the velocity profile is fully developed and remains
unchanged is called the hydrodynamically fully developed region. The flow is said to be fully developed
when the normalized temperature profile remains unchanged as well.
The velocity profile in the fully developed region is parabolic in laminar flow and somewhat flatter (or
fuller) in turbulent flow due to eddy motion and more vigorous mixing in the radial direction.

Fig: - In the fully developed flow region of a pipe, the velocity profile does not change downstream, and
thus the wall shear stress remains constant as well.
The length of the hydrodynamic entry length Lh. It is given by

The time-averaged velocity profile remains unchanged when the flow is fully developed, and thus

The shear stress at the pipe wall 𝛕𝐰 is related to the slope of the velocity profile at the surface. Noting that
the velocity profile remains unchanged in the hydrodynamically fully developed region, the wall shear
stress also remains constant in that region as shown in fig above.

fig: - The variation of wall shear stress in the flow direction for flow in a pipe from the entrance region
into the fully developed region.
6.1 Flow Past Immersed Bodies (external flows)
External flow is characterized by a freely growing boundary layer surrounded by an outer flow region that
involves small velocity and temperature gradients. Such a flow will have viscous (shear and no-slip)
effects near the body surfaces and in its wake, but will typically be nearly inviscid far from the body.
The technique of boundary-layer (BL) analysis can be used to compute viscous effects near solid walls
and to ―patch‖ these onto the outer inviscid motion. This patching is more successful as the body
Reynolds number becomes larger.
6.2 Drag and Lift
A fluid may exert forces and moments on a body in and about various directions. The force a flowing
fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction is called drag.
The components of the pressure and wall shear forces in the direction normal to the flow tend to move the
bodyin that direction, and their sum is called lift.

The drag and lift forces depend on the density r of the fluid, the upstream velocity V, and the size, shape,
and orientation of the body, among other things, and it is not practical to list these forces for a variety of
situations. Instead, it is found convenient to work with appropriate dimensionless numbers that represent
the drag and lift characteristics of the body. These numbers are the drag coefficient CD, and the lift
coefficient CL, and they are defined as

A body is said to be streamlined if a conscious effort is made to align its shape with the anticipated
streamlines in the flow in order to reduce drag. Otherwise, a body (such as a building) tends to block the
flow and is said to be blunt or bluff. At sufficiently high velocities, the fluid stream detaches itself from
the surface of the body. This is called flow separation. When a fluid stream separates from the body, it
forms a separated region between the body and the fluid stream. Separation may also occur on a
streamlined body such as an airplane wing at a sufficiently large angle of attack, which is the angle the
incoming fluid stream makes with the chord (the line that connects the nose and the end) of the body.

7. Compressible Flow
Compressible flow is a flow in which there is significant or noticeable changes in fluid density. Gases are
highly compressible and liquids have a very low compressibility.
Gas has large compressibility but when its velocity is low compared with the sonic velocity the change in
density is small and it is then treated as an incompressible fluid.
7.1 Mach number
The Mach number is the dominant parameter in compressible-flow analysis, with different effects
depending upon its magnitude.
Mach number, Ma is defined as the ratio of the value of the local flow velocity, V to the speed of sound,
c.
𝑉 𝑉
𝑀𝑎 = = Where V = the flow velocity, c = speed of sound is the rate of propagation of a pressure
𝐶 𝑘𝑅𝑇

pulse of infinitesimal strength through a still fluid.

𝑐
k= specific heat ratio 𝑐𝑝
𝑣

Flows according to Mach number:

 Under small Mach number condition, change in fluid density are everywhere small in the flow
field.
 If the density change is significant, it follows from the equation of state the temperature and
pressure change are also substantial.
Density change means that, we can have significant compression or expansion work on a gas, so the
thermodynamics states of the fluid will change, meaning that in general all properties like –
temperature, internal energy, entropy, enthalpy and so on can change.
Stagnation/Total Conditions
When a moving fluid is decelerated isentropic ally to reach zero speed, then the thermodynamic state is
referred to as stagnation/total condition/state. For example, a gas contained in a high pressure cylinder has
no velocity and the thermodynamic state is known as stagnation/total condition
In a real flow field, if the actual conditions of pressure P , temperature T , density ρ, enthalpy h, internal
energy e, entropy s etc. are referred to as static conditions while the associated stagnation parameters are
denoted as PO, TO, …etc respectively.

Fig:- The actual state, actual stagnation state, and isentropic stagnation state of a fluid on an h-s diagram.
When dealing with compressible flow, it is convenient to combine the enthalpy and the kinetic energy of
the fluid into a single term called stagnation (or total) enthalpy ho, defined as
𝑉2
𝑕𝑜 = 𝑕 + = (𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔)
2
The stagnation temperature of an ideal gas with constant specific heats is
𝑉2
𝑇𝑜 = 𝑇 +
2𝑐𝑝
The stagnation properties of an ideal gas are related to the static properties of the fluid by
𝑘
𝑃𝑜 𝑇𝑜 𝑘−1
=
𝑃 𝑇
1
𝜌𝑜 𝑇𝑜 𝑘−1
=
𝜌 𝑇
Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases
Relations between the static properties and stagnation properties of an ideal gas in terms of the specific
heat ratio k and the Mach number Ma. We assume the flow is isentropic and the gas has constant specific
heats.
𝑇𝑜 𝑉2
𝑇
=1+ 2𝑐𝑝 𝑇
𝑐𝑝
𝑘= 𝑐𝑣
= cp = kcv

The ratio of the stagnation to static pressure is obtained by

7.2 Speed of sound

An important parameter in the study of compressible flow is the speed of sound, which is the speed at
which an infinitesimally small pressure wave travels through a medium. The pressure wave may be
caused by a small disturbance, which creates a slight rise in local pressure
To obtain a relation for the speed of sound in a medium, consider a duct that is filled with a fluid at rest,
as shown in Fig below.
Fig: - Propagation of a small pressure wave along a duct.
To simplify the analysis, consider a control volume that encloses the wave and derived by using the mass
balance for single-stream, steady-flow process and using thermodynamic property relations finally the
speed of sound

7.3 Flow with area change- Nozzles and Diffusers

Nozzles whose flow area decreases in the flow direction are called converging nozzles. Nozzles whose
flow area first decreases and then increases are called converging–diverging nozzles. The location of the
smallest flow area of a nozzle is called the throat. The highest velocity to which a fluid can be accelerated
in a converging nozzle is the sonic velocity. Accelerating a fluid to supersonic velocities is possible only
in converging–diverging nozzles. In all supersonic converging– diverging nozzles, the flow velocity at the
throat is the velocity of sound.

Converging nozzles

Converging–diverging nozzles

Fig: When Ma = 1, the properties at the nozzle throat become the critical properties.
The properties of a fluid at a location where the Mach number is unity (the throat) are called critical
properties, setting that Ma = 1
7.4 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
When an abrupt changes in fluid properties occur in a very thin section of a converging–diverging nozzle
under supersonic flow conditions, creating a shock wave.
Types of Shock Waves:

Normal Shocks
First we consider shock waves that occur in a plane normal to the direction of flow, called normal shock
waves. The flow process through the shock wave is highly irreversible and cannot be approximated as
being isentropic.
In some range of back pressure, the fluid that achieved a sonic velocity at the throat of a converging–
diverging nozzle and is accelerating to supersonic velocities in the diverging section experiences a normal
shock, which causes a sudden rise in pressure and temperature and a sudden drop in velocity to subsonic
levels. Flow through the shock is highly irreversible, and thus it cannot be approximated as isentropic.
The properties of an ideal gas with constant specific heats before (subscript 1) and after (subscript 2) a
shock are related by

These equations also hold across an oblique shock, provided that the component of the Mach number
normal to the oblique shock is used in place of the Mach number.

8. Introduction to 2D-Potential Flow Theory

Two-dimensional potential flows, focus for flow which the velocity field and all other fields only depend
on two coordinates.
8.1 Review of Velocity-Potential and stream function Concepts
Velocity potential
For an irrotational flow:
𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖
𝛁𝑿𝑽= − 𝒊+ − 𝒋+ − 𝒌=𝟎
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
So we have
𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖
= , = , =
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
It follows that in this case the velocity components can be expressed in terms of a scalar function ϕ (x, y,
z, t), called velocity potential, as
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
u= , v= , w=
∂x ∂y ∂z
In vector form:
𝑉 = ∇𝑋𝜙
The velocity potential is a consequence of the irrotationality of the flow field, whereas the stream function
is a consequence of conservation of mass. It is to be noted, however, that the velocity potential can be
defined for a general three-dimensional flow, whereas the stream function is restricted to two-dimensional
flows.
For an incompressible flow we know from the conservation of mass:
∇. 𝑉 = 0, and therefore for incompressible, irrotational flow, it follows that
∇2 𝜙 =0
The velocity potential satisfies the Laplace equation.
In Cartesian coordinates:
𝜕2 𝜙 𝜕2 𝜙 𝜕2 𝜙
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
8.2 Plane Potential Flows
For potential flow, basic solutions can be simply added to obtain more complicated solutions because of
the major advantage of Laplace equation that it is a linear Partial Differential Equation. For simplicity,
only plane (two-dimensional) flows will be considered. Since we can define a stream function for plane
flow,
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑢= , 𝑣= −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
If we now impose the condition of irrotationality, it follows
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑦
= 𝜕𝑥
, and in terms of the stream function
 𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣 𝜕2 𝜓 𝜕2 𝜓
= − = + =0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 2
Thus, for a plane irrotational flow we can use either the velocity potential or the stream function—both
must satisfy Laplace's equation in two dimensions. It is apparent from these results that the velocity
potential and the stream function are somehow related. It can be shown that lines of constant (called
equipotential lines) are orthogonal to lines of constant ψ (streamlines) at all points where they intersect.
Recall that two lines are orthogonal if the product of their slopes is -1, as illustrated by this figure

Along streamlines ψ=const:

Along equipotential lines ϕ = constant

Uniform flow at angle α with the x axis

A uniform flow consists of a velocity field where V = ui+ vj is a constant. In 2-D, this velocity field is
specified either by the freestream velocity components u∞, v∞, or by the freestream speed U and flow
angle α.
8.3 Source Flow

8.4 Sink flow

Where m = source strength

Free vortex (Γ(circulation) > 0 counterclockwise; Γ < 0 clockwise)

Doublet (with strength k=ma/π)

8.5 Superposition of Basic, Plane Potential Flows

Source in a Uniform Stream—Half-Body
Flow around a half-body is obtained by the addition of a source to a uniform flow.
The flow around a half-body: (a) superposition of a source and a uniform flow; (b) replacement of
streamline ψ = πbU with solid boundary to form half-body.

References
1] Frank M. White, Fluid Mechanics, Fourth Edition
2] Yunus A. Cengel and John Cimbala, Fluid Mechanics, Jan 31, 2005.
3] Donald F. Young, Bruce R. Munson, Theodore H. Okiishi, and Wade W. Huebsch, A Brief
Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, Jan 22, 2007.
4] Robert L Mott, Applied Fluid Mechanics SI Version, May 31, 2006.
5] Iain G. Currie, Fundamental Mechanics of Fluids, Third Edition (Mechanical Engineering (Marcell
Dekker)), Dec 12, 2002.
6] Bruce R.Munson, et al, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 2005
 HEAT TRANSFER

1.1. Definition
Heat transfer, is defined as: the process of thermal energy transfer between systems or a system
and its surroundings due to temperature difference or
It is thermal energy in transit due to a spatial temperature difference.
 Whenever a temperature difference exists in a medium or between media, heat transfer
must occur.
 There are three modes (ways or mechanisms) of heat transfer: Conduction, Convection
and Radiation.

1.2.Conduction:- Conduction can be defined as: the transfer of energy due to the collisions of
more energetic and less energetic molecules of a substance. Conduction can take place in
solids, liquids and gases.

 The rate of energy transfer by conduction is given by Fourier’s law.

𝒅𝑻 𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 ∆𝑻
𝒒′′𝒙 = −𝒌 𝒅𝒙 ≡ 𝒌 𝑳
=𝒌 𝑳

𝑊
Where, k – thermal conductivity ( )
𝑚 .𝐾
𝑑𝑇
is temperature gradient
𝑑𝑥

Fig.1.2. Heat transfer by conduction

Example 1
The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15-m-thick fireclay brick having a thermal conductivity
of 1.7 W/m .K. Measurements made during steady-state operation reveal temperatures of 1400 and 1150 K at
the inner and outer surfaces, respectively. What is the rate of heat loss through a wall that is 0.5 m x1.2 m on a
side?
SOLUTION
Known: Steady-state conditions with prescribed wall thickness, area, thermal conductivity, and
surface temperatures
Find: Wall heat loss.
Schematic:

Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions.
2. One-dimensional conduction through the wall.
3. Constant thermal conductivity.
Analysis: Since heat transfer through the wall is by conduction, the heat flux may be determined
from Fourier‘s law.
∆𝑇 250𝐾
𝑞 ′′ 𝑥 = 𝑘 = 1.7 𝑊 𝑚. 𝐾 𝑥 = 𝟐𝟖𝟑𝟑 𝑾 𝟐
𝐿 0.15𝑚 𝒎
The heat flux represents the rate of heat transfer through a section of unit area, and it is uniform
(invariant) across the surface of the wall. The heat loss through the wall of area 𝐴 = 𝐻𝑥𝑊 is then
𝑞𝑥 = 𝐻𝑊 𝑞 ′′ 𝑥 = 0.5𝑚𝑥1.2𝑚 2833 𝑊 𝑚2 = 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟎𝑾

1.3.Convection:- can be defined as: the transfer of energy that will occur between a surface and
a moving fluid when they are at different temperatures.
The convection heat transfer mode is comprised of two mechanisms: energy transfer due to
random molecular motion (diffusion) and energy transfer by the bulk, or macroscopic,
motion of the fluid. Such motion, in the presence of a temperature gradient, contributes to heat transfer.
The rate of energy transfer from the surface to the fluid (gas or liquid) is given by the
Newton’s law of cooling.

Fig 1.3: Heat transfer by convection

 W
where, h is the convection heat transfer coefficent in .
m2 K
𝒒𝒄 = 𝒉𝑨(𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞ ) A is the heat transfer area.
Tb or Ts is the surface temerature.
T f or T is the fluid temerature.

Convection heat transfer may be classified according to the nature of the flow.
i. Free (or natural) convection - when the flow is induced by buoyancy forces, which
are due to density differences caused by temperature variations in the fluid.
 An example of free convection is heat transfer that occurs from hot components on a vertical
array of circuit boards in air. Air that makes contact with the components experiences an
increase in temperature and hence a reduction in density. Since it is now lighter than the
surrounding air, buoyancy forces induce a vertical motion for which warm air ascending
from the boards is replaced by an inflow of cooler ambient air.
ii. Forced convection - when the flow is caused by external means, such as by a fan, a
pump, or atmospheric winds.
 As an example, consider the use of a fan to provide forced convection air cooling
of hot electrical components on a stack of printed circuit boards
Boiling and condensation – are convection processes associated with the change in phase of
a fluid. (solid–liquid or solid–vapor)

1.4.Radiation:- can be defined as: the transfer of energy due to electromagnetic waves or
photons. If a material is heated to a very high temperature, it produces light or photons and
travels through a medium or without a medium (in a vacuum). Unlike conduction and
convection, radiation requires no medium to propagate.
  Solid surfaces, gases and liquids emit, absorb and transmit thermal radiation to
varying degrees.
 The net rate at which energy is emitted between two surfaces at temperature Ts
and Tsur is given by Stefan-Boltzmann law.

𝒒𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝜺𝝇𝑨𝒔 (𝑻𝒔 𝟒 − 𝑻𝒔𝒖𝒓 𝟒 )

Where, 𝜀 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (0 < 𝜀 < 1)

Fig 1.6: Heat transfer by Radiation
𝑊
𝜍 - Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.6 x 10−8
𝑚 2 𝐾4
𝐴𝑠 - The surface area
𝑇𝑠 - The surface temperature
𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 - The surrounding temperature
The net rate of radiation heat transfer
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝐿 = 𝑞′ = 𝝅𝑫 (𝑬 − 𝜶𝑮)
When; E= 𝝇𝜺𝑻𝟒𝒔 and G = 𝝇𝑻𝟒𝒔𝒖𝒓

Note:- An idealized body (surface) that can absorb and emit radiation at maximum rate is called
a black body. The emissivity of a black body is 1.

Example 2: An un-insulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls are at 25oC.
The outside diameter of the pipe is 70 mm, and its surface temperature and emissivity are 200oC and 0.8,
respectively. What are the surface emissive power and irradiation? If the coefficient associated with free
convection heat transfer from the surface to the air is 15 W/m2 .K, what is the rate of heat loss from the surface
per unit length of pipe?
SOLUTION
Known: Un-insulated pipe of prescribed diameter, emissivity, and surface temperature in a room with
fixed wall and air temperatures
Find:
1. Surface emissive power and irradiation.
2. Pipe heat loss per unit length 𝑞′′ .
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions.
2. Radiation exchange between the pipe and the room is between a small surface and a much larger
enclosure.
3. The surface emissivity and absorptivity are equal.
4
1. The surface emissive power may be evaluated as follows, while the irradiation corresponds to G = 𝜍𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 .
Hence;
𝐸 = 𝜀𝜍𝑇𝑠4 = 0.8 5.67𝑥10−8 𝑊 𝑚2 𝐾 4 𝑥 (473𝐾)4 = 𝟐𝟐𝟕𝟎 𝑾 𝟐
𝒎
𝐺 = 𝜍𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟4
= 5.67 𝑥 10−8 𝑊 𝑚2 . 𝐾 4 (298𝐾)4 = 𝟒𝟒𝟕 𝑾 𝟐
𝒎
2. Heat loss from the pipe is by convection to the room air and by radiation exchange with the walls. Hence,
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑞 = 𝑕𝐴 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ + 𝜀𝐴𝜍(𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 4
) When; A = 𝝅𝑫𝑳
= 𝑕 𝜋𝐷𝐿 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ + 𝜀(𝜋𝐷𝐿)𝜍(𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4
)
The heat loss per unit length of pipe is then
𝑞
𝐿
= 𝑞 ′ = 𝑕 𝜋𝐷 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ + 𝜀(𝜋𝐷)𝜍(𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4
) (Substituting given values)
𝑞 ′ = 15 𝑊 𝑚2 𝐾 𝜋𝑥0.07𝑚 (200 − 25)𝑜 𝐶 + 0.8(𝜋𝑥0.07)5.67 𝑥 10−8 𝑊 𝑚2 . 𝐾 4 (4734 − 2984 )
𝑞 ′ = 577 𝑊 𝑚 + 421 𝑊 𝑚 = 𝟗𝟗𝟖 𝑾 𝒎
Example 3
1) The wall of a house, 7m wide and 6m high is made from 0.3m thick brick with k=0.6W/m.K. The
surface temperature on the inside of the wall is 16oC and that on the outside is 6oC. Find the heat flux
through the wall and the total heat loss through it.

SOLUTION
Heat flux can be calculated as follows
𝑑𝑇 𝑘
𝑞′ = −𝑘 = (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )
𝑑𝑥 𝐿
0.6
𝑞′ = 16 − 6 = −𝟐𝟎𝑾/𝒎𝟐
0.3
Total heat loss through the wall can be calc. as follows
𝑄 = 𝑞′ 𝐴 = −20𝑥 6𝑥7 = −𝟖𝟒𝟎𝑾/𝒎𝟐
The minus sign indicates heat dissipates from inside to outside

2. One-Dimensional Steady
-State Conduction
Heat transfer is a vector quantity (it has direction as well as magnitude).
The rate of heat conduction in a specified direction is proportional to the temperature gradient,
which is the change in temperature per unit length in the specified direction.
Heat conduction in a medium is said to be:
 One-dimensional - when conduction is significant in one dimension only and negligible
in the other two dimensions - (T=T(x,0,0)).
 Two-dimensional - when conduction in the third dimension is negligible - (T=T(x,y,0)).
 Three-dimensional - when conduction is significant in all dimensions - (T=T(x,y,z)).
 Unsteady or Transient - when the temperatures vary with time - (T=T(x,y,z,t)).
  Steady - when the temperature does not vary with time - (T=T(x,y,z,0)).
Heat conduction through a medium, in general, is three-dimensional and time dependent. That is,
T=T(x,y,z,t) and the temperature in a medium varies with position as well as time.

Fig. 2-1 Heat conduction.

2.1.General heat conduction equation

The conduction of heat through a medium can be described using: a Rectangular or
Cylindrical or Spherical coordinate systems.
A medium through which heat is conducted may involve conversion of electrical, nuclear or
chemical energy into heat (thermal) energy. Such conversion processes are called heat
generation
2.1. Boundary and Initial Conditions
To determine the temperature distribution in a medium, it is necessary to solve the
appropriate form of the heat equation.
However, such a solution depends on the physical conditions existing at the boundaries
of the medium and, if the situation is time dependent, on conditions existing in the
medium at some initial time.
With regard to the boundary conditions, there are several common possibilities that are
simply expressed in mathematical form.
Three kinds of boundary conditions commonly encountered in heat transfer are
summarized in Table 2.2
1. Boundary conditions of the first kind or Dirichlet condition (specified surface temperature)
2. Boundary conditions of the second kind or Neumann condition (specified heat flux)
3. Boundary conditions (B.C.) of the third kind (due to existence of convection)
 2.2.The Thermal Resistance Concept
The flow of heat (Q) through a substance (R) due to temperature difference (T1 – T2) can be
represented as shown in Fig.4. This enables engineers to solve more complicated design
problems of heat transfer.
Where
Q is rate of heat transfer
R is thermal resistance
(T1–T2) is relevant temperature difference

Therefore for all three modes of heat transfer, heat transfer rate can be expressed as follows in
the thermal resistance concept

a. Heat transfer by Conduction

 T  T1  T1  T2 T L
Q x  k A  2  L  R where, R 
 L  kA
kA

b. Heat transfer by Convection

Tb  T f Tb  T f 1
Q c  h A (Tb  T f )   where, R 
1 R hA
hA

c. Heat transfer by Radiation

Ts  Tsurr T T  Ts  Tsurr 
Q rad    As (Ts4  Tsurr
4
)  b surr where, R   
modes of heat     As (Ts  Tsurr ) 
4 4
d. The combined Ts  Ttransfer R
   A (T 4  T 4 ) 
surr

 s s surr 
Heat may also be transferred by a combination of two or three of the heat transfer modes.
i. The combined Convection and Conduction heat transfer
(T  T )
Q  h1 A (TA  T1 )  k A 1 2  h2 A (T2  TB )
L
(TA  T1 ) (T1  T2 ) (T2  TB )
  
1 L 1
h1 A kA h2 A
TA  TB

1 L 1
 
h1 A k A h2 A
A
 (T  T )
1 L 1 A B
 
h1 k h2
A
Fig 2.2; The combined convection and conduction heat transfer  UA (TA  TB ) where, U 
1 L 1
 
h1 k h2
Q  UA(T 1  T 2)
‘U’ is called the overall heat transfer coefficient. It depends on the geometry and thermal conductivity of
the wall and also the convective coefficients of the fluids.

2.3.Heat transfer from extended surfaces

The term extended surface is commonly used to depict an important special case involving heat
transfer by conduction within a solid and heat transfer by convection (and/or radiation) from the
boundaries of the solid.
In extended surface, the direction of heat transfer from the boundaries is perpendicular to the principal
direction of heat transfer in the solid.
Extended surface/Fins are used to increase the convective heat transfer, by increasing the
contact surface area (A).

Figure 2.3; Use of fins to enhance heat transfer from a plane wall Figure 2.4; Schematic of typical finned-tube
(a) Bare surface. (b) Finned surface. heat exchangers

3. Two-Dimensional eady
St State Conduction
To this point, we have restricted our attention to conduction problems in which the
temperature gradient is significant for only one coordinate direction.
However, in many cases such problems are grossly oversimplified if a one-dimensional
treatment is used, and it is necessary to account for multidimensional effects. In this
chapter, we consider several techniques for treating two-dimensional systems under
steady-state conditions.
 We begin our consideration of two-dimensional, steady-state conduction by briefly
reviewing alternative approaches to determining temperatures and heat rates.
Various methods of analysis are used in solving problems related to; two dimensional
steady state conduction. These approaches are:
i. Analytical Methods
Approximate methods -range from exact solutions, which may be obtained for
idealized conditions, to approximate methods of varying complexity and accuracy.
ii. Mathematical methods
The method of separation of variables - mathematical issues associated with
obtaining an exact solution
The conduction shape factor and the dimensionless conduction heat rate- present
compilations of existing exact solutions for a variety of simple geometries
iii. Numerical Methods
Finite difference or finite element methods- used to accurately predict temperatures and heat
rates within the medium and at its boundaries.
However, in this chapter we will see only Mathematical and Numerical Methods.

a. Finite-Difference Equations
As discussed above, analytical methods may be used, in certain cases, to effect exact
mathematical solutions to steady, two-dimensional conduction problems.
i. The Nodal Network
In contrast to an analytical solution, which allows for temperature determination at any point
of interest in a medium, a numerical solution enables determination of the temperature at
only discrete points.
The first step in any numerical analysis must therefore be to select these points. Referring to Figure 3.1,
this may be done by subdividing the medium of interest into a number of small regions and assigning to
each a reference point that is at its center.

Figure 3.1; Two-dimensional conduction; (a) Nodal network (b) Finite-difference approximation
b. Finite-Difference Form of the Heat Equation
Determination of the temperature distribution numerically dictates that an appropriate
conservation equation be written for each of the nodal points of unknown temperature.
The resulting set of equations may then be solved simultaneously for the temperature at each
node.
 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
+ =0 (3.1)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
However, if the system is characterized in terms of a nodal network, it is necessary to work with an
approximate, or finite-difference, form of this equation.
A finite-difference equation that is suitable for the interior nodes of a two-dimensional system may be
inferred directly from Equation 3.1.
Consider the second derivative, 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝜕𝑥 2 From Figure 3.1b, the value of this derivative at the (m, n) nodal
point may be approximated as
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝜕2𝑇 𝜕𝑥 |𝑚 +1/2,𝑛 − 𝜕𝑥 |𝑚 −1/2,𝑛
𝜕𝑥 2
|𝑚 ,𝑛 ≈ ∆𝑥
(3.2)

The temperature gradients may in turn be expressed as a function of the nodal temperatures. That is,
𝜕𝑇 𝑇𝑚 +1,𝑛 − 𝑇𝑚 ,𝑛
𝜕𝑥 |𝑚 +1/2,𝑛 ≈ ∆𝑥
(3.3)

𝜕𝑇 𝑇𝑚 ,𝑛 − 𝑇𝑚 −1,𝑛
𝜕𝑥 |𝑚 −1/2,𝑛 ≈ ∆𝑥
(3.4)

Substituting Equations 3.2 and 3.3 into 4.4, we obtain

𝜕2𝑇 𝑇𝑚+1,𝑛 + 𝑇𝑚−1,𝑛 − 2𝑇𝑚,𝑛

|
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑚 ,𝑛
≈ (3.5)
(∆𝑥)2

Proceeding in a similar fashion, it is readily shown that

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝜕 2𝑇 𝜕𝑦 |𝑚 ,𝑛 +1 − 𝜕𝑦 |𝑚 ,𝑛 −1 𝑇𝑚,𝑛+1 + 𝑇𝑚,𝑛−1 − 2𝑇𝑚,𝑛
|
𝜕𝑦 2 𝑚,𝑛
≈ 2 2
≈ (3.6)
∆𝑦 (∆𝑦)2

Using a network for which ∆𝑥 = ∆𝑦 and substituting Equations 3.5 and 3.6 into Equation 3.1, we obtain

𝑇𝑚,𝑛+1 + 𝑇𝑚 ,𝑛−1 + 𝑇𝑚+1,𝑛 𝑇𝑚−1,𝑛 + 4𝑇𝑚, = 0 (3.7)

4. Unsteady
-State Cond
uction
Our objective in this chapter is to develop procedures for determining the time dependence of the
temperature distribution within a solid during a transient process, as well as for determining heat transfer
between the solid and its surroundings.
Hence, in this chapter the variation of temperature with location or position and time, T = (x,y,z,t), will be
considered. Such a method is called transient (with uniform or non-uniform) Heat Conduction.
Various methods of analysis are used in solving problems related to Transient Heat Conduction. These
methods are:
i. Lumped capacitance method /Analytical Method/- comparatively simple approach used to
determine the variation of temperature with time.
Analytical solutions to transient problems are restricted to simple geometries and
boundary conditions, such as the one-dimensional cases considered in the preceding
sections.
For some simple two- and three-dimensional geometry, analytical solutions are still
possible.
 ii. Numerical method /finite-difference or finite-element methods/ - used to predict more
complex conditions, the time dependence of temperatures within the solid, as well as heat rates
at its boundaries
In this section we consider explicit and implicit forms of finite-difference solutions to
transient conduction problems.
Under transient conditions with constant properties and no internal generation, the
appropriate form of the heat equation is written as;-
1 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇
𝛼 𝜕𝑡
= 𝜕𝑥 2
+ 𝜕𝑦 2

5. Convection Heat Transfer

The term convection describes energy transfer between a surface and a fluid moving over the surface.
Convection includes energy transfer by both the bulk fluid motion (advection) and the random
motion of fluid molecules (conduction or diffusion).
In our treatment of convection, we have two major objectives.
 To obtaining an understanding of the physical mechanisms that underlie convection transfer and
 To develop the means to perform convection transfer calculations.
5.1.The Velocity Boundary Layer
To introduce the concept of a boundary layer, consider flow over the flat plate.
When fluid particles make contact with the surface, their velocity is reduced significantly relative to
the fluid velocity upstream of the plate, and for most situations it is valid to assume that the particle
velocity is zero at the wall.

Figure 5.1.Velocity boundary layer development on a flat plate.

𝛿 is termed the boundary layer thickness, and it is typically defined as the value of y for which
𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝒖∞
In velocity boundary layer the fluid flow is characterized by two distinct regions,
 A thin fluid layer (the boundary layer) in which velocity gradients and shear stresses are large
and
 A region outside the boundary layer in which velocity gradients and shear stresses are
negligible.
For external flows it provides the basis for determining the local friction coefficient.
𝜏𝑠
𝐶𝑓 ≡ 2
𝜌𝑢 ∞ /2
(5.1)
Assuming a Newtonian fluid , the surface shear stress may be evaluated by
𝜕𝑢
𝜏𝑠 = 𝜇 𝜕𝑦 |𝑦=0 (5.2)

5.2.The Thermal Boundary Layer

Just as a velocity boundary layer develops when there is fluid flow over a surface, a thermal
boundary layer must develop if the fluid free stream and surface temperatures differ.
Consider flow over an isothermal flat plate, At the leading edge the temperature profile is uniform,
with T(y) = 𝑇∞ .
 Figure 5.2. Thermal boundary layer development on an isothermal flat plate
The region of the fluid in which these temperature gradients exist is the thermal boundary layer, and
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇
its thickness 𝜹𝒕 is typically defined as the value of y for which the ratio [ = 0.99].
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞
With increasing distance from the leading edge, the effects of heat transfer penetrate farther into the
free stream and the thermal boundary layer grows.

6. Heat Exchangers

T he process of heat exchange between two fluids that are at different temperatures and separated by
a solid wall occurs in many engineering applications. The device used to implement this exchange is
termed a heat exchanger.
The application areas of heat exchanger are space heating and air-conditioning, power production,
waste heat recovery, and chemical processing.
6.1.Heat Exchanger Types
Heat exchangers are typically classified according to flow arrangement and type of construction.
The simplest heat exchanger is one for which the hot and cold fluids move in the same or opposite
directions in a concentric tube (or double-pipe) construction.
Based on flow arrangement heat exchanger is classified in to two:-
1. Parallel flow Heat Exchanger- In the parallel-flow arrangement, the hot and cold fluids enter at
the same end, flow in the same direction, and leave at the same end.
2. Counter flow Heat Exchanger - In the counter-flow arrangement, the fluids enter at opposite
ends, flow in opposite directions, and leave at opposite ends.
3. Alternatively, the fluids may move in cross flow (perpendicular to each other), as shown by the
finned and unfinned tubular heat exchangers
4. Another common configuration is the shell-and-tube heat exchanger. It differ according to the
number of shell-and-tube passes, and the simplest form, which involves single tube and shell
passes, is shown in Figure 6.3.

FIGURE 6.1 Concentric tube heat exchangers. (a) Parallel flow. (b) Counter flow.
 FIGURE 6.2 Cross-flow heat exchangers. (a) Finned with both fluids unmixed. (b) Unfinned
with one fluid mixed and the other unmixed.

FIGURE 6.3 Shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one shell pass and one tube pass
(cross-counter flow mode of operation)
6.2.The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
The most uncertain, part of any heat exchanger analysis is determination of the overall heat transfer
coefficient.
This coefficient is defined in terms of the total thermal resistance to heat transfer between two fluids.
For a wall separating two fluid streams, the overall heat transfer coefficient may be expressed as
1 1 1 1
=
𝑈𝐴
=
𝑈𝑕 𝐴𝑕
+ 𝑅𝑤 +
(𝑕𝐴)𝑐 (𝑕𝐴)𝑕
(1)

 Where c and h refer to the cold and hot fluids, respectively.

 Note that calculation of the UA product does not require designation of the hot or cold side
(UcAc = UhAh).
 Rw is conduction resistance
6.3.Heat Exchanger Analysis: Use of the Log Mean Temperature Difference

Total heat transfer rate q in the heat exchanger, where

𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇𝑚
Where, ∆Tm is log mean temperature difference and U is the overall heat transfer coefficient
∆𝑇 − ∆𝑇1
2 ∆𝑇 − ∆𝑇2
1
∆Tm = 𝑙𝑛 (∆𝑇 = 𝑙𝑛 (∆𝑇
2 ∆𝑇1 ) 1 ∆𝑇2 )

Remember that, for the parallel-flow exchanger

∆𝑇1 ≡ 𝑇𝑕 ,1 − 𝑇𝑐,1 = 𝑇𝑕 ,𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑖
 ∆𝑇2 ≡ 𝑇𝑕 ,2 − 𝑇𝑐,2 = 𝑇𝑕 ,𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑜
However, for the counter flow exchanger the endpoint temperature differences must now be defined as
∆𝑇1 ≡ 𝑇𝑕 ,1 − 𝑇𝑐,1 = 𝑇𝑕 ,𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑜
∆𝑇2 ≡ 𝑇𝑕 ,2 − 𝑇𝑐,2 = 𝑇𝑕 ,𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑖

Example 4
A heat exchanger consists of numerous rectangular channels, each 18mm wide and 2.25mm high. In an
adjacent pair of channels, there are two streams: water k=0.625W/m.K and air k = 0.0371W/m.K,
separated by a 18mm wide and 0.5mm thick stainless steel plate of k = 16W/m.K. The fouling resistances
for air and water are 2 x 10-4 m2K/W and 5 x 10-4 m2K/W, respectively and the Nusselt number given by
NUDh = 5.95 where the subscript ‗Dh‘ refers to the hydraulic diameter.
a) Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient ignoring both the thermal resistance of the
separating wall and the two fouling resistances.
b) Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient with these resistances.

SOLUTION

Hydraulic diameter (𝐷𝑕 ) = 4 x Area/wetted perimetre

2.25𝑥10 −3 𝑥 18 𝑥 10 −3
𝐷𝑕 = 4𝑥 = 4 x 𝟏𝟎𝟑
2.25+18 𝑥 10 −3
𝑁𝑢 𝐷 𝑘
𝑕= 𝐷
5.95 𝑥 0.625
(a) 𝑕𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = = 𝟗𝟑𝟎 𝑾 𝒎𝟐 . 𝑲
4 𝑥 10 −3
5.95 𝑥 0.0.0371
𝑕𝑎𝑖𝑟 = = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟏𝟖𝟔 𝑾 𝒎𝟐 . 𝑲
4 𝑥 10 −3

1 1 −1
𝑈= + = 𝟓𝟐. 𝟏 𝑾 𝒎𝟐 . 𝑲
930 55.186
1 1 1
(b) 𝑈𝐴
=[
(𝑕𝐴)𝑎𝑖𝑟
+ 𝑅𝑤 ,𝑎𝑖𝑟 +
(𝑕𝐴)𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
+ 𝑅𝑤 ,𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ]
−1
0.5 𝑥 10 −3 1 1
U= + 930 + 2 𝑥 10−4 + + 5 𝑥 10−4
16 55.186

U = 50.2 𝑾 𝒎𝟐 . 𝑲
5.1. Special Operating Conditions
It is useful to note certain special conditions under which heat exchangers may be operated.

1st special condition –

The condition carry out in condensing vapor, this condition shows temperature distributions for a heat
exchanger in which the hot fluid has a heat capacity rate, 𝐶𝑕 = 𝑚𝑕 𝐶𝑝,𝑕 , which is much larger than
that of the cold fluid, 𝐶𝑐 = 𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑝,𝑐 .
For this case the temperature of the hot fluid remains approximately constant throughout the heat
exchanger, while the temperature of the cold fluid increases.
Condensation occurs at constant temperature, and, for all practical purposes, 𝐶𝑕 → ∞.
nd
2 special condition -

The condition carry out in an evaporator or a boiler, it is the cold fluid that experiences a change in
phase and remains at a nearly uniform temperature (𝐶𝑐 → ∞).
 The same effect is achieved without phase change if Ch ≪ Cc.
3rd special condition -

The third special case involves a counter flow heat exchanger for which the heat capacity rates are
equal (Ch = Cc).
The temperature difference ∆𝑇 must then be constant throughout the exchanger, in which case
∆𝑇1 = ∆𝑇2 = ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 .

FIGURE 6.4 Special heat exchanger conditions. (a). Ch ≫ Cc or a condensing vapor. (b). An evaporating liquid or Ch ≪ Cc.
(c). A counter flow heat exchanger with equivalent fluid heat capacities (Ch = Cc).
 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

Refrigeration, refrigerator, and refrigerant

We are all aware from personal experience that heat is transmitted from high-temperature mediums to
low-temperature ones in the direction of decreasing temperature. But the opposite process cannot happen
on its own. Refrigerators are specialized equipment needed to transfer heat from a low-temperature
medium to a high-temperature one. cyclic appliances include refrigerators. A refrigerant is the technical
term for the working fluid used in the refrigeration cycle. Refrigeration is the science that involves
creating and sustaining temperatures that are lower than those found in the ambient air. This refers to
eliminating heat from a substance that needs to be cooled.

Important refrigeration applications:

1. Ice making
2. Transportation of foods above and below
freezing
3. Industrial air-conditioning
4. Comfort air-conditioning
5. Chemical and related industries
6. Medical and surgical aids
7. Processing food products and beverages
Refrigeration Systems
The various refrigeration systems may be enumerated as below:
1. Ice refrigeration
2. Air refrigeration system
3. Vapor compression refrigeration system
4. Vapor absorption refrigeration system
5. Special refrigeration systems
8. Oil refining and synthetic rubber
manufacturing
9. Manufacturing and treatment of metals
10. Freezing food products
11. Miscellaneous applications
(i) Extremely low temperatures
(ii) Plumbing
(iii) Building construction etc.
(i) Adsorption refrigeration system
(ii) Cascade refrigeration system
(iii) Mixed refrigeration system
(iv) Vortex tube refrigeration system
(y) Thermoelectric refrigeration
(vi) Steam jet refrigeration system.
Standard Rating of a Refrigeration Machine
The rating of a refrigeration machine is obtained by refrigerating effect or amount of heat
extracted in a given time from a body. The rating of the refrigeration machine is given by a unit of
refrigeration known as ―standard commercial tonne of refrigeration' which is defined as the
refrigerating effect produced by the melting of 1 tonne of ice from and at 0°C in 24 hours. Since the latent
heat of fusion ofice is 336 k/kg, the refrigerating effect of336 x 1000 kJ in 24 hours is rated as one tonne,
i.e.,

The rate at which heat is absorbed from the space to be cooled is termed as Refrigeration effect. Its unit is
ton. A ton of refrigeration is equivalent to rate of heat transfer needed to produce 1 ton of ice at0, from
water at 0, in 24 hours.A machine capable producing a net refrigeration effectof 210Kj/min or 3.5
kw is called 1 ton machine. 1 ton=210ki/min=3.5kw

Heat Engine reminder

A heat engine is a thermodynamic system operating in a thermodynamic cycle to which net heat is
trans/erred and from which network is delivered. All Heat engines have the following common
characteristics: They receive heat from a high-temperature source (solar energy, oil furnace, nuclear
reactor, etc.), They convert part of this heat to work (usually in the form of a rotating shaft). They reject
the remaining waste heat to a low-temperature sink the atmosphere, rivers, etc.). They operate on a
cycle.

If we want to compare the output of heat engine against the input, we introduce Thermal Efficiency for
the cycle.

The thermal efficiency is the index of performance of a work producing device or a heat engine and is
defined by the ratio of the network output (the desired result) to the heat input (the costs to obtain the
desired result).

62 | P a g e
The thermal efficiency is always less than 1 or less than 100 percent.

The heat pumps

Another device that transfers heat from a low-temperature medium to a high-temperature one is the heat-
pump. Refrigerators and heat pumps operate on the same cycle but differ in their objectives. The
objective of a refrigerator is to maintain the refrigerated space at a low temperature by removing heat
from it. The objective of a heat pump, however, is to maintain a heated space at a high temperature.

Refrigerators: move heat from colder space

Heat pump: move heat to warmer space

Both require work input

The refrigerator keeps the temperature of cold refrigerated space below that of the environment by
continuously removing heat QL from it.

63 | P a g e
Heat Pump is used in cold environments to keep the house warm by absorbing heat from cold
environment and pumping it into the house.

The index of performance of a refrigerator or heat pump is expressed in terms of the coefficient of
performance, COP, the ratio of desired result to required input.

Under the same operating conditions the COPHP and COPR are related by (substitute QH=Win+QL, in
COPHP equation)

64 | P a g e
Performance of Refrigerator and Heat pump is expressed in terms of coefficient of performance (COP)

 The Carnot cycle is composed of four totally reversible processes: isothermal heat
addition, isentropic (adiabatic) expansion, isothermal heat rejection, and isentropic
(adiabatic) compression.
 The Carnot cycle can be executed in a closed system (a piston-cylinder device) or a
steady-flow system (utilizing two turbines and two compressors), and either a gas or a vapor
can be utilized as the working fluid.
 The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle that can be executed between a heat source at
temperature TH and a sink at temperature TL, and its thermal efficiency is expressed as

Carnot cycle-using gas as working fluid executed in piston cylinder device

 Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2, T, = constant).

 Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3, temperature drops from T to T;).
 Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-4, T, = constant).
 Reversible Adiabatic Compression (process 4-1, temperature rises from T; to T).
On a P-V diagram the area under the process curve represents the boundary work for quasi-equilibrium
(internally reversible) processes, we see that the area under curve 1-2-3 is the work done by the gas
during the expansion part of the cycle, and the area under curve 3-4-1 is the work done on the gas during
the compression part of the cycle. The area enclosed by the path of the cycle (area 1-2-3-4-1) is the
difference between these two and represents the net work done during the cycle.

65 | P a g e
Reversed Carnot Cycle
 If a machine working on reversed Carnot cycle is driven from an external source, it will work
or function as a refrigerator.
 p-V and T-s diagrams of reversed Carnot cycle are shown In Figs in the following slide
 Starting from point I, the clearance space of the cylinder is full of air, the air is then expanded
adiabatically to point p during which its temperature falls from Tl to T2, the cylinder is put in
contact with a cold body at temperature T2. The air is then expanded isothermally to the point
n, as a result of which heat is extracted from the cold body at temperature T2.
 Now the cold body is removed; from n to m air undergoes adiabatic compression with the
assistance of some external power and temperature rises to Tl. A hot body at
temperature Tl is put in contact with the cylinder. Finally, the air is compressed isothermally
during which process heat is rejected to the hot body.
 You may have observed that the power cycle operates in the clockwise direction when plotted
on a process diagram. The Carnot cycle may be reversed, in which it operates as a refrigerator.
The refrigeration cycle operates in the counter clockwise direction.

66 | P a g e
  Since the coefficient of performance (C.O.P) means the ratio of the desired effect in kJ/kg to the
energy supplied in kJ/kg, therefore C.O.P. in case of Carnot cycle run either as a refrigerating
machine or a heat pump or as a heat engine will be as given below:

This indicates that C.O.P of heat pump is greater than that of a refrigerator working on reversed Carnot
cycle between the same temperature limits T1 and T2 by unity.

67 | P a g e
Reversed Carnot refrigerator-using vapor as working fluid
The fig Shown below are the cyclic refrigeration device operating between two constant temperature
reservoirs a n d t h e T-s d i a g r a m f o r t h e w o r k i n g f l u i d w h e n t h e reversed
Carnot cycle is used-vapor used as working fluid

• A refrigerator or heat pump that operates on the reversed Carnot cycle is called a Carnot refrigerator or a
Carnot heat pump.

• Coefficients of performance for Carnot cycles can be expressed in terms of temperature.

Vapor compression refrigeration cycle

Vapor-compression refrigeration systems are the most common refrigeration systems in use today.

The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle has four components:

 Evaporator,
 Compressor
 Condenser
 Expansion (or throttle) valve

I n a basic vapor compression refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant enter the compressor as a saturated
vapor and is cooled to the saturated liquid state in the condenser.

It is then throttled to the evaporator pressure and vaporizes as it absorbs heat from the refrigerated space.

The ideal Vapor compression refrigeration cycle

Vapor compression refrigeration cycle is the most commonly used cycle in refrigeration, air conditioning
and pumps. It consists of four processes:

68 | P a g e
1-2 isentropic compression in compressor

2-3 constant pressure heat rejection in condenser

3-4 throttling in expansion device

4-1 constant pressure heat absorption in evaporator

Schematic and T-s diagram for the ideal vapor- compression refrigeration cycle.

In an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant enters the compressor at state 1 as
saturated vapor and is compressed is entropically to the condenser pressure.

The temperature of the refrigerant increases during this isentropic compression process to well
above the temperature of the surrounding medium.

The refrigerant then enters the condenser as superheated vapor at state 2 and leaves as
saturated liquid at state 3 as a result of heat rejection to the surroundings. The temperature of the
refrigerant at this state is still above the temperature of the surroundings.

The saturated liquid refrigerant at state 3 is throttled to the evaporator pressure by passing it
through an expansion valve or capillary tube. The temperature of the refrigerant drops below the
temperature of the refrigerated space during this process.

•The refrigerant enters the evaporator at state 4 as a low-quality saturated mixture, and it
completely evaporates by absorbing heat from the refrigerated space. The refrigerant leaves the
evaporator as saturated vapor and re-enters the compressor, completing the cycle.

The throttling process (3-4) of ideal vapor compression cycle is an internally irreversible process. If
throttling valve is replaced by isentropic turbine we would have process 3-4' as indicated in T-S diagram
above but this is not done in ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle. To make the ideal vapor•
compression refrigeration cycle more closely approximate the actual cycle.

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In a household refrigerator, the tubes in the freezer compartment where heat is absorbed by the
refrigerant serves as the evaporator. The coils behind the refrigerator, where heat is dissipated to the
kitchen air, serve as the condenser

•Remember that the area under the process curve on a T-s diagram represents the heat transfer for
internally reversible processes. The area under the process curve 4-1 represents the heat
absorbed by the refrigerant in the evaporator, and the area under the process curve 2-3
represents the heat rejected in the condenser.

• A rule of thumb is that the COP improves by 2 to 4 percent for each °C the evaporating
temperature is raised or the condensing temperature is lowered.

Another diagram frequently used in the analysis of vapor-compression refrigeration cycles is the P-h
diagram, as shown in Fig. below. On this diagram, three of the four processes appear as straight lines,
and the heat transfer in the condenser and the evaporator is proportional to the lengths of the
corresponding process curves.

All four components associated with thevapour compression refrigeration cycle are steady-flow devices,
Then the steady flow energy equation on a unit-mass basis neglecting changes in ke and pe becomes:

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 (Qin-Qout)+( Win-Wout)=he-hi

The condenser and the evaporator do not involve anywork, and the compressor can be
approximated as adiabatic.

•The energy balance of each of the components of vapor-compression refrigeration isgiven as below:

1) Evaporator

Considering a control volume enclosing the refrigerant side of the evaporator, conservation of mass and
energy applied to this control volume together give the rate of heat transfer per unit mass of refrigerant
flow in the evaporator as:
𝑄
qe = 𝑚𝑒 = h1 – h4

2) Compressor

It is usually adequate to assume that there is no heat transfer to or from the compressor.
Conservation of mass and energy rate applied to a control volume enclosing the compressor then give:

3) Condenser:

For a control volume enclosing the refrigerant side of the condenser, the rate of heat transfer from the
refrigerant per unit mass of refrigerant.
𝑄𝑒
qe = h – h4
𝑚 = 1

4) Control valve

Finally, the refrigerant at state 3 enters the expansion valve and expands to the evaporator pressure. This
process is usually modeled as a throttling process in which there is no heat transfer, i.e., for which

In the vapor-compression system, the net power input is equal to the compressor power, the expansion
valve involving no power input or output.

Using the quantities and expressions introduced above, the coefficient of performance (COP), of the
vapor compression refrigeration system for heat pump and refrigerator is given by:

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If a system aims at the heat, the system is called as Heat pump, it requires work to move thermal energy
from a cold source to a warmer heat sink.

 Since the heat pump uses a certain amount of work to move the heat, the amount of energy
deposited at the hot side is greater than the energy taken from the cold side by an amount equal
to the work required.
 The term coefficient of performance (COP) is also used to describe the ratio of useful heat
movement to work input.
 Heat pumps are more effective for heating than for cooling if the temperature difference is held
equal.

Example

A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working fluid and operates on an ideal vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle between 0.14 and 0.8 Mpa. If the mass flow rate of the refrigerant is 0.05
kg/s, determine

(a) The rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space and the power input to the compressor,

(b) The rate of heat rejection to the environment, and

(c) The COP of the refrigerator.

Solution

We note that this is an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, and thus the compressor is isentropic
and the refrigerant leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid and enters the compressor as saturated vapor.

From the refrigerant-134a tables, the enthalpies of the refrigerant at all four states are determined as
follows:

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(a) The rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space and the power input to the compressor are
determined from their definitions:

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Effect of various parameters on VCR Cycle:

 Introducing of regenerative heat exchanger increases COP of the system (Refer P K Nag).

REFRIGERANTS
 The working agent in a refrigerating system that absorbs heat from the place to be cooled or
refrigerated and dissipates it to the environment can be termed as a refrigerant. This heat
transfer generally takes place through a phase change of the refrigerant. A more complete
definition of a refrigerant could be given as follows:
 Refrigerant is the fluid used for heat transfer in a refrigerating system that absorbs heat during
evaporation from the region of low temperature and pressure, and releases heat during
condensation at a region of higher temperature and pressure."

Classification of Refrigerants

• Based on Working Principle: we have the primary or common refrigerants and the secondary
refrigerants

The primary refrigerants are those that pass through the processes of compression, cooling or
condensation, expansion and evaporation or warming up during cyclic processes. Ammonia, R12, R22,
carbon dioxide come under this class of refrigerants.

The secondary refrigerants: On the other hand, the medium which does not go through the cyclic
processes in a refrigeration system and is only used as a medium for heat transfer are referred to as
secondary refrigerants. Water, brine solutions of sodium chloride and calcium chloride come under this
category.

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•Based on Safety Considerations: Under this heading, we have the following three sub-divisions.

Safe refrigerants: These are the non-toxic, non• flammable refrigerants such as Rll, R12, R13, R14, R21,
R22, R113, R114, methyl chloride, carbon dioxide, water etc.

Toxic and moderately flammable: Dichloroethylene methyl format, ethylchloride, sulphur dioxide,
ammonia etc. come under this category.

Highly flammable refrigerants: The refrigerants under this category are butane, isobutene, propane,
ethane, methane, ethylene etc.

•Based on Chemical Compositions: They are further sub-divided as

Halocarbon compounds: These are obtained by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms in ethane or
methane with halogens.

Azeotropes: These are the mixtures of two or more refrigerants and behave as a compound.

Oxygen and Nitrogen Compounds: Refrigerants having either oxygen or nitrogen molecules in their
structure, such as ammonia, are grouped separately and have a separate nomenclature from the
halogenated refrigerants.

Cyclic organic Compounds: The compounds coming under this class are R316, R317 and R318.

Inorganic Compounds: These are further divided into two categories: Cryogenic and Non-cryogenic.

Cryogenic fluids are those which are applied for achieving temperatures as low as - 160 0C to - 273 0C.
Above this temperature range, we can use a multi-stage refrigeration system to realize the desired
temperature. But below - 160 0C, this is not possible since the COP of the cycle becomes very low. To
attain temperatures below - 160 0C, we use refrigerants such as nitrogen, oxygen, helium, hydrogen etc.
and for temperatures close to - 2730C, magnetic cooling is employed. The inorganic compounds which
are employed above the cryogenic temperature ranges come under the remaining sub-division of
inorganic refrigerants.

Unsaturated Compounds: Compounds such as ethylene, propylene etc. are grouped under this head and
grouped under the 1000 series for convenience.

DESIGNATION OF REFRIGERANTS
The American Society of Refrigerating Engineers (ASRE) has developed certain conventions for use in
naming different types of refrigerants. These naming conventions differ according to the type of
refrigerant. Each refrigerant type is denoted by a different series. Thus, we have separate series for
halogenated refrigerants and other types. The naming conventions are simple and easy to follow.
These conventions are now accepted worldwide and help to name the large variety of refrigerants
available commercially nowadays.

Halocarbon Compounds: These are represented by a three-digit nomenclature. Here, the first digit
represents the number of carbon atoms in the compound minus one, the second digit stands for the

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number of hydrogen atoms plus one while the third digit stands for the number of fluorine atoms. The
remaining atoms are chlorine.

As an example, let us consider the refrigerant having R22 as its three-digit nomenclature.

According to the above-mentioned convention,

• No. of C atoms in R22: C - 1 = 0 => C = 1

• No. of H atoms in R22: H + 1 = 2 => H = 1

• No. of F atoms in R22: F = 2

Since there is only one carbon atom in the compound, this compound has originated from the methane
series {CH4). From the calculation, we can see there is one hydrogen atom and two fluorine atoms. The
remaining valence bond of carbon will be balanced by chlorine. Thus, the substance is Mono-chloro-
Difluoro- Methane represented graphically as

Therefore, chemical formula of R22 is CHCIF2 and has the name Mono-chloro-difluoro-methane

Taking again the example of R134, we can calculate its chemical formula as above which gives us

• No. of C atoms: C - 1 = 1 => C = 2

• No. of H atoms: H + 1 = 3 =>H = 2

• No. of F atoms: F = 4

• Therefore, no. of Cl atoms: Cl = 0

• The compound is C2H2F2 and its name is Tetrafluoro-ethane

The non-halogenated refrigerants follow a different naming convention which is depend upon the series
of the refrigerant.

Required Properties of ideal Refrigerant:

1) The refrigerant should have low boiling point and low freezing point.
2) It must have low specific heat and high latent heat. Because high specific heat decreases the
refrigerating effect per kg of refrigerant and high latent heat at low temperature increases the
refrigerating effect per kg of refrigerant.

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 3) The pressures required to be maintained in the evaporator and condenser should be low enough
to reduce the material cost and must be positive to avoid leakage of air into the system.
4) It must have high critical pressure and temperature to avoid large power requirements.
5) It should have low specific volume to reduce the size of the compressor.
6) It must have high thermal conductivity to reduce the area of heat transfer in evaporator and
condenser.
7) It should be non-flammable, non-explosive, non-toxic and non-corrosive.
8) It should not have any bad effects on the stored material or food, when any leak develops in the
system.
9) It must have high miscibility with lubricating oil and it should not have reacting properly with
lubricating oil in the temperature range of the system.
10) It should give high COP in the working temperature range. This is necessary to reduce the
running cost of the system.
11) It must be readily available and it must be cheap also.

COMMON REFRIGERANTS
The refrigerants which are available commercially in the market are numerous. Some of them which are
in common use are mentioned below:

Air: Air (molecular weight 28.97, specific heats cp = 1.04 kJ/kgK and cv = 0. 712 kJ/kg-K) is one of the
earliest refrigerants to be used in the refrigeration systems. Its advantages are that it is available free of
cost, is non-toxic and non-flammable and does not affect the commodity if pure. However, air suffers
from a number of drawbacks. Air contains moisture and this reacts with the material of the evaporator and
condenser severely affecting their working capacity. Further, there is a possibility that the passages may
be blocked by the formation of ice from this moisture. The COP of air is of the order of 0.6 and thus, not
suitable for use in refrigeration systems on a commercial scale. It is mainly used for air conditioning
inaircrafts where efficiency of operation is of secondary importance

Ammonia: Ammonia (molecular weight 17) is one of the oldest refrigerants and it was commonly
employed in places where toxicity effects were of secondary importance. Its advantages are its low cost,
low specific volume, high COP (of the order of 4.0) and high refrigeration effect per unit mass of the
refrigerant. Its primary drawback is its toxicity which prevents its use in air-conditioning and food
preservation systems. Ammonia has a boiling point of -33 0C at atmospheric pressure.

Carbon Dioxide: Carbon dioxide (molecular weight 44) is a non-toxic and non-poisonous
refrigerant. Also, it is not only non-flammable but and is an excellent extinguishing agent as well. Its
other advantages are that it is chemically stable, immiscible with the lubricating oil and does not affect the
metal used in the system. It has a low specific volume and this requires volume displacement per ton of
refrigeration. However, its critical pressure is too high. Also, its critical temperature is only 31 0C which
makes it unsuitable for use in countries with a hot climate like India. It is an excellent refrigerant for low
temperature refrigeration.

Sulphur Dioxide: Sulphur dioxide (molecular weight 64) is a color-less, suffocating and irritating gas
and is twice as heavy as air at atmospheric conditions. It was mostly used as a household refrigerant in
the older days, but has since been discarded for better refrigerants. It suffers from a lot of disadvantages.
Sulphur dioxide reacts with water forming sulphurous acid, which in presence of oxygen becomes

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sulphuric acid, a corrosive compound for metals. It is non-flammable but attacks foodstuff on coming in
contact with it. It is also partially miscible with the lubricating oil.

Hydrocarbons: This group consists of color-less fluids normally in gaseous state and made up of various
combinations of carbon and hydrogen. Most of the refrigerants from this category are suitable for low
temperature refrigeration. Iso-butane falls in this category and has been suitable for domestic
refrigeration. They are non-poisonous, but are flammable and highly explosive when exposed to air. The
molecular weight and boiling point of each gas varies according to the number of hydrogen and carbon
atoms. The larger the number of hydrogen and carbon atoms, the heavier is the gas and higher is its
boiling point.

Halocarbon Refrigerants: The halocarbon refrigerants are formed by replacing one or more of
hydrogen atoms of methane or ethane by one or more atoms of the three halogens: fluorine, chlorine or
bromine. Some of the refrigerants coming under this category are mentioned below:

Refrigerant R12: The refrigerant R12 is the most widely used refrigerant in the domestic and large
commercial establishments. Its chemical formula is CCl2F2 and its boiling point is -300C at 1 bar. It is a
non-flammable, non-explosive, non-irritating, non-toxic and odorless refrigerant. It remains chemically
stable up to SS00C. Also, it does not affect the material ofthe refrigeration system. It is available in
abundance and is quite cheap. However, its use is being discontinued nowadays for its contribution to
ozone depletion which will be discussed later.

Refrigerant R13: Its chemical formula is CCIF3. it is a non-flammable, non-toxic and stable refrigerant.
It is very suitable for achieving low temperatures in a cascade refrigeration system. Its specific volume is
high and therefore, it is suitable for centrifugal compressors. However, it also has a negative effect on
ozone depletion.

Refrigerant R22: Its chemical formula is CHCIF2. it is also a non-toxic, non• flammable, non-corrosive
and non-irritating refrigerant. It is the most common refrigerant for use in large refrigeration systems and
is preferred to R12.

Refrigerant R114: Its chemical formula is C2Cl2F4. Its boiling point corresponding to 1 bar is about 3
O
C. It has properties very similar to those of R12 with respect to water and oil combination. It is not
suitable for low temperature refrigeration since it has negative evaporator pressure even at around 9 OC. It
is non-toxic, non-explosive and non-corrosive even in the presence of water.

OZONE DEPLETION AND GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL OF REFRIGERANTS

An issue of growing concern for the present-day environment is the impact of the various
refrigerants on the ozone depletion and global warming of the environment. The main culprits in this case
are the chlorine containing halogenated hydrocarbons, commonly known as chlorofluorocarbons or CFC
which are being used as refrigerants.

The Earth's atmosphere is made up of various layers. The layer just above the Earth‘s surface is known
as the troposphere. The troposphere extends up to 10 km from the surface. The ozone layer is just above
the troposphere and located in the stratosphere. The stratospheric ozone is Earth's natural protection to
harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. UV radiation is harmful to human, plant and animal life.
The ozone layer gets depleted by the action of these refrigerants.

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CFCs, when they are released from the surface of the Earth, rise slowly into the stratosphere. Here they
are bombarded by the incoming UV light from the Sun, which releases the chlorine atoms from the parent
compound. It is this chlorine atom which reacts with the ozone molecules. The detailed reactions are
given below:

The free chlorine atom can again take part in the reaction with another ozone atom.
A single chlorine atom, released by the action of UV radiation on CFCs, can catalytically destroy tens
of thousands of ozone molecules during its residence in the stratosphere AS IN FIGURE BELOW

Ozone depletion will permit UV rays to reach earth which can result in several harmful effects on living
creatures. The UV radiation can cause skin cancer, cataracts and destruction of the body's immune
system.

Along with ozone depletion, CFC refrigerants also contribute to a large extent in the global warming of
the planet. These gases create a greenhouse effect which traps the heat in the lower atmosphere. This
makes the Earth warmer because the greenhouse gases do not allow infrared radiation to pass through
tern. The earth emits IR rays during its cooling when sun is not there. CO2 is the most important
greenhouse gas but one molecule of CFC has warming potential which is more than 1000 times the
warming potential of one molecule of CO2. Sun's rays are allowed into the lower atmosphere, but the heat
from these rays is not allowed to escape.

CONDENSERS
The condenser is a heat exchanger that rejects heat from the refrigerant to air, water, or some other fluid.
The three common types of condensers are air-cooled, water-cooled, and evaporative

Air-Cooled Condensers: A typical air-cooled condenser uses propeller-type fans to draw outdoor air
over a finned tube heat transfer surface. The temperature difference between the hot refrigerant vapor that
is flowing through the tubes and the cooler outdoor air induces heat transfer. The resulting reduction in
the heat content of the refrigerant vapor causes it to condense into liquid. Within the final few lengths of
condenser tubing (the sub-cooler), the liquid refrigerant is further cooled below the temperature at which
it was condensed. The air-cooled condenser is very popular in both residential and commercial
applications because of its convenience. It requires very little maintenance and does not require the
freeze protection and water treatment that is necessary with a water- cooled condenser. Additionally, it is
favored in areas that have an inadequate or costly water supply, or where the use of water for air
conditioning is restricted.

Evaporative Condenser: A modification of the air-cooled condenser is the evaporative

condenser. Within this device, the refrigerant flows through tubes and air is drawn or blown over the
tubes by a fan. The difference is that water is sprayed on the tube surfaces. As the air passes over
the coil, it causes a small portion of the water to evaporate. This evaporation process absorbs heat from
the coil, causing the refrigerant vapor within the tubes to condense. The remaining water then falls to the
sump to be re-circulated and used again.

Sub cooling of the refrigerant can be accomplished by piping the condensed liquid back through another
few rows of coil tubing, located either in the condenser airstream or in the water sump, where additional
heat transfer reduces the temperature of the liquid refrigerant.

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Water-cooled Condenser: The shell-and-tube is the most common type of water-cooled condenser.
With this design, water is pumped through the tubes while the refrigerant vapor fills the shell space
surrounding the tubes. As heat is transferred from the refrigerant to the water, the refrigerant vapor
condenses on the tube surfaces. The condensed liquid refrigerant then falls to the bottom of the shell,
where it flows through an enclosure that contains additional tubes (the sub cooler). More heat is
transferred from the liquid refrigerant to the water inside these tubes, sub cooling the refrigerant. After
the warm water leaves the condenser, it must either be disposed of (as in the case of using water from a
well) or it must be cooled before it can be reused by the condenser. In this example, the condenser brings
in 85°F [29°C] water and warms it up to 95°F [35°C]. Before this water can be used again, it must be
cooled backdown to 85F [29°C].

Cooling tower A cooling tower is a device commonly used to cool condensing water. In this design,
warm water is sprayed over fill in the cooling tower while a propeller fan draws outdoor air upward
through the fill. The movement of air through the spray causes some of the water to evaporate, a process
that cools the remaining water. This cooled water then falls to the tower sump to be returned to the
condenser.

EVAPORATORS

The evaporator is a heat exchanger that transfers heat from air, water, or some other fluid to the cool
liquid refrigerant. Two common types of evaporators are the finned-tube and the shell-and-tube.

Finned-Tube Evaporators: A finned-tube evaporator includes rows of tubes passing through sheets of
formed fins. Cool, liquid refrigerant flows through the tubes, cooling the tube and fin surfaces. As air
passes through the coil and comes into contact with the cold fin surfaces, heat is transferred from the air
to the refrigerant. This heat transfer causes the refrigerant to boil and leave the evaporator as vapor. The
fins of the coil are formed to produce turbulence as the air passes through them. This turbulence enhances
heat transfer, preventing stratification within the coil-leaving airstream. To provide uniform heat transfer
throughout the coil, the liquid refrigerant is distributed to the coil tubes in several parallel circuits. A
distributor is used to ensure uniform refrigerant distribution through these multiple coil circuits. It
distributes the liquid/vapor refrigerant mixture to the coil through several tubes of equal length
and diameter. As the refrigerant passes through the tubes of the coil, the liquid refrigerant absorbs heat
from the air, causing it to boil off into vapor. The refrigerant vapor leaves the coil tubes
and collects in a suction header.

Shell-and-Tube Evaporators: Instead of producing cooled air, a shell-and-tube evaporator

is used to produce chilled water. In this type of evaporator, the cool liquid refrigerant flows through the
tubes and water fills the shell space surrounding the tubes.

As heat is transferred from the water to the refrigerant, the refrigerant boils inside the tubes and the
resulting vapor is drawn to the compressor. Water enters the shell at one end and leaves at the opposite
end. This chilled water is pumped to one or more heat exchangers to handle the system cooling
load. These heat exchangers could be coils used to cool air or they could be some other load that requires
chilled water.

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EXPANSION DEVICES
An expansion device is used to maintain a pressure difference between the high-pressure (condenser)
and low-pressure (evaporator) sides of the system established by the compressor.This pressure difference
allows the evaporator temperature to be low enough to absorb heat from the air or water to be cooled,
while also allowing the refrigerant to be at a high enough temperature in the condenser to reject heat to air
or water at normally available temperatures. There are several types of expansion devices, including
expansion valves (thermostatic or electronic), capillary tubes, and orifices.

In addition to maintaining a pressure difference, the thermostatic expansion valve controls the quantity of
liquid refrigerant entering the evaporator. It ensures that the refrigerant will be completely vaporized
within the evaporator (A) and maintains the proper amount of superheat in the system. If not, enough
liquid refrigerants enters the evaporator, it vaporizes too quickly. As a result, the remaining coil tubes fill
with vapor, producing very little refrigeration effect. On the other hand, if too much liquid refrigerant
enters the evaporator, not all of it will be vaporized. As a result, some liquid refrigerant gets into the
compressor suction line. Since the compressor is designed to compress vapor and not liquid, liquid
refrigerant can cause excess wear and damage to the compressor.

: The compressor is the active element of the refrigerating circuit. It has two functions:
COMPRESSORS
a) to maintain the pressure by drawing off the vapor produced through evaporation of the liquid
refrigerant and b) to compress the vapor by raising its temperature and pressure to the point at which the
vapor can be condensed at the normal temperature of the condensing media.

The only way the vaporized refrigerant can be made to give up the latent heat of vaporization that it
absorbed in the evaporator is by cooling and condensing it. Because of the relatively high temperature of
the available cooling medium, the only way to make the vapor condense is to compress it. When we raise
the pressure, we also raise the temperature. This enables the vapor to be condensed back into liquid by
some convenient low-cost source of cooling, such as ambient air or water.

Compressor Principle
A compressor has two major openings (ports) through which it connects to the system by copper tubing.
The inlet to the compressor is called the ―Suction Line" which brings the low-pressure refrigerant vapor
from the evaporator into the compressor. The other is the discharge port where the compressed refrigerant
vapor, now at high pressure, is discharged into the condenser for cooling. During compression the
pressure of the refrigerant increases and the volume decreases. This is explained by Boyle‘s law which
states that at a constant temperature, a volume of gas (or vapor) is inversely proportional to the applied
pressure acting on it. That is, as the pressure increases, the volume of gas decreases. Also, during
compression, the temperature of the refrigerant increases, the effect of a physical phenomenon known as
the heat of compression. This is explained by Charles‘s law which states that at a constant volume, the
temperature varies directly with the pressure i.e. as the pressure of a gas increases, so does its
temperature.

Types of Compressors
Compressors can be reciprocating piston, scroll, screw or centrifugal. The first three are
positive displacement machines and the last is a dynamic compressor.

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1) Reciprocating compressor: Reciprocating compressors are the positive displacement machines,
usually provided with two to 16 cylinders. This design minimizes their poor adaptation to large volume
rates, which is one of their disadvantages. The Single stage reciprocating machines have an ability to
operate at compression ratios of 10 to 12.The Reciprocating compressors are available in two basic types:
hermetic sealed units and units of open construction. In hermetic sealed units, the motor and the
compressor are direct-coupled and housed in a single casing that is sealed to the atmosphere. In open
construction units, the motor and the compressor are in separate housings. In general, open construction
units have a longer service life, lower maintenance requirements and higher operating efficiencies. The
hermetic sealed units are most common particularly in small capacities. The Reciprocating machines
are manufactured in capacities from 0.5 to 200 TR. The main factors favoring reciprocating machine
is low cost. The other advantage is that multiple reciprocating machines can be installed to closely match
the building loads. Multiple units allow flexibility to operate machines per the need. If properly managed
this could attribute to significant energy savings during low loads. A major drawback is a high level of
maintenance requirements, noise and vibration. Since the capacity is limited to 200TR, multiple units
costmore than other options. Multiple chiller configurations require large space and consume more
energy per ton of refrigeration.

2) Centrifugal Compressors: The Centrifugal compressors are categorized as variable volume

displacement units. Like reciprocating machines these are also available in both hermetic and open
construction. Commercially the hermetic sealed units are more widely used, despite its lower operating
efficiency. Centrifugal compressors for refrigeration applications are generally designed for a fixed
compression ratio of 18. The centrifugal compressors are manufactured in capacities from 90 to 2000
tons. The main factor favoring centrifugal machine is their high operational efficiency at full load,
compact size and availability in large sizes. The biggest drawback of centrifugal machine is a very poor
part load performance and inability to operate at low cooling loads. At extreme low loads, these chillers
are prone to a condition known as surging. The main limitation is that these are not suitablefor air-
cooled condenser options and require water and cooling tower.

3) Screw Compressors: Rotary or screw compressors, like reciprocating machines are positive
displacement compressors. Rotary is a wider term that may include vane, eccentric, gear orscrew types.
The commercial refrigeration installation relies more on screw machines. Screw compressors are
available in several designs, both single screw and twin screw, with oil free and oil-injected designs in
both types. Twin-screw oil• injected compressors are slightly more energy efficient at mode rate
compression ratios. Twin• screw compressors have an ability to operate at compression ratio of 30. Units
are available in both hermetic sealed and open construction. Screw compressors are available in
capacities ranging from 20 to 1000 tons and even higher from few manufacturers. The Screw compressors
have an ability to operate at compression ratios of as high as 30 which can be varied for optimum load
adjustment.The factors favoring screw compressors is their compact size, lightweight, quite &vibration
free operation and high energy efficiency both in full and part load operation.The major drawback is their
high cost. For smaller loads, reciprocating machines are less expensive to purchase and for large loads
centrifugal machines cost less.

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EXERCISES

1. A steady-flow Carnot refrigeration cycle uses refrigerant134a as the working fluid. The refrigerant
changes from saturated vapor to saturated liquid at 30°C in the condenser as it rejects heat. The
evaporator pressure is160 kPa. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram relative to saturation lines, and
determine (a) the coefficient of performance, (b) the amount of heat absorbed from the refrigerated
space, and (c) the network input.

2. A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working fluid and operates onan ideal vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle between 0. 12 and 0. 7MPa. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant is 0.05 kg/s. Show
the cycleon a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines.Determine ( a) the rate of heat
removal from the refrigerated space and the power input 3. Refrigerant-I34a enters the
compressor of a refrigerator as superheated vapor at 0.14 MPa and I0°C at a rate of 0.12 kg/s, and it
leaves at 0.7MPa and 50°C. The refrigerant is cooled in the condenser to 24°C and0.65 MPa, and it is
throttled to 0.1 5 MPa. Disregarding any heat transfer and pressure drops in the connecting lines between
the components, show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the
rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space and the power input to the compressor, (b) the isentropic
efficiency of the compressor, and (c) the COP of the refrigerator.

4. Refrigerant-I 34a enters the compressor of a refrigerator at I 40 kPa and I0°C at a rate of 0.3 m33/min
and leaves at1 MPa. The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 78 percent. The refrigerant enters the
throttling valve at 0.95 Mpa and 30°C and leaves the evaporator as saturated vapor at 18.5°C. Show the
cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the power input to the
compressor, (b) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space, and (c) the pressure drop and rate of
heat gain in the line between the evaporator and the compressor.

5. A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working fluid and operates on the ideal vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle. The refrigerant enters the evaporator at 120 kPa with a quality of 30 percent and
leavesthe compressor at 60°C. If the compressor consumes 450 W of power, determine (a) the mass flow
rate ofthe refrigerant, (b) the condenser pressure, and (c) the COP of the refrigerator.

6. Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a refrigerator at 140 kPa and 10°C at a rate of 0.3 m3/min
and leaves at 1 MPa. The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 78 percent. The refrigerant enters the
throttling valve at 0.95 MPa and 30°C and leaves the evaporator as saturated vapor at 18.5°C. Show the
cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the power input to the
compressor, (b) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space, and (c) the pressure drop and rate of
heat gain in the line between the evaporator and the compressor.

7. A refrigerator that operates on the ideal vapor compression cycle with refrigerant-134a is to maintain
the refrigerated space at 10°C while rejecting heat to the environment at 25°C. Select reasonable
pressures for the evaporator and the condenser, and explain why you chose those values.

8.A heat pump that operates on the ideal vapor compression cycle with refrigerant-134a is used to heat a
house and maintain it at 22°C by using underground water at 10°C as the heat source. Select reasonable
pressures for the evaporator and the condenser, and explain why you chose those values.

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9. A heat pump that operates on the ideal vapor compression cycle with refrigerant-134a is used to
heat water from 15 to 45 °C at a rate of 0.12 kg/s. The condenser and evaporator pressures are 1.4 and
0.32 MPa, respectively. Determine the power input to the heat pump.

10.A heat pump using refrigerant-134a heats a house by using underground water at 8°C as the heat
source. The house is losing heat at a rate of 60,000 kJ/h. The refrigerant enters the compressor at 280 kPa
and 0°C, and it leaves at1 MPa

11. Refrigerant-134a enters the condenser of a residential heat pump at 800 kPa and 55°C at rate of 0.018
kg/s and leaves at 750 kPa sub-cooled by 3°C. The refrigerant enters the compressor at 200 kPa
superheated by 4 °C. Determine (a) the isentropic efficiency of the compressor, (b) the rate of heat
supplied to the heated room, and (c) the COP of the heat pump. Also, determine (d) the COP and the rate
of heat supplied to the heated room if this heat pump operated on the ideal vapor• compression cycle
between the pressure limits of 200 and 800 kPa.

12. Consider a two-stage cascade refrigeration system operating between the pressure limits of
0.8 and 0.14 MPa. Each stage operates on the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle with
refrigerant-134a as the working fluid. Heat rejection from the lower cycle to the upper cycle takes place
in an adiabatic counter-flow heat exchanger where both streams enter at about 0.4 MPa. If the mass flow
rate of the refrigerant through the upper cycle is 0.24 kg/s, determine (a) the mass flow rate of the
refrigerant through the lower cycle, (b) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space and the power
input to the compressor, and (c) the coefficient of performance of this cascade refrigerator.

Vapor absorption refrigeration cycle

Another form of refrigeration that becomes economically attractive when there is a source of
inexpensive thermal energy at a temperature of 100 to 200°C is absorption refrigeration. Some
examples of inexpensive thermal energy sources include geothermal energy, solar energy, and waste
heat from cogeneration or process steam plants, and even natural gas when it is available at a
relatively low price.

As the name implies, absorption refrigeration systems involve the absorption of a refrigerant by a
transport medium. The most widely used absorption refrigeration system is the ammonia• water system,
where ammonia (NH3) serves as the refrigerant and water (H2O) as the transport medium. Other
absorption refrigeration systems include water-lithium bromide and water-lithium chloride systems,
where water serves as the refrigerant.

The absorption process can be compared to the vapor compression system in that the process of
mechanical compression of the refrigerant gas is replaced by the absorption of the gas into a liquid
(solution), followed by pumping the liquid to the required pressure where the refrigerant vapor is liberated
from the solution by application of heat.

Relation b/n the vapor compression and vapor absorption systems

Both the mechanical vapor compression refrigeration cycle and the absorption refrigeration cycle
accomplish the removal of heat through the evaporation of a refrigerant at a low pressure and the rejection
of heat through the condensation of the refrigerant at a higher pressure.

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The method of creating the pressure difference and circulating the refrigerant is the primary difference
between the two cycles.

The mechanical vapor compression cycle employs a mechanical compressor to create the pressure
difference necessary to circulate the refrigerant.

In the absorption system, another liquid, which is called absorbent, is used to circulate the refrigerant.

To understand the basic principles involved in absorption refrigeration, we examine the NH3--
H2O system shown in the figure below.

Notice from the figure that this system looks very much like the vapor-compression system, except that
the compressor has been replaced by a complex absorption mechanism consisting of an absorber, a pump,
a generator, a regenerator, a valve, and a rectifier.

Once the pressure of NH3 is raised by the components in the box (this is the only thing they are set up
to do), it is cooled and condensed in the condenser by rejecting heat to the surroundings, is throttled to the
evaporator pressure, and absorbs heat from the refrigerated space as it flows through the evaporator. So,
there is nothing new there.

Here is what happens in the box:

Ammonia vapor leaves the evaporator and enters the absorber, where it dissolves and reacts with
water to form NH3 · H20. This is an exothermic reaction; thus, heat is released during this process.

The amount of NH3 that can be dissolved in H20 is inversely proportional to the temperature. Therefore,
it is necessary to cool the absorber to maintain its temperature as low as possible, hence to maximize the
amount of NH3 dissolved in water.

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The liquid NH3 H20 solution, which is rich in NH3, is then pumped to the generator. Heat is
transferred to the solution from a source to vaporize some of the solution. The vapor, which is rich in
NH3, passes through a rectifier, which separates the water and returns it to the generator. The high-
pressure pure NH3 vapor then continues its journey through the rest of the cycle.

The hot NH3 H20 solution, which is weak in NH3, then passes through are generator, where it transfers
some heat to the rich solution leaving the pump, and is throttled to the absorber pressure.

Compared with vapor-compression systems, absorption refrigeration systems have one major
advantage: A liquid is compressed instead of a vapor.

The steady-flow work is proportional to the specific volume, and thus the work input
for absorption refrigeration systems is very small (on the order of one percent of the heat
supplied to the generator) and often neglected in the cycle analysis. The operation of these systems is
based on heat transfer from an external source.

Therefore, absorption refrigeration systems are often classified as heat-driven systems.

The solubility of ammonia in water at low temperatures and pressures is higher than it is at
higher temperatures and pressures. The ammonia vapor leaving the evaporator at point 2 is readily
absorbed in the low temperature hot solution in the absorber. This process is accompanied by the
rejection of heat. The ammonia in water solution is pumped to the higher pressure and is heated in the
generator.

Due to reduced solubility of ammonia in water at the higher pressure and temperature, the vapor is
removed from the solution. The vapor then passes to the condenser and the weakened ammonia in water
solution is returned to the absorber.

The absorption refrigeration systems are much more expensive than the vapor compression
refrigeration systems. They are more complex and occupy more space, they are much less efficient thus
requiring much larger cooling towers to reject the waste heat, and they are more difficult to service
since they are less common.

Therefore, absorption refrigeration systems should be considered only when the unit cost of
thermal energy is low and is projected to remain low relative to electricity.

Absorption refrigeration systems are primarily used in large commercial and

industrial installations.

Thermodynamic analysis and performance of the ideal vapor absorption cycle

The COP of absorption refrigeration systems is defined as

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The maximum COP of an absorption refrigeration system is determined by assuming that the entire cycle
is totally reversible (i.e., the cycle involves no irreversibilities and any heat transfer is through a
differential temperature difference). The refrigeration system would be reversible if the heat from the
of this heat engine (W = Th. .~) is supplied to a Carnot refrigerator to source (Q~) were transferred to a
Carnot heat engine, and the work output remove heat from the refrigerated space. Note that Q, = W X
COP, nh.«s•.~COP, Then the overall COP of an absorption refrigeration system under reversible
conditions becomes

Where T, Tk and T, are the thermodynamic temperatures of the refrigerated space, the environment, and
the heat source, respectively

Any absorption refrigeration system that receives heat from a source at Ts and removes heat from the
refrigerated space at Ti while operating in an environment at To has a lower COP than the one
determined from the above equation (Actual VARC• HAS LOWER COP THAN THAT OF
REVERSIBLE VARC BECAUSE OF I RREVERSI BLITI ES)

For example, when the source is at 120°C, the refrigerated space is at 10°C, and the environment
is at 25°C, the maximum COP that an absorption refrigeration system can have is 1.8. The COP ofactual
absorption refrigeration systems are usually less than 1.

Absorption Chillers

► Absorption systems offer at least three advantages over conventional electric vapor compression
systems.

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► First, they do not use CFC or HCFC refrigerants. The solutions used in absorption systems
are not refrigerants that could someday be limited because of ozone depletion or global warming
concerns.

► Second, absorption systems can utilize a variety of heat sources, including natural gas, steam, solar-
heated water, and waste heat from a turbine or industrial process. If the source of heat is from waste heat,
such as from a co-generation system, absorption systems may provide the lowest cost alternative for
providing chilled water for air conditioning. Because sources of energy besides electricity are used,
installation of an absorption system can be used to reduce peak electrical demand in situations where
electrical demand charges are high.

► Third, because of the absence of heavy rotating parts, absorption systems produce much less vibration
and noise compared to large centrifugal systems

Water-lithium bromide absorption machines can be classified by the method of heat input and
whether the cycle is single or multiple effects. Indirect fired chillers use steam or hot liquids as a heat
source. Direct fired chillers use the heat energy from the firing of fossil fuels. Heat-recovery chillers use
waste gases as the heat source. Single effect and double effect chillers are described below.

AIR REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

Limitation of the Reversed Carnot cycle with gas as a refrigerant

Carnot cycle is an idealization and it suffers from several practical limitations. One of the main
difficulties with Carnot cycle employing a gas is the difficulty of achieving isothermal heat transfer
during processes 2-3 and 4-1. For a gas to have heat transfer isothermally, it is essential to carry
out work transfer from or to the system when heat is transferred to the system (process 4-1) or
from the system (process 2-3). This is difficult to achieve in practice.

In addition, the volumetric refrigeration capacity of the Carnot system is very small leading to large
compressor displacement, which gives rise to large frictional effects.

All actual processes are irreversible; hence completely reversible cycles are idealizations only.

Reversed Brayton or Joule or Bell Coleman cycle

This is an important cycle frequently employed in gas cycle refrigeration systems.

This may be thought of as a modification of reversed Carnot cycle, as the two isothermal processes of
Carnot cycle are replaced by two isobaric heat transfer processes.

This cycle is also called as Joule or Bell-Coleman cycle.

The ideal cycle consists of the following four processes: Process 1-2: Reversible, adiabaticcompression
in a compressor

Process 2-3: Reversible, isobaric heat rejection ina heat exchanger

Process 3-4: Reversible, adiabatic expansion in a turbine

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Process 4-1: Reversible, isobaric heat absorption ina heat exchanger

Fig. schematic of a closed, reverse Brayton cycle and also the cycle on T-s diagram.

All the processes described are internally reversible, and the cycle executed is the ideal gas
refrigeration cycle.

• In actual gas refrigeration cycles, the compression and expansion processes deviate
from the isentropic ones, and T3 is higher than to unless the heat exchanger is infinitely large.

On a T-s diagram, the area under process curve

4-1 represents the heat removed from the refrigerated space, and the enclosed area 1-2-3-

4-1 represents the network input. The ratio of these areas is the COP for the cycle, which may be
expressed as

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90 | P a g e
The gas refrigeration cycle deviates from the reversed Carnot cycle because the heat transfer processes
are not isothermal. In fact, the gas temperature varies considerably during heat transfer processes.
Consequently, the gas refrigeration cycles have lower COPs relative to the vapor-compression
refrigeration cycles or the reversed Carnot cycle.

This is also evident from the T-s diagram in Fig. in next slide. The reversed Carnot cycle consumes a
fraction of the net work (rectangular area lA3B) but produces a greater amount of refrigeration
(triangular area under Bl).

Despite their relatively low COPs, the gas refrigeration cycles have two desirable characteristics:

They involve simple, lighter components, which make them suitable for aircraft cooling, and they
can incorporate regeneration, which makes them suitable for liquefaction of gases and cryogenic
applications.

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Sterling cycle

In Sterling cycle, Carnot cycle's isentropic compression and expansion processes are replaced
by two constant-volume regeneration processes.

During the regeneration process heat is transferred to a thermal storage device (regenerator)
during one part and is transferred back to the working fluid in another part of the cycle.

The regenerator can be a wire or a ceramic mesh or any kind of porous plug with a high thermal
mass (mass times specific heat). The regenerator is assumed to be reversible heat transfer device.

• 1-2 isothermal expansion- heat addition from external source

• 2-3 const. vol. heat transfer- internal heat transfer from the gas to the regenerator

• 3-4 isothermal compression- heat rejection to the external sink

• 4-1 const. vol. heat transfer- internal heat transfer from the regenerator to the gas

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Application of the gas refrigeration cycle

Gas cycle refrigeration systems find applications in air craft cabin cooling and also in the liquefaction of
various gases.

Despite their relatively low COPs, the gas refrigeration cycles have two desirable characteristics:
They involve simple, lighter components, which make them suitable for aircraft cooling, and they
can incorporate regeneration, which makes them suitable for liquefaction of gases and cryogenic
applications. Commonly used gas in this cycle is air.

STEAM
-INJECTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

Ejector or jet pump refrigeration is a thermally driven technology that has been used for cooling
applications for many years. In their present state of development they have a much lower COP than
vapor compression systems but offer advantages of simplicity and no moving parts.

Their greatest advantage is their capability to produce refrigeration using waste heat or solar
energy as a heat source at temperatures above 80°C.

The schematic diagram of the basic ejector refrigeration cycle is shown in the next slide

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 Referring to the basic ejector refrigeration cycle in Figure above, the system consists of
two loops, the power loop and the refrigeration loop.

In the power loop, low-grade heat, Qb, is used in a boiler or generator to evaporate high
pressure liquid refrigerant (process 1-2). The high pressure vapor generated, known as the
primary fluid, flows through the ejector where it accelerates through the nozzle.

The reduction in pressure that occurs induces vapor from the evaporator, known as the secondary fluid, at
point 3.

The two fluids mix in the mixing chamber before entering the diffuser section where the flow
decelerates and pressure recovery occurs. The mixed fluid then flows to the condenser where it is
condensed rejecting heat to the environment, Qc. A portion of the liquid exiting the condenser at point 5
is then pumped to the boiler for the completion of the power cycle.

The remainder of the liquid is expanded through an expansion device and enters the evaporator
of the refrigeration loop at point 6 as a mixture of liquid and vapor.

The refrigerant evaporates in the evaporator producing a refrigeration effect, Qe, and the resulting vapor
is then drawn into the ejector at point 3. The refrigerant (secondary fluid) mixes with the
primary fluid in the ejector and is compressed in the diffuser section before entering the condenser at
point 4.

The mixed fluid condenses in the condenser and exits at point 5 for the repetition of the refrigeration
cycle.

Ejector refrigeration system (ERS) powered by low-grade energy has been studied since the mid-
1950s. Compared with other refrigeration systems, ERS has some special advantages such as the
simplicity in construction, high reliability and low cost.

However, the coefficient of performance for the conventional ERS is significantly lower than
that for others. This has restricted its wide applications.

94 | P a g e
In recent years, people have tried to find wider application for ejector refrigeration systems in
refrigeration and air conditioning field by directly utilizing low-grade thermal energy, such as solar
energy and waste heat.

Despite extensive development effort the COP of Ejector refrigeration system the system, which
can be defined as the ratio of the refrigeration effect to the heat input to the boiler, if one
neglects the pump work which is relatively small, is still relatively low, less than0.2.

Ejector refrigeration systems are not presently commercially available off the shelf but a number of
companies specialize in the design and application of bespoke steam ejector systems that use water as a
refrigerant for cooling applications above 0°C.

To improve the efficiency of the simple ejector cycle more complex cycles have been investigated as
well as the integration of ejectors with vapor compression and absorption systems.

Significant effort has also been devoted to the development of solar driven ejector refrigeration systems

The main barrier to uptake of ejector refrigeration technology is Lower COP,

0.20.3, compared to vapor compression systems and other thermally driven

technologies.

Air-conditioning (AC)

Fundamental Properties of Moist Air Dry and Atmospheric Air

Atmospheric air: Air in the atmosphere containing some water vapor (or moisture).

Dry air: Air that contains no water vapor. Water vapor in the air plays a major role in human comfort.
Therefore, it is an important consideration in air-conditioning applications. For air-conditioning
applications, air pressure is nominally 1 atmosphere and air temperature varies in the range −10 oC to
50oC. Under these conditions, dry air and atmospheric air are treated as ideal gases.

Atmospheric air normally contains some water vapor (moisture). The dry-air contains no water. Although
the amount of water vapor in the air is small, it plays a major role in human comfort and thus in air-
conditioning applications. The temperature of air in air-conditioning applications ranges from about -10
to 50°C. In that range both dry air and atmospheric air (including water-vapor) can be treated as ideal gas,

95 | P a g e
with negligible error. Thus the ideal-gas relation PV = RT can be applied.

Enthalpy of Atmospheric Air • Note that since air is considered as an ideal-gas, the enthalpy of air (both
water-vapor and dry air) is only a function of temperature, at the temperature range of interest, i.e., -10 to
50°C. • Taking 0°C as the reference temperature; with the constant-pressure specific for dry-air (in the
range of interest) cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.°C; one obtains:

The enthalpy of water vapor at 0°C is 2500.9 kJ/kg. The average cp value of water vapor in the
temperature range -10 to 50°C can be taken to be 1.82 kJ/kg.°C. Then the enthalpy of water vapor can be
determined from:

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97 | P a g e
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The study of properties of air is called Psychrometrics or Psychrometry

The comfort of human body depends on three factors:

Temperature: most important index of comfort, most people feel comfortable when temperature is
between 22 and 27°C

Relative humidity: it affects the amount of heat that body can dissipate through evaporation. Relative
humidity is a measure of air‘s ability to absorb moisture. Most people prefer relative humidity of 40 to
60%.

Air motion: it removes the warm, moist air that builds up around body and replaces it with fresh air. Most
people feel comfortable at an airspeed of 15 m/min. • Other important factors in air-conditioning include:
noise, filtration, air-distribution, fresh air supply, supply air temperature, etc.

Psychometric Chart

Simple Heating: During simple cooling, specific humidity remains constant, but relative humidity
increases. During simple heating, specific humidity remains constant, but relative humidity decreases.

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102 | P a g e
Heating with Humidification:

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Cooling with Dehumidification:

Selection of suitable inside design conditions:

For a person to feel comfortable it appears that the following conditions are desirable:

1) The air temperature should be higher than the mean radiant temperature in summer, but lower in
winter. (22-27oC in summer and 20-25oC in winter)
2) The average air velocity in the room should probably not exceed 0.15 m/ s in an air conditioned
room but higher velocities may be acceptable with air temperatures greater than 26oC
3) Relative humidity should desirably lie between about 45 per cent and 60 per cent.
4) Relative humidity should never exceed 70 per cent.
5) The dew point should never be less than 2 oC
6) The temperature difference between the feet and the head should be as small as possible,
normally not exceeding 1.5 oC and never more than 3 oC
7) Floor temperatures should not be greater than 26oC when people are standing and probably not
less than 17oC
8) The radiant temperature asymmetry should not be more than 5 oC vertically or 10oC horizontally.
9) The carbon dioxide content should not exceed about 0.1 per cent.

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Heating and Cooling load calculations:

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106 | P a g e
Classification of air conditioning systems:
• Based on the fluid media used in the thermal distribution system, air conditioning systems can be
classified as:

1. All air systems 2. All water systems 3. Air- water systems 4. Unitary refrigerant based systems
(Room AC)

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 Thermodynamics I

Course Title: Engineering Thermodynamics 1

Topic No.
: 1
Topic Title: Introduction to Thermodynamics and Basic Concepts
Topic Objectives:  Identify the unique vocabulary associated with thermodynamics through the prec
definition of basic concepts to form a sound foundation for the development of th
principles of thermodynamics.
 Review the metric unit systems.
 Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics such as system, state, state post
equilibrium, process, and cycle.
 Review concepts of temperature, temperature scales, pressure, and absolute an
gage pressure
 Introduce an intuitive systematic problem
-solving technique.

Theory and Discussion

Thermodynamics and Energy
Thermodynamics : The science energy.
of
Energy: The ability to cause changes.
The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme(heat) anddynamis(power).
Conservation of energy principle: During an interaction, energy can change from one form to another
but the total amount of energy remains constant. Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
The first law of thermodynamics : An expression of the conservation of energy principle.
energyis a thermodynamic property.
The first law asserts that
The second law of thermodynamics: It asserts that energy quality
has as well as quantity,and actual
processes occur in the directionecreasing
of d quality of energy.
Classical thermodynamics: A macroscopic approach to the study of thermodynamics that does not
require a knowledge of the behavior of individual particles. It provides a direct and easy way to t
solution of engineering problems..
Statistical thermodynamics: A microscopic approach, based on the average behavior of large groups
individual particles.

Importance of Dimensions and Units

• Any physical quantity can be characterized dimensions
by .
• The magnitudes assigned todimensions
the are called
units.
• Some basic dimensions such asmmass , lengthL, timet, and temperature T are selected primary
as
or fundamental dimensions V, energyE, and volume
, while others such as velocity V are expressed in
terms of the primary dimensi
ons and are calledsecondary dimensions , or derived dimensions
.
• Metric SI system : A simple and logical system based on a decimal relationship between the variou
units.
• English system: It has no apparent systematic numerical base, and various units system
in this
are
related to each other rather arbitrarily
.

Dimensional Homogeniety:
All equations must be dimensionally
homogeneous
.

108 | P a g e
 Unity Conversion Ratios:
All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be formed by combinations of primary
. units
Force units
, for example, can be expressed as

They can also be expressed more conveniently

unity conversion
as ratios
as

Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and are unitless, and thus such ratios (or their
inverses) can be inserted convenientl
y into any calculation to properly convert units.

Systems and Control Volumes

System
: A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.

Surroundings
: The mass or region outside the system
Boundary
: The real or imaginary surface that separates
the system from its surroundings.
The boundary of a system canfixed
beor movable.

109 | P a g e
 Systems may be considered closed
to be or open.
Closed system (Control mass):A fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary.
Open syst em(control volume)
: A properly selected region in space.
It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
Control surface
: The boundaries ofcontrol
a volume. It can be real or imaginary.

Properties of a System
P, pressure
Property:Any characteristic of a system. Some familiar properties are T,
temperature
volumeV, and mass m. Properties are considered to be intensive
either or extensive .
Intensive properties:
Those that are independent of the mass of a system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density.
Extensive properties:
Those whose values depend on the —orsize
extent
—of the system.
Specific properties:
Extensive properties per mass.
unit

Continuum
• Matter is made up of atoms that are widely spaced in the gas phase. Yet it is very convenient to
disregard the atomic nature of a substance and view it as a continuous, homogeneous matter w
holes, that is,continuum
a .
• The continu um idealization allows us to treat properties as point functions and to assume the
properties vary continually in space with no jump discontinuities.
• This idealization is valid as long as the size of the system we deal with is large relative to the sp
between the molecules.
• This is the case in practically all problems.
• In this text we will limit our consideration to substances that can be modeled as a continuum.
State and Equilibrium:
• Thermodynamics deals with equilibriumstates.

110 | P a g e
 • Equilibrium
:A state ofbalance.
• In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system.
• Thermal equilibrium:If the temperature is the same throughout the entire system.
• Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no change in pressure atpoint
any of the system with time.
• Phase equilibrium:
If a system involves two phases and when the mass of each phase reaches an
equilibrium level and stays there.
• Chemical equilibrium: If the chemical composition of a system does not change withis, time,
no that
chemical reactions occur.

State Postulate:
• The number of properties required to fix the state of a system is given
statebypostulate
the :
 The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent,
intensive properties.
• Simple compressible system:
If a system involves no electrical, magnetic, gravitational, motion, and
surface tension effects.

Processes and Cycles

Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another.
Path: The series of tes
sta through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states, as well as the p
follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
Quasistatic or quasi
-equilibrium process:
When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system
remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times.

• Process diagrams plotted by employing thermodynamic properties as coordinates are very u

in visualizing the processes.
• Some ommon
c T, pressure
properties that are used as coordinates are temperature P, and volume
V (or specific volume v).
• The prefixiso- is often used to designate a process for which a particular property remains
constant.
• Isothermal process: A process duringhich T remains constant.
w the temperature
• Isobaric process P remains constant.
:A process during which the pressure

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 • Isochoric (or isometric) process v remains constant.
:A process during which the specific volume
• Cycle
: A process during which the initialfinal
and states are identical.

Steady Flow Processes

• The termsteadyimpliesno change with time unsteady,
. The opposite of steady is or transient
.
• A large number of engineering devices operate for long periods of time under the same conditio
and theyare classified steady
as -flow devices
.
• Steady-flow process
: A process during which a fluid flows through a control volume steadily.
• Steady-flow conditions can be closely approximated by devices that are intended for continuous
operation such as turbines,
pumps, boilers, condensers, and heat exchangers or power plants or
refrigeration systems.

Properties:
1. Mass, m
It is define as a quantity of matter.

2. Volume, V
It is the space occupied by the substance.

3. Density,𝝆
𝑚
𝜌=𝑉
It is the ratio of mass and volume.
4. Specific volume, 𝒗
𝑉
𝑣=𝑚
It is define as the ratio of volume and mass.

5. Weight, W
𝑚𝑔
It is a gravitational force that tends to pull the body towards the center of 𝑊
the=earth.
wher
𝑔𝑐
g local acceleration due to gravity,
c the g
proportionality constant.

112 | P a g e
6. Specific weight, 𝜸
𝑊 𝑚𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝑔
𝛾 = 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑔 = 𝑔 = 𝑣𝑔
It is the ratio of weight and volume of a substance.
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

7. Specific Gravity, SG
The ratio of the density of
substance
a to the density of some standard substance at a specified
𝜌 𝛾
𝑆𝐺 = 𝜌
temperature (usually water at 4°C). =𝛾
𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓

8. Temperature, T
Temperature Scales:
• All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states he freezing
such asand
t
ice pointand thesteam point.
boiling points of water: the
• Ice point
: A mixture of ice and water that is in equilibrium with air saturated with vapor at 1 atm
pressure (0°C or 32°F).
• Steam point: A mixture of liquid water and water vapor
(with no air) in equilibrium at 1 atm
pressure (100°C or 212°F).
• Celsius scale
:in SI unit system
• Fahrenheit scale
: in English unit system
• Thermodynamic temperature:scale A temperature scale that is independent of the properties of
any substance.
• Kelvin cale
s (SI)Rankine scale (E)
• A temperature scale nearly identical to the Kelvin scale ideal
is
-gas
thetemperature scale
. The
temperatures on this scale are measured using a-volumeconstant gas thermometer.

The reference temperature in the original scale

Kelvinwas the ice point, 273.15 K, which is the
temperature at which water freezes (or ice melts).
The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible point, the triple point o
water (the state at which all three phases of waterincoexist
equilibrium), which is assigned the value
273.16 K.

Zeroth Law:
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics
: If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body,
they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
• By replacing the third body withhermometer,
at two bodies
the zeroth law can be restated as are
in thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even if they are not . in cont

113 | P a g e
9. Pressure, p
Pressure
: A normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area

• Absolute pressure
: The actual pressure at a given position. It is measured relative to absolute
vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
• Gage pressure
: The difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric press
Most pressure
-measuring devices are calibrate
d to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they
indicate gage pressure.
• Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

Variation of Pressure with Elevation

𝑑𝑃 = −𝛾𝑑𝑧
The general equation for pressure variation with elevation is

For a fluid system that has constant specific𝛾,

weight ∆𝑃 = −𝛾∆𝑧
the equation becomes

Pascal’s law: The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the sa
amount.

114 | P a g e
Manometry:
It is commonly use
d to measure small and moderate pressure differences. A manometer contains
or more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.

Barometer and Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric pressure is measured by a devicebarometer
called a; thus, the atmo
spheric
pressure is often referred to asbarometric
the pressure
.
A frequently used pressure unit isstandard
the atmosphere
, which is defined as the pressure
produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height atHg0°C = 13,595
( 3
kg/m
) under
2
standard grav g =(9.807 m/s).
itational acceleration

Other pressure measurement devices:

Bourdon tube
: Consists of a hollow metal tube bent like a hook whose end is closed and connecte

115 | P a g e
a dial indicator needle.
Pressure transducers: Use various techniques nvert
to co the pressure effect to an electrical effect such
as a change in voltage, resistance, or capacitance.
Pressure transducers are smaller and faster, and they can be more sensitive, reliable, and prec
their mechanical counterparts.
Strain-gage rpessure transducers:
Work by having a diaphragm deflect between two chambers open
to the pressure inputs.
Piezoelectric transducers
: Also called solid
-state pressure transducers, work on the principle that an
electric potential is generated in a crystallin
e substance when it is subjected to mechanical pressure.

 ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE. The basic principle of buoyancy and floatation was first
discovered and stated by Archimedes over 2200 years ago. Archimedes principle maybe stated
follows: A body float
ing or submerged in a fluid is buoyed (lifted) upward by a force equal to the
weight of the fluid that would be in the volume displaced by the fluid. This force is known as the
buoyant force. The point through which the buoyant force acts is called
ter ofthe
buoyancy;
cen it is
located at the center of gravity of the displaced fluid.
FB  Weight of displaced fluid
where FB is the bouyant force

Problem Solving Technique:

Step 1: Problem Statement
Step 2: Schematic
Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
Step 4: Physical Laws
Step 5: Properties
Step 6: Calculations
Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion

116 | P a g e
 Illustrative Problems
1. Determine the mass and the weight of the air contained in a room whose dimensions are
3
6mx6mx8m. Assume the density of the air is 1.16kg/m
.

2. Determine the pres

sure exerted on a diver at 30m below the free surface of the sea. Assume a
barometric pressure of 101kPa and a specific gravity of 1.03 for seawater.
3
3. A manometer containing oil ( density =850kg/m
) is attached to a tank filled with air. If the
-level
oil
difference between the two columns is 45cm and the atmospheric pressure is 98kPa, determine
absolute pressure of the air in the tank.

4. The average temperature of the atmosphere in the world is approximated as function of altitude
the relation𝑇𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 288.15 − 6.5𝑧 where T atm is the temperature of the atmosphere in K and z is
the altitude in km with z =0 at sea level. Determine the average temperature of the atmosphere
outside an airplane that is cruising at an altitude of 12,000m.

5. An air-conditioning system requires a 20m long section

-cmofdiameter
15 duct work to be laid
underwater. Determine the upward force the water will exert on the duct. Take the densities of a
3 3
and water to be 1.3kg/m and 1000kg/m
, respectively.

a high cylindrical container is filled with water (density = 31000kg/m

6. The lower half of10m ) and the
upper half with oil that has a specific gravity of 0.85. Determine the pressure difference between
top and bottom of the cylinder.

7. A vertical, frictionless piston

-cylinder device contains a gas at 500kPa. The atmospheric pressure
outside is 100kPa and the piston area 2is . Determine
30cm the mass of the piston.

8. What fraction of the volume of a solid piece of metal of specific gravity 7.25 floats above the su
of a container of mercury?

9. The weight of a certain crown in air was found to be 14N and its weight in water is 12.7N. Com
its specific gravity.
10. A balloon weighs 122kg and has a volume 3of. It423m 3
is filled with helium, which weighs 1.76kN/m
3
at the temper
ature and pressure of the air, which weighs 0.013 . What
kN/mload will the balloon
support?

Question and Answer

1. What is the difference between the classical and the statistical approaches to thermodynamics?
2. A can of softdrink at room temperaturet is
into
puthe refrigerator so that it will cool. Would you
model the can of sofdrink as a closed system or as open system? Explain.
3. What is quasi
-equilibrium process? What is its importance in engineering?
4. What is the state postulate?
5. What is a steady flow
process?
6. For a system to be in thermodynamic equilibrium, do the temperature and pressure have to be t
same everywhere?
7. What is the zeroth law of thermodynamics?

117 | P a g e
 8. What is the difference between gage pressure and absolute pressure?
9. Express Pascal’s principle, and give a real world example of it.
10. Is the number of occupants an important consideration in the design of heating and cooling syst
of classrooms? Explain.

Exercise
2
1. The pressure in a steam boiler is given by 75kg/cm
. Express the pressure
psi,
in kPa, atm and bars.
2. The average atmospheric pressure on earth is approximated as a function of altitude by the rela
= 101.325(1 − 0.02256𝑧)5.256 where atmP is the atmospheric pressure in kPa and z is the
altitude in km with z = 0 at sea .level
Determine the approximate atmospheric pressure in Atlanta
(z=306m), Denver (z=1620m) and the top of mount Everest ( z=8848m).
3. The boiling temperature of water decreases by about 3C for each 1000m rise in altitude. What i
decrease in the boiling perature
tem in a)K b) F and c) R for each 1000m ris in altitude?
4. Hyperhtrmia of 5C (5C rise above the normal body temperature) is considered fatal. Express thi
fatal level of hyperthermia in a) K and b) R.
5. The range of healthy weight for adultsually
is usexpressed in terms of the body index (BMI), defined
𝑊(𝑘𝑔 )
in SI Units, as𝐵𝑀𝐼 = 𝐻 2 (𝑚 2 ) where W is the weight in kg of a person and H is the height in
meters. The range of a healthy person 19 ≤is 𝐵𝑀𝐼 ≤ 25 . What is your BMI? How manykg you
need to gain or loose to be fit.
6. The hydraulic lift in a car repair shop has an output diameter of 30cm, and is to lift cars up to
2000kg. determine the fluid gage pressure that must be maintained in the reservoir.
7. A vacuum gage connected to nkareads
ta 30kPa at a location where the barometric reading is
755mmHg. Determine the absolute pressure in the tank. Take density of mercury3.as 13,590kg/m
8. At 450 latitude, the gravitational acceleration as a function of elevation z above seaby
level is given
2 -6 2
g=a– bz, where a=9.807m/s and b=3.32x10/s . Determine the height above sea level where the
weight of an object will decrease by 1percent.

Course Title: Engineering Thermodynamics 1

Topic No.: 2
Topic Title: Pure Substance
Topic Objectives:  Introduce the concept of a pure substance.
 Discuss the physics of phase
-change processes.
 Illustrate the-v,
P T-v, and -PT property diagrams and
-v-TP surfaces of pure
substances.
 Demonstrate the procedures for determining thermodynamic properties of pure
substances from tables of property data.

Theory and Discussion

A substance that has a fixed chemical composition all throughout.
It can be:
1. A single element
Example: Nitrogen, helium, oxygen,
2. A compound

118 | P a g e
 Example: water, gaseous air, ammonia
3. A mixture
Example: ice and water, steam and water

The three principal phases of a pure substance:

1. Solid phase
2. Liquid phase
3. Gas phase
A phase is identified as having a distinct molecular arrangement
t is homogeneous
tha throughout and
separated from the others by easily identifiable boundary surfaces.

Types of Heating and Cooling:

1. Sensible heating/cooling
This is a heating/cooling process where the substance undergo changes in hile
temperature
adding/removing heat into it without changing the phase of the substance.
2. Latent heating/Cooling
This is a heating/cooling process where the substance undergo phase change without
changing its temperature while adding/removing heat into it.

Phase Change Processes

1. Compressed/subcooled Liquid to Saturated Liquid or vice versa
2. Saturated Vapor to Superheated Vapor or vice versa
3. Saturated liquid to saturated vapor or vice versa
4. Solid substance to liquid substance or vice versa
5. Solid substan
ce to vapor substance or vice versa (example: dry ice or Carbon dioxide)

Saturation Pressure and Temperature

 At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes phase (from liquid to v
or vice versa) is called saturation
the temper
ature.
 At a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance changes phase ( from liquid to
or vice versa) is called saturation
the pressure
.
 Example: for water, at a pressure of 101.325kPa the saturation temperature is 100C; or at a
temperature of 100C the saturation pressure is 101.325kPa.

Latent Heat
 A heat absorbed or released during a phase change process.
 Latent Heat of fusion
– the amount of energy absorbed during melting process or the amount of
energy released during freezing
rocess.
p
For ice water at 1 atm , latent heat of fusion is 333.7kJ/kg
 Latent heat of vaporization
– the energy absorbed during vaporization process or the energy release
during condensation process.
For saturated water at 1 atm, latent heat
vaporization
of is 2257.1kJ/kg.

Property Diagrams for Phase Change Processes

1. Tv Diagram

119 | P a g e
2. Pv Diangram

3. PT Diagram

4. PVT Diagram

120 | P a g e
Other Property Diagrams of Interest:
1. Ts Diagram

2. hs Diagram

121 | P a g e
 3. Ph Diagram

Criitical Poin
t:

The temperature, pressure, and specific volume of a substance at the critical point are called,
respectively, the critical temperature
Tcr, critical pressure vcr.
Pcr, and critical specific volume
The critical
-point properties of water are Pcr =22.06
MPa, Tcr =373.95°C, and vcr =0.003106 m3/kg.
For helium, they are 0.23 MPa,267.85°C, and 0.01444 m3/kg.
The critical properties for various substances are given in –1Table
in the Aappendix.

Triple Point:
It is a point where the three phases (solid,
quid, livapor) coexist for a given substance.
For water it occurs at a pressure of 0.61kPa and a temperature of 273.16K.

Property Tables and Charts:

1. Sub cooled/compressed Liquid Table for water-7)
(table A

122 | P a g e
Some Triple point of Commonstances:
Sub

2. Saturation Temperature Table for water (Table

-4) A

Let x– be the quality of vapor in the mixture

Then v, u and h can be solved as follows:

3. Saturation Pressure Table for water (Table

-5) A
4. Superheated Vapor for water (Table
-6) A

123 | P a g e
 5. T-s Diagram for water (figure-9)A
6. Mollier Diagram for water (figure
-10)
A
7. Saturated Refrigerant 134a temperature table-11)
(table A
8. Superheated refrigerant 134a table ( -13)
table A
9. Ph Diagram for refrigerant 134a (figure
-14) A

Illustrative Problems

1. Determine the properties of a compressed water at 100C and 5Mpa.

2. Determine the properties of compressed water at 12Mpa and 160C.

3. Determine the properties of compressed water at 15Mpa and s=-K.

2.1023kJ/kg

4. Determine the properties of superheated steam

t 10Mpa
a and 400C.

5. Determine the temperature of superheated steam at a state of 1Mpa and s-K.

= 7.5684kJ/kg

6. Determine the pressure of a superheated steam at 300C and h=3031.2kJ/kg.

7. A rigid tank contains 15kg of water at 100C. If 10kg of thenwater

the liquid
is i form and the rest is
vapor, determine a) the pressure in the tank b) the volume of the tank c) the internal energy and
enthalpy of the mixture.

8. An 80L vessel contains 4kg of refrigerant 134a at a pressure of 160kPa. Determineurea) the tempe
of the refrigerant b) the quality c) the enthalpy d) the volume occupied by the vapor phase.

9. A mass of 200g of saturated liquid water is completely vaporized at a constant pressure of 100k
Determine a) the volume change and b) the amount gyofadded
ener to the water.

Question and Answer

1. Is ice water a pure substance?
2. What is the difference between saturated liquid and compressed liquid?
3. What is the difference between saturated vapor and superheated vapor?
4. Is there any difference between properties
the of saturated vapor at a given temperature and the vapor o
a saturated mixture at the same temperature?
5. Is it true that water boils at higher temperatures at higher pressures? Explain.
6. What is the difference between the critical point antriplethe
point?
t
7. Is it possible to have water vapor -10C?
at
8. Why are the temperature and pressure dependent properties in the saturated mixture region?
9. Is the pressure and temperature are increased during boiling process? Why?
10. In 1775, Dr. William Cullenadem ice in Scotland by evacuating the air in a water tank. Explain how that

124 | P a g e
 device works, and discuss how the process can be mdade more efficient.

Exercise
1. Complete the table below for water:
T, C P, Kpa h, kJ/kg x Phase description
200 0.7
140 1800
950 0.0
80 500
800 3161.7
2. Complete the table below for water:
T, C P, Kpa v, m3/kg Phase description
140 0.48
800 Saturated liquid
25 750
500 0.13
3. Complete the table below for -A:
R134
T, C P, Kpa h, kJ/kg Phase description
20
-12 SATURATED LIQUID
400 300
8 600

4. The average atmospheric pressure in Denver Colorado (elevation=1610m) is 83.4kPa. Determin

temperature at which water in an uncovered pan will boil in Denver.

5. A rigid vessel contains 2kg frigerant

of re 134a at 900kPa and 80C. Determine the volume of the vess
and the total internal energy.
6. A piston-cylinder device initially contains 50L of liquid water at 25C and 300kPa. Heat is added to
water at constant pressure until the entire isliquid
vaporized. A) what is the mass of the water? B)
what is the final temperature? C) determine the total enthalpy change. D) show the process on T
Diagram.
7. A 0.5m3 rigid vessel initially contains saturated-vapor
liquid mixture of water at 100C. the water
is
now heated until it reaches he critical state. Determine the mass of the liquid water and the volu
occupied by the liquid at the initial state.
8. A piston-cylinder device contains 0.8kg of steam at 300C and 1Mpa. Steam is cooled at constant
pressurentil
u one-half of the mass condenses. A) show the process on the Tv Diagram b) find the
final temperature c) determine the volume change.

Topic No.: 3
Topic Title: Ideal and Real Gases
Topic Objectives:  Describe the hypothetical substance “ideal gas” and the ideal
-gas equation of state.
 Apply the ideal
-gas equation of state in the solution of typical problems.
 Introduce the compressibility factor, which accounts for the deviation of real gase
from ideal
-gas behavior.

125 | P a g e
  Present some of the -known
best equations of state.
 Determine the value of specific heats for ideal gases.

Theory and Discussion

Gas Laws
Experiments with a wide variety of gases revealed that four variables were sufficient to fully des
the state of a gas
a. Pressure (P)
b. Volume (V)
c. Temperature (T)
d. The amount of the gas in moles (n)
1. Boyle’s Law
Robert Boyle discover the relationship between pressure and volume of a gas at constant tempe
1
𝑃 ∝ 𝑉 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑎𝑡 𝑇 = 𝑐
Pressure is inversely proportional to volume.
2. Charles’s Law and Gay-Lussac’s law
In 1802, Jacques Charles and Joseph Louis
-Lussac,
GayFrenchmen conducted the study
the gas
on
volume/temperature relationship.
V  T (constant pressure and amount of gas)
NoteT represents the temperature on the absolute (Kelvin) temperature scale
𝑉
=𝐶
𝑇
3. Amonton’s Law
P  T (constant volume and amount of gas)
Note T represents the temperature on the absolute (Kelvin) temperature scale
𝑃
=𝐶
𝑇
4. Combined Gas Law
𝑇 𝑃𝑉
𝑃∝ 𝑜𝑟 =𝐶
𝑉 𝑇
5. Ideal Gas Equation of State
𝑚 𝑅
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅 𝑇 where 𝑛 = 𝑀𝑊 and 𝑅 = 𝑀𝑊

𝑘𝐽
8.314 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 −𝐾
𝑏𝑎𝑟 −𝑚 3
0.08314 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 −𝐾
1.986𝐵𝑡𝑢
Where 𝑅 = 𝑝𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 −𝑅
and MW– Molecular weight of the gas
𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 −𝑓𝑡 3
10.73 𝑝𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 −𝑅
𝑓𝑡 −𝑙𝑏
1545 𝑝𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 −𝑅

Real Gases
Compressibility Factor
𝑃𝑉 𝑃𝑣
The compressibility factor Z is given𝑧by
= 𝑚𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝑇 where the value of Z can be
entak
from

126 | P a g e
Charts below.

Please see also appendix 1 of the textbook;-30a,

figure30b
A , and 30c.

Real Gas Equations of State

a. Van Der Waals

b. Beattie
-Bridgeman

127 | P a g e
 c. Benedict
-Webb-Rubin

d. Virial Equation of State

Illustrative Problems
1. A Steel company plans on using 17 cubic meters of O2 in processing 1 metric ton of steel. If th
volumesi measured at 101.325kPa and 21C, what 2mass
is needed
of O for a 20,000 metric ton/month
furnace?

2. A spherical balloon with a diameter of 6m is filled with helium at 20C and 200kPaa. Determine th
number of moles and the mass of helium in the balloon.

3. The pressure in an automobile tire depends on the temperature of the air in the tire. When the a
temperature is 25C, the pressure gage reads 210kPa. If the volume of the3,tire
determine
is 0.025m
128 | P a g e
 the pressure rise in the tire when the air temperature
n the tire
i rises to 50C, also, determine the
amount of air that must be bleed to restore pressure to its original value at this temperature. Ass
the atmospheric pressure is 100kPa.

4. Determine the specific volume of refrigerant 134a at 1MPa and ng a)50C,

theusi
ideal gas equation of
state b) the generalized compressibility chart.c) using the refrigerant table. Determine the error
involved in each case.

Question and Answer

1. What are values of the universal gas constants?
2. What are the ideal gasws?la
3. What is the difference between R𝑅 ?and
4. What is the difference between mass and molar mass?
5. What is the significance of the compressibility factor Z?
6. What is the principle of corresponding states?
7. How are the reduced pressure and reduced temperatur
e is defined?
8. What is the physical significance of the constants that appears in the Van Der Waals equation o
state? On what basis are they determined?

Exercise
1. Determine the specific volume of nitrogen gas at 10Mpa and 150K based on a) ation
ideal
b) gas
the equ
generalized compressibility chart.
2. Determine the specific volume of superheated water vapor at 10Mpa and 400C using a) the ideal g
equation b) the generalized compressibility chart c) the steam tables. Also determine the error inv
in the first two cases.
3
3. A 1m tank contains 2.841kg of steam at 0.6Mpa. Determine the temperature of the steam, using a)
ideal gas equation b) the Van der waals equation c) the steam tables.
4. Somebody claims that oxygen gas at 160K and 3Mpa canas bean treated
ideal gas with an error of less
than 10%. Is this valid?
5. What is the percentage of error involved in treating carbon dioxide at 5Mpa and 350K as an ideal g
3
6. A 1m tank containing air at 25C and 500kPa is connected through a valve to another
containing
tank5kg
of air at 35C and 200kPa. Now the valve is opened, and the entire system is allowed to reach therm
equilibrium with the surroundings, which are at 20C. Determine the volume of the second tank and
final equilibrium pressure of air.
7. A 20m3 tank contains nitrogen at 23C and 600kPa. Some nitrogen is allowed to escape until the pres
in the tank drops to 400kPa. If the temperature at this point is 20c, determine the amount of nitroge
that has escaped.
8. A tank contains argon at 600C AND 200kPa gage. The argon is cooled in a process by heat transfer to
the surroundings such that the argon reaches a final equilibrium state at 300C. Determine the final
pressure of the argon. Assume atmospheric pressure is 100kPa.
9. Determine the pressure of water vapor at 315C and 0.032m3/kg, using a) the steam table b) the ideal g
equation c) the generalized compressibility chart.

129 | P a g e
Topic No.: 4
Topic Title:
Work, Heat and Energy Transfer
Topic Objectives:  Introduce the concept of energy transfe
r by heat.
 Discuss the various forms of work with emphasis on the moving boundary work.
 Discuss the flow work, the work associated with forcing a fluid into or out of a
control volume.
 Discuss the combination of the internal energy and the flow. Enthalpy).
work (i.e
 Discuss the conservation of mass principle and apply it to various systems.

Theory and Discussion

Energy
The capability to produce an effect or work. Energy appear in different forms.

Types of Energy
A. Stored Energy: A type of energy t istha
dependent on the mass of the substance/body that crosses
the boundary of the system.
1. Potential Energy (PE)
This is a form of energy that depends on the elevation of the mass of a substance/body. In
equation form:
𝑚𝑔𝑧
𝑃𝐸 = = 𝑊𝑧
𝑔𝑐
And the change in PE is
𝑚𝑔 ∆𝑧
∆𝑃𝐸 = = 𝑊∆𝑧
𝑔𝑐
2. Kinetic Energy (KE)
This is a form of energy that depends on the velocity of the mass of a substance/body. In
equation form:

An the change in kinetic energy is:

3. Internal Energy (U)

It is defined as the energy
associated with the random, disordered motion of molecules. It is
separated in scale from the macroscopic ordered energy associated with moving objects; it refe
the invisible microscopic energy
on the atomic and molecular scale.

The change in internal energy for a fluid system is

130 | P a g e
 For ideal gases, the change in internal energy is

Where vcis the specific heat of the fluid at constant volume.

4. Flow Energy (FE)

This is a formof energy that depends on the pressure of the mass of a flowing substance. I
equation form:

And the change in flow energy between two points is:

B. Energy in transit:
A type of energy that crosses boundary of the system and it is independent of th
mass of the substance/body.
1. Heat;
Heat is defined as the form of energy (thermal energy) that is transferred between two syste
(or surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.
Heat is energy in transition. It is recognized as it crossesdary
the of
boun
a system.
Q or 1Q2; The amount of total heat transferred during a process from state 1 to state 2.
Units: kJ or BTU
q; Heat transfer per unit mass. Units: kJ/kg or BTU/lbm
𝑄 - Rate of heat transfer; Units: kJ/sec

Three modes of Heat Trans

fer:
a. Conduction
Transfer of heat through direct contact.
Occurs anytime objects at different temperatures are touching each other.
As long as the objects are in contact, transfer of heat will continue until the temperature o
the objects is the same.
Exam ple: If you leave a metal spoon in a pan of soup that you are heating on the stove, it
may burn your fingers. The spoon is in direct contact with the hot soup and heat is
transferred to the spoon.

Some materials conduct heat better than others.

Materia
ls that transfer heat well are called conductors.
Metals are usually good conductors.
Wood, paper and plastic are not.
Materials that stop the transfer of heat are called insulators (styrofoam, wool, fiberglass).
The rate at which heat is conducteden is by
givthe Fourier Equation:

131 | P a g e
b. Convection
The transfer of energy in a liquid or gas.
When part of a gas or liquid is heated, the particles it is made up of move faster and spre
out more.
The moving particles bump into other particles, causing them e faster
to movand spread out
more.

Convection currents:
When particles in the air spread out, they become less dense and generally rise above th
unheated, more dense particles around them.
The denser masses of the gas or liquid move in to fill the space
by the left
heated particles.
The particles that move away from the source of heat become cooler and more dense.

The rate of heat transfer by convection is given by:

Q conv  h A (Ts  Tf )

c. Radiation
Energy transferred in the form of rays or waves or particles.
We will concentr
ate on the type of radiation that travels as electromagnetic waves.
• Include visible light, microwaves and infrared light
• Can travel through space.
• The sun is our major source of heat energy.

Radiative heat transfer is energy in transition from theofsurface

one body to the surface of
another due to electromagnetic radiation. The radiative energy transferred is proportiona
the difference in the fourth power of the absolute temperatures of the bodies exchanging
energy.

Q rad  A Ts4  Tsurr
4

𝑄 = heat transfer per unit time (W)
2
A= surface area for heat transfer) (m
σ= Stefan -8
-Boltzmann constant, 5.67x10W/m2K4 and 0.1713x10
-8
BTU/h ft2 R4
= emissivity
Ts= absolute temperature of surface (K)
Tsurr= absolute temperature of surroundings
(K)

132 | P a g e
 2. Work
Work is defined as the energy transfer associated with force acting through a distance.
Work is a Mechanical form of Energy.

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 or 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑠𝑑𝐹 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝐹 𝑑𝑠

If the force is constant all throughout the path then
𝑊 = 𝐹∆𝑥

Sign Convention:
 Work done on a system by an external force acting in the direction of motion is negative.
 Work done by a system against an external force acting in the oppositef the
direction o
motion is positive.

Characteristic of Heat and Work:

 Both of them are boundary phenomena. That is they are recognized at the boundaries of a syste
they cross them.
 Systems possess energy, not heat or work.
 Both are associated with a process, a state.
not
 Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path followed during a process as
as the end states).

Work Category
1. Mechanical Work
 Moving boundary work
 Shaft work
 Spring work
2. Electrical Work
Ex. An electric wire crossingsystem Δt) I
the boundaries, (We=V
V =voltage

133 | P a g e
 I=current
Δt =time

Two requirements for Mechanical work to exist as Boundary Work:

1. There must be a force on the boundary.
Example: the expansion of a gas into an evacuated space (is not work sincece).there is no for
2. The boundary must move.
Example: Fixed piston in the presence of external force (is not work since the boundary did not
move).

Computing moving boundary work:

The area under the process curve -V

ondiagram
aP represents the boundary work.ation:
By equ
2
𝑊𝑁 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉
1
Boundary is path dependent. Thus the equation for boundary depends on the process involv
the fluid. Work for the processes Isobaric, Isothermal, Isentropic and Special polytropic can b
handled easily.

Law of Conservation of Mass

The law states that “ mass is indestructible”.

a. For closed system

𝑚1 = 𝑚2
Mass is constant in the system.

b. Open system

134 | P a g e
 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 + 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
If the system does not store mass then the equation becomes:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜌𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝜌𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴∇

Specific Heat, Internal Energy and Enthalpy of Ideal Gases

The amount of energy needed to raise the temperarure of a unit mass of a substance by one degree is
the specific heat at constant volume
v for a
c constant volume process and the specific heatntat consta
pressurep cfor a constant pressure process. They are defined as
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑕
𝑐𝑣 = and 𝑐𝑝 =
𝜕𝑇 𝑣 𝜕𝑇 𝑝

For ideal gases u, vh, c cp are functions of temperature alone.ΔuThe

, and and Δh of ideal gases are
expressed as
2 2
∆𝑢 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = 1 𝑐𝑣 𝑇 𝑑𝑇 ≅ 𝑐𝑣,𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 and ∆𝑕 = 𝑕2 − 𝑕1 = 1 𝑐𝑝 𝑇 𝑑𝑇 ≅ 𝑐𝑝,𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑇2 − 𝑇1

For ideal gases, c cp are related by𝑐𝑝 = 𝑐𝑣 + 𝑅 kJ/kg

v, and -K where R is the gas constant. The specific
𝑐𝑝
heat ratio k is defined 𝑘
as= .
𝑐𝑣

For incompressible substances (liquids and), both

solidsthe constant
-pressure and constant
-volume specific
𝑐=
heats are identical and denoted by c: 𝑐𝑝 = 𝑐𝑣

TheΔu and Δh of incompressible substance

Δu and Δhs are given by
2 2
∆𝑢 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = 1 𝑐 𝑇 𝑑𝑇 ≅ 𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 and ∆𝑕 = 𝑕2 − 𝑕1 = 1
𝑐 𝑇 𝑑𝑇 ≅ 𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑇2 − 𝑇1

Illustrative Problems

1. A mass of 5kg of saturated water vapor at 200kPa is heated at constant pressure until the
temperature reaches 300C.ulate
Calcthe work done by the steam during this process.

2. A mass of 2.4kg of air at 150kPa and 12C is contained

-tight,infrictionless
gas piston
-cylinder device.
The air is now compresses to a final pressure of 600kPa. During the process, heat d from
is transferre
the air such that the temperature inside the cylinder remains constant. Calculate the work input
during this process.

3. Determine the energy required to accelerate an 800kg car from rest to 100km/hr on a level road

135 | P a g e
4. Water is pumped from a lakea to
storage tank 20m above at a rate of 70L/s while consuming
20.4kW of electric power. Disregarding any frictional losses in the pipes and any changes in kin
energy, determine a) the overall efficiency of the pump motor unit and b) the pressure
ce differen
between the inlet and the exit of the pump.

5. A hollow spherical iron (k=80.2W/m-K) container whose outer diameter is 20cm and thickness is
0.4cm is filled with iced water at 0C. if the outer surface temperature is 5C,determine the
approximate rate of eath loss from the sphere, and the rate at which ice melts in the container.

6. Consider a vertical elevator whose cabin has a total mass of 800kg when fully loaded and 150 k
empty. The weight of the elevator cabin is partially balanced-kg
bycou
a n400
terweight that is
connected to the top of the cabin by cables that pass through a pulley located on top of the cabi
cables that pass through a pulley located on top of the cabin by cables pass through a pulley loc
on top of the elevator well. Negl
ecting the weight of the cables and assuming the guide rails and the
pulleys to be frictionless, determine a) the power required while the fully loaded cabin is rising a
constant speed of 1.2m/s and b) the power required while the empty cabin ingisatdescend
a constant
speed of 1.2m/s.

7. A 1000W iron is left on the ironing board with its base exposed to the air at 20C. The convection
coefficient between the base and the surrounding air 2is-C.
35W/m
If the base has an emissivity of 0.6
2,
and a surface area
of 0.02m determine the temperature of the base of the iron.

8. For a certain ideal gas, R=0.277kJ/kg

-K and k=1.384.
a) What are the values of cp and cv?
b) What mass of this gas would occupy a volume of 0.425cubic meters at 517.11kPaa and
c) If 31.6
5kJ are transferred to this gas at constant volume in (b), what are the resulting
pressure and temperature?

9. The increase of enthalpy of an ideal gas is 141.7kJ when the pressure increases from 103.4kPa
1034kPaa and the volume decreases from 477L 4.5L. to
Determine
7 a) the change of internal energy
b) the final temperature of the gas if the initial temperature is 28.3C.

Question and Answer

1. Portable electric heaters are commonly used to heat small rooms. Explain the enrgy transforma
involved dur
ing this heating process.
2. What is the difference between the macroscopic and microscopic forms of energy?
3. What is total energy? Identify the different forms of energy that constitute the total energy.
4. List the forms of energy that contribute to thenal
inter
energy of a system.
5. What is mechanical energy? How does it differ from thermal energy? What are the forms of
mechanical energy of a fluid stream?
6. How are heat, internal energy and thermal energy related to each other?
7. In what forms that an energyssescro its boundary?
8. What are point and path functions? Give some examples.
9. A gas in a piston
-cylinder device is compressed and as a result its temperature rises. Is this a heat
work interaction?
10. What is an adiabatic process? What is an adiabatic system?
11. What are the mechanisms of heat transfer?
12. How does forced convection differ from free convection?

136 | P a g e
 Exercise
1. A damaged car 1200kg car is being towed by a truck. Neglecting the friction, air drag, and rolling
resistance, determine the extra power drequire
a) for constant velocity on a level road, b) for constant
0
velocity of 50kph on a 30
uphill road, b) to accelerate on a level road from stop to 90kph in 12 s.

2. A person gets into an elevator at the lobby level of a hotel together with his 30kg
and suitcase,
gets out
th
at the 10 floor 35m above. Determine the amount of energy consumed by the motor of the elevator
is now stored in the suitcase.

3. A river flowing steadily at a rate of 240m/s is considered for hydroelectric power generation. It is
determined that a dam can be built to collect water and release it from an elevation difference of 50m
generate power. Determine how much power can be generated from this river water after the dam i
constructed.

4. A fan is to accelerate quiescent air to a veof 10m/s at a rate of3/s.

locity 4mdetermine the minimum
3
power that must be supplied to the fan. Take density of air to be . 1.18kg/m

5. Consider a 1400kg car cruising at constant speed of 70km/h. now the car starts to ass another car,
accelerating to0km/h
11 in 5s. Determine the additional power needed to achieve this acceleration.

6. Hot air at 80C is blown over a 2mx4m flat surface at 30C. If the convection heat transfer coefficient
W/m2-C, determine the rate of heat transfer from the air to
late,
theinpkW.

7. A 5cm diameter spherical ball whose surface is maintained at a temperature of 70C is suspended in
2
middle of a room at 20C. if the convection heat transfer coefficient -Cisand
15W/m
the emissivity of the
surface is 0.8. Determine the
tal to
rate of heat transfer from the ball.

8. A 2kW pump is used to pump kerosene (density = 0.82kg/L) from a tank on the ground to a tank at
higher elevation. Both tanks are open to the atmosphere, and the elevation difference between the
surfaces of
the tanks is 30m. the maximum volume flow rate of kerosene is what?

Topic No.: 5
Topic Title: First Law of Thermodynamics
Topic Objectives:  Completely define Thermodynamic Systems.
 State the First Law of Thermodynamics
 Apply energy analysis on therm
odynamic systems.
 Solve specific problems regarding the applications of First Law of Thermodynam

Theory and Discussion

Law of Conservation of Energy

“ ENERGY CANNOT BE CREATED NOR DESTROYED BUT IT CAN ONLY BE TRANSFORM FROM ONE
FORM TO ANOTHER M.” FOR

Energy Balance Equation

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 − 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
= 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

137 | P a g e
 𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

Energy Change of a System

∆𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1
In the absence of electric, magnetic, and surface tension effects, the change in the total energy of a
during a process is the sum of the changes
in its internal energy, kinetic and potential energies and can be
expressed as
∆𝐸 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸
If ∆𝐾𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑃𝐸 are negligible then∆𝐸 = ∆𝑈.

Mechanisms of Energy Transfer

:

• Heat Transfer
• Work
• Mass Flow

Energy Balance for Closed System

 Closed system = Control mass
 Mass is constant in the system
 No mass can cross its boundary but energy can.

𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = ∆𝐸

∆𝐸 = ∆𝑈 = 𝑚(𝑢2 − 𝑢1 )

Energy Balance for Steady

-flow Systems
 Open system = Control volume
 It is a properly selected region in space.
 Mass and energy can cross its boundary.
• Steady flow processes.
 Fluid flows through the control volume steadily.
 Its properties do not change with time at a fixed position.
• Unsteady flow processes.
 Fluid propertiesare changing with time
.
Some of the most common open system:

138 | P a g e
 𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = ∆𝐸
∆𝐸 = 0 for steady flow system so that equation reduces
𝐸𝑖𝑛 −
to𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡

For a Cyclic System:

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊𝑖 = 𝑄𝑖 the sign convention for work and are
heatobserved.

Illustrative Problems
1) An insulated piston -cylinder device contains 5L of saturated liquid water at a constant pressure of 150
Water is stirred by a paddle wheel while a current of 8A flows for 45min through a resistor placed in
water. If one-half of the liquid is evaporated during this constant
-pressure process and the paddle
-wheel
work amounts to 300kJ, determine the voltage of the source. Show the process on the Pv and Ts d
Ans. 230.9V
2) Air enters an adiabatic nozzle ily stead
at 300kPa, 200C, and 30m/s and leaves at 100kPa and 180m/s. T
2
inlet area of the nozzle is 80cm . Determine a) the mass flowrate of air through the nozzle b) the exit
2
temperature of the air and c) the exit area of the nozzle. ANS. 0.53kg/s, .7cm
184.6C, 38
3) Refrigerant 134A enters a diffuser steadily as saturated vapor at 700kPa with a velocity of 140m/s a
leaves at 800kPa and 40C. The refrigerant is gaining heat at a rate of 3kJ/s as it passes through th
diffuser. If the exit area is 80% greater
than the inlet area, determine a) the exit velocity and b) the mass
flowrate of the refrigerant. Ans. 71.7m/s, 0.655kg/s
4) Steam flows steadily through an adiabatic turbine. The inlet conditions of the steam are 10Mpa, 450
80m/s; and the exit conditions are 10kPa, 92% quality and 50m/s. The mass flowrate of steam is 12kg/s
Determine a) the change in kinetic energy, b) the power output and c) the turbine inlet - area. Ans.
2
1.95kJ/kg, 10.2MW, 0.00446m
5) Helium is to be compressed from 120kPa, 5m/s and to 700kPa,
310K 10m/s and 430K. A heat loss of
20kJ/kg occurs during the compression process. Neglecting potential energy changes, determine th
input required for a mass flowrate of 90kg/min.
6) Refrigerant 134a is throttled from the saturated liquid e at 800kPa
stat to a pressure of 140kPa. Determine
the temperature drop during this process and the final specific volume of the refrigerant. Ans. 50.1C

139 | P a g e
 3
0.0454m /kg
7) A hot water stream at 80C enters a mixing chamber with a mass flowrate of 0.5kg/s s mixed
where it i
with a stream of cold water at 20C. If it is desired that the mixture leave the chamber at 42C, determ
the mass flowrate of the cold water stream. Assume all the streams are at a pressure of 250kPa.
8) Steam enters the condenser of a steam lant power
at p
20kPa and a quality of 95% with a mass flow rate
of 20,000kg/h. it is to be cooled by water from a nearby river by circulating the water through the tub
within the condenser. To prevent thermal pollution, the river water is not allowedncetoaexperie
temperature rise above 10C. If the steam is to leave the condenser as saturated liquid at 20kPa, de
the mass flow rate of the cooling water required. Ans. 17866kg/min

Question and Answer

1. For a cycle, is the network necessarily beFor zero?
what kind of a system will this be the case?
2. What are the different mechanisms for transferring energy to or from a control volume?
3. Consider two identical rooms, one with a refrigerator in it and on the other without one. If all the doo
and windows are closed, will the room that contains the refrigerator be cooler or warmer than the othe
room? Why?
4. On a hot summer day, a student turns his fan on when he leaves his room in the morning. When he
returns in the evening, will the room be warmer or r than
coole
the neighboring rooms? Assume all the
doors and windows are kept closed.
5. Is it possible to compress an ideal gas isothermally in an adiabatic
-cylinder
piston
device? Explain.
6. How is steady -flow system characterized?
7. Can a steady flow system involve boundary work?
8. The kinetic energy of a fluid increases as it is accelerating in an adiabatic nozzle. Where does this e
come from?
9. A diffuser is an adiabatic device that decreases the kinetic energy of the fluid by slowing it down. W
happen to this lost kinetic energy?
10. Will the temperature of air rise as it is compressed by an adiabatic compressor? Why?

Exercise
1. Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 10Mpa and 400C and leaves at 20kPa with a quality of 90%.
Neglecting the change in kineticpotential
and energy, determine the mass flowrate required for a power
output of 5MW.
2. Carbon dioxide enters an adiabatic compressor at 100kPa and 300K at a rate of 0.5kg/s and leaves
600kPa and 450K. Neglecting kinetic energy changes, determine me a)flowrate
the voluof the carbon
dioxide at the compressor inlet and b) the power input to the compressor.
3. Refrigerant 134a is throttled from the saturated liquid state at 800kPa to a pressure of 140kPa. Det
the temperature drop during this process and finalthe
specific volume of the refrigerant.
4. Air at 80kpa, 27C, and 220m/s enters a diffuser at a rate of 2.5kg/s and leaves at 42C. the exit area
2
diffuser is 400cm. The air is estimated to lose heat at a rate of 18kJ/s during this process.e theDetermin
exit velocity and exit pressure of the air.
5. A piston-cylinder device whose piston is resting on top of a set of stops initially contains 0.5kg of hel
gas at 100kPa and 25C. the mass of the piston is such that 500kPa of pressure iserequired it. How to rais
much heat must be transferred to the helium before the piston starts rising.
6. A piston-cylinder device contains 5kg of refrigerant134a at 800kPa and 60C. the refrigerant is now c
at constant pressure until it exists as a liquid at 20C.mine
Deter
the amount of heat loss and show the
process on a Tv diagram with respect to saturation lines.
7. A rigid tank contains a hot fluid that is cooled while being stirred by a paddle wheel. Initially, the inte
energy of the fluid is 800kj. During the
oling
coprocess, the fluid loses 500kj of heat, and the paddle
wheel does 100 kJ of work on the fluid. Determine the final internal energy of the fluid.

140 | P a g e
8. A piston-cylinder device contains 25 g of saturated water vapor that is maintained at a constant
re pres
of 300 kPa. A resistance heater within the cylinder is turned on and passes a current of 0.2 A for 5
from a 120-V source. At the same time, a heat loss of 3.7 kJ occurs.
a. Show that for a closed system the boundary Wbwork energyU
and the change in internal
in the first-law relation can be combined into oneterm,
H, for a constant pressure process.
b. Determine the final temperature of the steam.

9. A piston-cylinder device initially contains air at 150 kPaoC.

and
At 27
this state, the pistonresting
is on a
pair of stops, as shown in the figure above, and the enclosed volume is 400 L. The mass of the pist
such that a 350-kPa pressure is required to move it. The air now heated until its volume has doubled.
Determine(a) the finaltemperature, b) the
( work done by the air, and c) the total heat transferred to the
air. <Answers: a) 1400 K, b) 140 kJ, c) 766.9
> kJ

o
10. Air at 10C and 80 kpa enters the diffuser of a jet engine steadily with a velocity of 200 m/s. The inlet
m2. The air leaves the diffuser with a velocity that is very small compare to the
area of the diffuser is 0.4
inlet velocity.
Determine
(1) The mass flow rate of the air and
(2) The temperature of the air leaving the diffuser.

11. Steam at 1.72 Mpa (250 psia) and C (700

371 F) steadily 2
enters a nozzle whose inlet area is 0.019
(0.2 m
2
ft .) The mass flow rate of the steam through thenozzle is 4.54 kg/s (10 lbm/s) . Steam leaves the n
at 1.38 Mpa (200 psia) with a velocity of 274.3 m/s (900 ft/s). The heat losses from pertheunitnozzle
mass of the steam are estimated to be 2.8 KJ/kg (1.2 Btu/lbm).
Determine:
(a) the inlet velocity and
(b) the exit temperature of the steam.
Answers: a) 41.0 m/s , b) 350C or 661.9F
or 134.4 ft/s

141 | P a g e
12. The power output of an adiabatic steam neturbi
is 5 MW, and the inlet and the exit conditions of the
steam are as indicated in the figure on the right.
a) Compare the magnitudehof, ke, andpe.
b) Determine the work done per unit mass of the steam flowing through the turbine.
c) Calculate the masswflo rate of the steam.
h =-885.9 kJ/kg,
Answers: a) ke = 14.95 kJ/kg, pe =-0.04 kJ/kg, b) 871.0 kJ/kg, and c) 5.74 kg/s

1. Refrigerant-134a enters the capillary tube of a refrigerator as saturated liquid at 0.8 MPa and is
throttled to a pressure of20.1
MPa. Determine the quality of the refrigerant at the final state and the
Answers:
temperature drop during this process. < -53.69oC>
0.339,

o
2. Consider an ordinary shower where hot water Fat mixed with cold water atoF.50If it is
is 140
o
desired that aeady
st stream of warm water atF 110
be supplied, determine the ratio of the mass flow
rates of the hot to cold water. Assume the heat losses from the mixing chamber to be negligible
the mixing to take place at a pressure of 20 psia.
<Answer: 2.0
>

142 | P a g e
 3. Refrigerant-134a is to be cooled by water in a condenser. The refrigerant enters the condenser wi
o
mass flow rate of 6 kg/min at 1 MPa and 70 leaves atoC.
C and 35 The cooling water enters at 300
kPa and o15C and leaves atoC.
25 Neglecting any pressure
op,dr
determine
(a) the mass flow rate of the cooling water required and (b) the heat transfer rate from the
refrigerant to water.

<Answers: a) 0.486 kg/s, b) 20.35

> kJ/s

Topic No.: 6
Topic Title: Second Law of Thermodynamics
Topic Objectives:  Describehe
t second Law of Thermodynamics with its associated statements.
 Define heat reservoirs, heat engines, work reservoirs and other related terms.
 Define thermal efficiency, coefficient of performance, performance factor, energy
efficiency ratio as appliedthermodynamic
to systems.
 Apply the second law of thermodynamic to systems analysis.

Theory and Discussion

The second law of thermodynamics states that processes occur in a certain direction, not in just any di
Physical processes in nature
proceed
can toward equilibrium spontaneously. Examples
Water flows down a waterfall.
Gases expand from a high pressure to a low pressure.
Heat flows from a high temperature to a low temperature.

143 | P a g e
 Once it has taken place, a spontaneous can process
be reversed, but it will not reverse itself
spontaneously. Some external inputs, energy, must be expended to reverse the process. As it falls do
waterfall, water can be collected in a water wheel, cause a shaft to rotate, coil a ropehaft, onto
and lift
theas
weight. So the energy of the falling water is captured as potential energy increase in the weight, and th
law of thermodynamics is satisfied. However, there are losses associated with this process (friction).
the weightto fall, causing the shaft to rotate in the opposite direction, will not pump all of the water back
the waterfall.

Spontaneous processes can proceed only in a particular direction. The first law of thermodyna
gives no information about direction; it states only that when one form of energy is converted into another,
identical quantities of energy are involved regardless of the feasibility of the process. We know by exp
that heat flows spontaneously from a high temperature low temperature.
to a But heat flowing from a low
temperature to a higher temperature with no expenditure of energy to cause the process to take place
not violate the first law.

Heat (thermal) reservoir

 A heat reservoir is a sufficiently large system
in stable equilibrium to which and from which finite
amounts of heat can be transferred without any change in its temperature.
 A high temperature heat reservoir from which heat is transferred is sometimes heat called
source
. a
A low temperature heat rvoir
rese to which heat is transferred is sometimes called
heat sink
a.

Work Reservoir
A work reservoir is a sufficiently large system in stable equilibrium to which and from which finite amou
of work can be transferred adiabatically without anye inchang
its pressure.

Thermodynamic Cycle
A system has completed a thermodynamic cycle when the system undergoes a series of processes an
returns to its original state, so that the properties of the system at the end of the cycle are the same as
beginning.
Thus, for whole numbers of cycles
Pf  Pi , Tf  Ti , u f  ui , v f  vi , etc.

Heat Engine
A heat engine is a thermodynamic system operating in a thermodynamic cycle to which net heat is
transferred and from which net work is delivered.

The system, or working fluid,

undergoes a series of processes that constitute the heat engine cycle.
The following figure illustrates a steam power plant as a heat engine operating in a thermodynamic cyc

144 | P a g e
Thermal Efficiency,
The thermal efficiency is the index of performance
a workof
-producing device or a heat engine and is defined
by the ratio of the net work output (the desired result) to the heat input (the costs to obtain the desired
result).

Desired Result
 th 
Required Input
For a heat engine the desired result is the net work done and the input
eat supplied
is the h to make the cycle
operate. The thermal efficiency is always less than 1 or less than 100 percent.
Wnet , out Wnet , out  Wout  Win
 th 
Qin Qin  Qnet

in andout subscripts means to use the magnitude (take the positive value)
Here the use of the r theof eithe
work or heat transfer and let the minus sign in the net expression take care of the direction.

Wnet , out
 th 
Qin
Q  Qout
Qnet , in  Wnet , out  U  in
Qin
Wnet , out  Qnet , in Q
 1  out
Wnet , out  Qin  Qout Qin

Cyclic devices such as heat engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps often operate-temperature
between a high
reserv TH and a low
oir at temperature TL.
-temperature reservoir at temperature

145 | P a g e
 QL
 th  1 
QH

Heat Pump
A heat pump is a thermodynamic system operating in a thermodynamic cycle that removes-heat from a
temperature body and delivers heat to-tem a high
perature body. To accomplish this energy transfer, the heat
pump receives external energy in the form of work or heat from the surroundings.
While the name “heat pump” is the thermodynamic term used to describe a cyclic device that allows the
transfer ofheat energy from a low temperature to a higher temperature, we use the terms “refrigerator” and
“heat pump” to apply to particular devices. Here a refrigerator is a device that operates on a thermodynamic
cycle and extracts heat from -temperature
a low me
dium. The heat pump also operates on a thermodynamic
cycle but rejects heat to the -temperature
high medium.

The index of performance of a refrigerator or heat pump is expressed in terms of the coefficient of
performance, COP, the ratio of desiredtoresult
input. This measure of performance may be larger than 1,
and we want the COP to be as large as possible.
Desired Result
COP 
Required Input
The following figure illustrates a refrigerator as a heat pump operating in a thermodynamic cycle.

For the heat pump acting

like a refrigerator or an air conditioner, the primary function of the device is the
from the low- temperature system.
transfer of heat

146 | P a g e
 For the refrigerator the desired result is the heat supplied at the low temperature and the inpu
the net work into the device to make the cycle operate.
QL QL
COPR  COPR 
Wnet , in QH  QL

For the device acting like a “heat pump,” the primary function of the device is the transfer of heat to the
high-temperature system. The coefficient of perform ance for a heat pump is
QH QH
COPHP  
Wnet , in QH  QL
Note, under the same operating conditions the HP and
COPCOP R are related by
COPHP  COPR 1

Heat Pump and Air Conditioner Ratings

Heat pumps and air conditioners are rated using the SEER system. he seasonal
SEER is tadjusted energy
efficiency (bad term for HP and A/C devices) rating. The SEER rating is the amount of heating (cooling
seasonal basis in Btu/hr per unit rate of power expended in watts, W.
The heat transfer rate is often given in of
terms
tons of heating or cooling. One ton of refrigeration equals
12,000 Btu/hr = 211 kJ/min.

Second Law Statements

The following two statements of the second law of thermodynamics are based on the definition
the heat engines and heat mps.
pu
Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law
It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and prod
net amount of work.
The Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of thermodynamics states
no heat
that
engine can produce a
net amount of work while exchanging heat with a single reservoir only. In other words, the maximum
possible efficiency is less than 100 percent.

Heat engine that violates the Kelvin

-Planck statement of the
cond
se law

147 | P a g e
Clausius statement of the second law
The Clausius statement of the second law states that it is impossible to construct a device that operate
cycle and produces no effect other than the transfer of heat from
-temperature
a lower body to igher
ah-
temperature body.

Heat pump that violates the Clausius statement of the second law
Or energy from the surroundings in the form of work or heat has to be expended to force heat to flow fr
a low-temperature medium to a high
-temperature medium.
Thus, the COP of a refrigerator or heat pump must be less than infinity.
COP  
A violation of either the Kelvin
-Planck or Clausius statements of the second law implies a violation
the other. Assume that the heat engine below shownis violating the Kelvin
-Planck statement by absorbing
heat from a single reservoir and producing an equal amount W.ofThe
workoutput of the engine drives a
heat pump that transfers an amount ofQheat L from the low
-temperature thermal reservoird an
an amount
of heatQH + QL to the high -temperature thermal reservoir. The combination of the heat engine and
QL from
refrigerator in the left figure acts like a heat pump that transfers heatthe low
-temperature reservoir
without any external energy t.inpuThis is a violation of the Clausius statement of the second law.

Perpetual
-Motion Machines
Any device that violates the first or second law of thermodynamics is called -motion
a perpetual
machine. If
the device violates the first law, it is a perpetu
al-motion machine of the first kind. If the device violates the
second law, it is a perpetual
-motion machine of the second kind.

Reversible Processes
A reversible process is a quasi
-equilibrium, or quasi
-static, process with a more restrictive requireme
nt.

Internally reversible process

The internally reversible process is a-equilibrium
quasi process, which, once having taken place, can be
reversed and in so doing leave no change in the system. This says nothing about what happens to the
surroundings about the system.
Totally or externally reversible process
The externally reversible process is -equilibrium
a quasi process, which, once having taken place, can be
reversed and in so doing leave no change in the system or surroundings.

Irreversible Proc
ess
An irreversible process is a process that is not reversible.
All real processes are irreversible. Irreversible processes occur because of the following:
Friction
Unrestrained expansion of gases
Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference
148 | P a g e
 Mixing of two different substances
Hysteresis effects
I2R losses in electrical circuits
Any deviation from a quasi-static process

The Carnot Cycle

French military engineer Nicolas Sadi Carnot-1832)
(1769was among the first to study the principle
s of the
second law of thermodynamics. Carnot was the first to introduce the concept of cyclic operation and d
a reversible cycle that is composed of four reversible processes, two isothermal and two adiabatic.
The Carnot Cycle
Process-2:Reversib
1 TH>TL, to the working fluid in a piston
le isothermal heat addition at high temperature, -
cylinder device that does some boundary work.
Process-3:Reversible
2 adiabatic expansion during which the system does work the as
working fluid
temperature decreasesfrom TH to TL.
Process-4:The
3 TL<TH and
system is brought in contact with a heat reservoir at a reversible isothermal heat
exchange takes place while work of compression is done on the system.
Process-1:A
4 reversible adiabatic compression process es increas
the working fluid temperature fromTL to TH

You may have observed that power cycles operate in the clockwise direction when plotted on a proces
diagram. The Carnot cycle may be reversed, in which it operates as a refrigerator. Theycle
refrigeration c
operates in the counterclockwise direction.

Carnot Principles
The second law of thermodynamics puts limits on the operation of cyclic devices as expressed - by the K
Planck and Clausius statements. A heat engine cannot operate by exchangingwith a single
heatheat
reservoir, and a refrigerator cannot operate without net work input from an external source.
TH> TL. Weatdraw two
Consider heat engines operating between two fixed temperature reservoirs
conclusions about the thermal efficiency versible
of re and irreversible heat engines, known as the Carnot
principles.
a) The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the efficiency of a revers
one operating between the same two reservoirs.
th  th, Carnot
b) The efficienciesallof reversible heat engines operating between the same two
- constant
temperature heat reservoirs have the same efficiency.
The thermal efficiencies of actual and reversible heat engines operating between the same temperatur
compare as follows:

149 | P a g e
Reversed Carnot Device Coefficient of Performance
If the Carnot device is caused to operate in the reversed cycle, the reversible heat pump is created
COP of reversible refrigerators and heat pumps are given in a similar manner toarnot
that of
heat
the C
engine as
QH
QL 1
COPR   COPHP 
QH

QL
QH  QL QH  1 QH  QL QH  1
QL QL
TH
TL 1
  
TH

TL
TH  TL TH  1 TH  TL TH  1
TL TL

Again, these are the maximum possible COPs for a refrigerator or a heat pump operating between the
temperature limits T
ofH andTL.
The coefficients of performance of actual and reversible
as Carnot)
(such refrigerators operating between the
same temperature limits compare as follows:

Illustrative Problems
1. A Carnot heat engine receives 500 kJ of heat per cycle from-temperature
a high heat reservoir at
652oC and rejects heat to a-temp
low erature heat reservoir atoC.
30Determine
(a) The thermal efficiency of this Carnot engine.
(b) The amount of heat rejected to the-temperature
low heat reservoir.

2. An inventor claims to have invented a heat engine that develops a thermal efficiency
0 percent of 8
when operating between two heat reservoirs at 1000 K and 300 K. Evaluate his claim.

3. A steam power plant receives heat from a furnace at a rate of 280GJ/h. Heat losses to the
surrounding air from the steam as it passes through the pipes r components
and othe are estimated to
be about 8GJ/h. If the waste heat is transferred to the cooling water at a rate of 145GJ/h, determ
the net power output b) the thermal efficiency of this power plant.
4. An innovative way of power generation involvesutilization
the of geothermal energy
– the energy of
hot water that exists naturally underground
– as the heat source. If a supply of hot water at 140C is
discovered at a location where the environmental temperature is 20C, determine the maximum
thermal effici
ency of a geothermal power plant built at that location can have.
o
5. An inventor claims to have developed a refrigerator that maintains the refrigerated C while
space at 2
o
operating in a room where the temperatureCisand 25 has a COP of 13.5. Is thereruth
anytot his
claim?

6. A heat pump is to be used to heat a building during the winter. The building is to be maintained
21oC at all times. The building is estimated to be losing heat at a rate of 135,000 kJ/h when the

150 | P a g e
 o
outside temperature drops-5toC. Determine the minimum power required to drive the heat pump
unit for this outside temperature.

Question and Answer

1. What is a thermal reservoir? Give some examples.
2. Consider a process of baking a potatoes in a conventional oven. Can the oven hot airbeintreated
the
as a thermal reservoir? Explain.
3. Is it impossible for a heat engine to operate without rejecting any waste heat to a low temperatu
reservoir? Explain.
4. What are the characteristics of all heat engines?
5. What is the Kelvin
-Planck expressio
n of the second law of thermodynamics?
6. In the absence of any friction and other irreversibilities, can a heat engine have an efficiency of
Explain.
7. Are the efficiencies of all work
-producing devices, including the hydroelectric power plants,
d by limite
Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law? Explain.
8. What is the difference between a heat pump and a refrigerator?
9. What is the difference between a refrigerator and -conditioner?
an air
10. Define COP of a refrigerator.
11. What is the Clausius statement theofsecond law of thermodynamics?

Exercise
1. A household refrigerator with a cop of 1.5 removes heat from the refrigerated space at a rate of 60k
determine a) the electric power consumed by the refrigerator and b) the rate of heat transfer to the
kitchen air.
2. An air-conditioner removes heat steadily from a house at a rate 750kJ/min while drawing electric po
a rate of 6kW. Determine a) the COP of this air conditioner and b) the rate of heat transfer to the
outside air.
3. A carnot heat engines operates between a source at 1000K and a sink at 300K. if the heat engine is
supplied with heat at a rate of 800kJ/min. determine a) the thermal efficiency and b) the power outp
this heat engine.
4. A carnot refrigerator operates in a room in which
temperature
the is 25C. the refrigerator consumes
500W of power when operating and has a COP of 4.5. Determine a) the rate of heat removal from t
refrigerated space and b) the temperature of the refrigerated space.
5. A carnot heat pump is to be used toaheat house and maintain it at 20C in winter. On a day when the
average outdoor temperature remains at about 2C, the house is estimated to lose heat at a rate of
82,000kJ/h. If the heat pump consumes 8kW of power while operating, determine a) how long the h
pump ran on that day; b) the total heating costs, assuming an average price-hr of for
5cents/Kw
electricity; and c) the heating cost for the same day if resistance heating is used instead of a heat p

Topic No.: 7
Topic Title: Entropy
Topic Objectives:  Define entropy as a thermodynamic property.
 Explain the increase in entropy principle.

151 | P a g e
  Calculate change in entropy for pure substance and ideal gases.
 Describe the isentropic process and its applications.
 Quantify isentropic efficiencies for commo
n systems.
 Perform entropy balance for thermodynamic systems.

Theory and Discussion

The second law of thermodynamics leads to the definition of a new property calleda quantitative
entropy,
measure of microscopic disorder for a .system
Entropy is a emasure of energy that is no longer available to perform useful work within the current
environment.

Clausius Inequality
Consider a heat reservoir giving up heat to a reversible heat engine, which in turn gives up -heat to a pi
cylinder device as show
n.

We apply the first law on an incremental basis to the combined system composed of the heat engine a
system.

Ein  Eout  Ec

QR  (Wrev  Wsys )  dEc
whereEc is the energy of the combined system.
Wc Let
be the work done by the combined system. Then the
first lawbecomes
QR Q

Wc  Wrev  Wsys TR T
Q
QR  Wc  dEc QR  TR
T
The total net work done by the combined system becomes
Q
Wc  TR  dEc
T
Now the total work done is found by taking the cyclic integral of the incremental work.

152 | P a g e
If the system, as well as the heat engine,
is required to undergo a cycle, then

If Wc is positive, we have a cyclic device exchanging energy with a single heat reservoir and producing
equivalent amount of work; thus, the -Planck Wc can
Kelvin statement of the second law is violated. Butbe
zero (no work done) or negative (work is done on the combined system) and not violate-Planck
the Kelvin
statement of the second law. Therefore, TRsince
> 0 (absolute temperature), we conclude

This equation is called the Clausius inequality. The

lity holds
equa for the reversible process and the
inequality holds for the irreversible process.

Entropy

If no irreversibilities occur within the system as well as the reversible cyclic device, then the cycle unde
by the combined system will benally interreversible. As such, it can be reversed. In the reversed cycle case
the quantities will have the same magnitude but of opposite sign. Therefore, WC, the
which
work
could not be
a positive quantity in the regular case, cannot be a negative y inquantit
the reversed case. Then it follows that
WC,int rev= 0 . Since it cannot be a positive or negative quantity, and therefore

the equality
for internally reversible cycles. Thus we conclude that in the Clausius inequality holds for totally
or justinternally reversible cycles and the inequality for the irreversible ones.
Consider the cycle shown below composed of two reversible processes A and B. Apply the Clausius in
for this cycle. What do you conclude about these two integrals?

Weshould find

(Qnet/T)int rev is independent of the path and must be a property, we call this property the
Since the quantity
entropyS.
The entropy change occurring during a process is related to the heat transfer and the temperature of th
system. he
T entropy is given the symbol S and the specific entropy
(kJ/K), is K).
s (kJ/kg
The entropy change during a reversible process, sometimes called an internally reversible process, is
as

153 | P a g e
Consider the cycle-A-2-B-1,
1 shown below, where processis arbitrary
A that is, it can be either reversible or
irreversible, and process B is internally reversible.

S1 –S2.change
The integral along the internally reversible path, process B, is the entropy Therefore,

In general the entropy change

ingdur
a process is defined as
Qnet
dS 
T
where = holds for the internally reversible process
> holds for the irreversible process
From the above, we see that for a reversible, adiabatic process
dS  0
S2  S1
Thereversible, adiabatic proce
ssis called an
isentropic process
.
Entropy change is caused by heat transfer and irreversibilities. Heat transfer to a system increases the
entropy; heat transfer from a system decreases it. The effect of irreversibilities is always to increase th
entropy. In fact, a process in which the heat transfer is out of the system may be so irreversible that th
actual entropy change is positive. Friction is one source of irreversibilities in a system.
The entropy change during a process is obtained by ting thedSequation over the process:
integra

Here, the inequality is to remind us that the entropy change of a system during an irreversible process
always greater than 0 , called the entropy transfer. That is, some entropy is generated
ed or creat
during an irreversible process, and this generation is due entirely to the presence of irreversibilities. Th
entropy generated during a process isentropy and is denoted S
called generation as
gen.
We can remove the inequality by noting the following

Sgen is always a positive quantity or zero. Its value depends upon the process and
not athus
property.
it is
Sgen is zero for an internally reversible process.
Now consider an isolated system composed of several subsystems exchanging energy
selves.
among them

154 | P a g e
Since the isolated system has no energy transfer across its system boundary, the heat transfer across
system boundary is zero.

The total entropy change for the isolated system is

Sisolated  0
This equation is the working definit
ion of the second law of thermodynamics. The second law, known as th
principle of increase of entropy, is stated as
The total entropy change of an isolated system during a process always increases or, in the lim
case of a reversible process, remain
s constant.
Now consider a general system exchanging mass as well as energy with its surroundings.

S gen  Stotal  S sys   S surr  0

where = holds for the totally reversible process
> holds for the irreversible process
Thus, the entropy generated or the totalpyentrochange (sometimes called the entropy change of the univers
or net entropy change) due to the process of this isolated system is positive (for actual processes) or z
reversible processes). The total entropy change for a process is the entropy
amount generated
of during that
processS(gen), and it is equal to the sum of the entropy changes of the system and the surroundings. The
entropy changes of the important system (closed system or control volume) and its surroundings do no
have to bepositive. The entropy for a given system (important or surroundings) may decrease during a
process, but thesumof the entropy changes of the system and its surroundings for an isolated system ca
never decrease.
Entropy change is caused by heat transfer
and irreversibilities. Heat transfer to a system increases the
entropy, and heat transfer from a system decreases it. The effect of irreversibilities is always to increa
entropy.
The increase in entropy principle can be summarized as follows:

Some Remarks about Entropy

≥0. that
Sgensuch
1. Processes can occur in a certain direction only, not in just any direction,
2. Entropy is a nonconserved property, and there is no such thing as the conservation of entropy
principle. The entropy of the universe is continuously increasing.

155 | P a g e
 3. The performance of engineering systems is degraded by the presence of irreversibilities,
nd entropy a
generation is a measure of the magnitudes of the irreversibilities present during that process.

T-S Curve
Heat Transfer as the Area under a
dSimplies
For the reversible process, the equation for that
Qnet
dS 
T
Qnet  TdS
or the incrementalathetransfer in a process is the product of the temperature and the differential of the
T-Son
entropy, the differential area under the process curve plotted diagram.
the

In the above figure, the heat transfer in an internally reversible process

n as is
the
show
area under the
process curve plotted on the
-S diagram.
T

Isothermal, Reversible Process

For an isothermal, reversible process, the temperature is constant and the integral to find the entropy c
is readily performed. If the system hastant
a cons T0, the entropy change becomes
temperature,

For a process occurring over a varying temperature, the entropy change must be found by integration o
the process.

Adiabatic, Reversible (Isentropic) Process

For an adiabatic process, one in which
re isthe
no heat transfer, the entropy change is

If the process is adiabatic and reversible, the equality holds and the entropy change is
S  S2  S1  0
S2  S1
Theadiabatic, reversible process is a constant entropy process and is called
. Asisentropic
willbe shown later
for an ideal gas, the adiabatic, reversible process is the same as the polytropic process where the poly
exponentn = k = C p/Cv.

The principle of increase of entropy for a closed system exchanging heat with its surroundings
tant at a con
temperatureTsurr is found by using the equation for the entropy generated for an isolated system.

156 | P a g e
 S gen  Stotal  Ssys   Ssurr  0
Ssys  ( S2  S1 ) sys
Qnet , surr
 S surr 
Tsurr

Third Law of Thermodynamics

The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a pure crystalline substance
ute zero
at absol
temperature is zero. This law provides an absolute reference point for the determination of entropy. T
entropy determined relative to this point is called absolute entropy.

Entropy as a Property
Entropy is a property, and it can be expressed P,v,T
in terms of more familiar properties () through theTds
relations. These relations come from the analysis of a reversible closed system that does boundary wo
has heat added. Writing the first law for the closed system in differentialper
formunit
onmass
a basis

Qint rev  Wint rev, out = dU

Qint rev  T dS
Wint rev, out  P dV
TdS  P dV  dU
Tds  du  Pdv
h = u by
Recall that the enthalpy is related to the internal energy + Pv
. Using this relation in the above
Tdsequation is
equation, the second
T ds  dh  v dP
These last two relations
aveh many uses in thermodynamics and serve as the starting point in developing
entropy-change relations for processes. The successfulTdsuse
relations
of depends on the availability of
property relations. Such relations do not exist in an easily
mused
for a for
general pure substance but are
available for incompressible substances (liquids, solids) and ideal gases. So, for the general pure sub
such as water and the refrigerants, we must resort to property tables to find values of entropy
py and entr
changes.

157 | P a g e
The temperature
-entropy and enthalpy
-entropy diagrams for water are shown below.

Entropy Change for Ideal Gases

a. Constant specific heats (approximate treatment): Any process:

du P T2 v2
ds   dv s2  s1  Cv , av ln  R ln
T T T1 v1
T2 P
s2  s1  C p , av ln  R ln 2
T ds  dh  v dP T1 P1

Or, on a unit
-mole basis,
T2 v T2 P2
s2  s1  Cv , av ln  Ru ln 2 s2  s1  C p , av ln  Ru ln
T1 v1 T1 P1
Remember for Isentropic process:
k
 P2  v 
   1 
 1  s  const .  v2 
P
Pvk =
For an isentropic process this last result looks like Pvn
constant which is the polytropic process equation
= constant withn = k = C
p/Cv.

b.Variable specific heats (exact treatment): Tds = dh- vdP, we obtain

From
2 C p (T ) P2
s   dT  R ln
1 T P1

The integrals on the right -hand side of the above equation are called the standard statesoentropies,
, at state
1,T1, and state 2,T2; so is a function of temperature only.

 P2   P2 / Pref  P
     r2
 1  s  const .  P1 / Pref
P  s  const . Pr1
And in terms of v the equation is:

158 | P a g e
Therefore, for any process:
P2 s  s  s o  s o  R ln P2
s2  s1  s2o  s1o  R ln 2 1 2 1 u
P1 P1
The standard state entropies are found in Tables
-17 for Aair on a massisbas
and Tables-18
A through -25
A
for other gases on a mole basis. When using this variable specific heat approach to finding the entrop
change for an ideal gas, remember to include the pressure term along with the standard state -- entropy
the tablesdon’t warn you to do this.
Isentropic process:s = 0

Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer

1. Heat Transfer
2. Mass flow

Entropy Generation
Entropy balance for any system undergoing any process is expressed as
𝑆𝑖𝑛 − 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = ∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

𝑑𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
Or in the rate form: 𝑆𝑖𝑛 − 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 𝑑𝑡

𝑄𝑘
For Closed System: + 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = ∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1
𝑇𝑘

The entropy balance relation above can be stated as:

The entropy change of a closed system during a process is equal to the sum of the net entropy
transferred through the system boundary by heat transfer and the entropy generated
stem
within the sy
boundaries.
𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 + 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠: 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = ∆𝑆 = ∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 + ∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
𝐴𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚: 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = ∆𝑆𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

For open system:

In general:
𝑄𝑘
+ 𝑚𝑖 𝑠𝑖 − 𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑒 + 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 𝐶𝑉
𝑇𝑘

𝑄𝑘 𝑑𝑆
+ 𝑚𝑖 𝑠𝑖 − 𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑒 + 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 =
𝑇𝑘 𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑉

𝑄𝑘
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 − 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤: 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑒 − 𝑚𝑖 𝑠𝑖 −
𝑇𝑘

159 | P a g e
 𝑄𝑘
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 − 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚: 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 𝑚𝑒 (𝑠𝑒 − 𝑠𝑖 ) −
𝑇𝑘

𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 − 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐: 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 𝑚𝑒 (𝑠𝑒 − 𝑠𝑖 )

Question and Answer

1. Is it possible to create entropy? How about destroying it?
2. A system undergoes a process between two fixed states first in a reversible manner and then in an
irreversible manner.
For which case is the entropy change greater? Why?
3. The entropy of a hot baked potato decreases as it cools. Is this a violation of the increase of entrop
principle? Explain?
4. What three different mechanisms can cause the entropy of a control volume nge? to cha
5. Is it possible for the entropy change of a closed system to be zero during an irreversible process? E
6. Is a quantity whose cyclic integral is zero necessarily a property?
7. What happen to the entropy of a steam as it flows through an actual
batic turbine?
adia
8. Describe the ideal process for an adiabatic turbine, adiabatic compressor, and adiabatic nozzle.
9. Is the isentropic process a suitable model for compressors that are cooled intentionally? Explain.
10. On a Ts diagram, does the actual exitofstate
an adiabatic turbine have to be on the-hand
right side of
the isentropic exit state? Why?

Exercise
1. Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 6Mpa, 600C, and 80m/s and leaves at 50kPa, 100C,and 140m
power output of the turbine is 8000kW, determ ine the a) the mass flowrate of the steam flowing through
the turbine and b) the isentropic efficiency of the turbine.
2. A 20kg aluminum block initially at 200C is brought into contact with a 20kg block of iron at 100C in
insulated enclosure. Determine he final
t equilibrium temperature and the total entropy change for this
process.
3. Air is compressed by a 12kW compressor1 to from
P2. The
P air temperature is maintained constant at
25C during this process as a result of heat transfer to the surrounding ium at med
10C. Determine the
rate of entropy change of the air. State the assumptions used in solving this problem.
4. A 0.5m3 rigid tank contains refrigerant 134a initially at 200kPa and 40% quality. Heat is transferred n
to the refrigerant from a source 35Cat until the pressure rises to 400kPa. Determine a) the entropy
change of the refrigerant b) the entropy change of the heat source and c) the total entropy change
this process.
5. Steam is to be condensed in the condenser of a steam power plant perature
at a tem
of 50C with cooling
water from a nearby lake, which enters the tubes of the condenser at 18C at a rate of 101kg/s and
27C. Assuming the condenser to be perfectly insulated, determine a) the rate of condensation of th
steam b) the ratef entropy
o generation in the condenser.
6. Steam enters an adiabatic nozzle at 3Mpa and 400C with a velocity of 70m/s and exits at 2Mpa and
320m/s. if the nozzle has an inlet area 2of , determine
7cm a) the exit temperature and b) the rate of
entropy generation for this process.
7. Determine the entropy change of water contained in a closed system as it changes phase from satu
liquid to saturated vapor when the pressure is 0.1 MPa and constant. Why is the entropy change p
for this process?
o
8. Steam at1 MPa, 600
C, expands in a turbine to 0.01 MPa. If the process is isentropic, find the final

160 | P a g e
 temperature, the final enthalpy of the steam, and the turbine work.
o
9. Aluminum at 100 of 30oC. If
C is placed in a large, insulated tank having 10 kg of water at a etemperatur
the mass of the aluminum is 0.5 kg, find the final equilibrium temperature of the aluminum and wate
the entropy change of the aluminum and the water, and the total entropy change of the universe be
of this process.

10. Carbon dioxidenitially

i at 50 kPa, 400 K, undergoes a process in a closed system until its pressure an
temperature are 2 MPa and 800 K, respectively. Assuming ideal gas behavior, find the entropy cha
the carbon dioxide by first assuming constant specificdheats
then assuming
an variable specific heats.

11. Consider steady heat transfer through a 5m by 6m brick wall of a house of thickness 30cm. On a da
when the temperature of the outdoors is 0C, the house is maintained at 27C. the temperatures of th
inner and outer surfaces of the brick wall are measured to be 20C and 5C, respectively, and the rate
heat transfer through the wall is 1035W. Determine the rate of entropy generation in the wall, and th
rate of total entropy generation associated with this
ansfer
heat tr
process.

12. Steam at 7Mpa and 450C is throttled in a valve to a pressure of 3Mpa during
-flowaprocess.
steady
Determine the entropy generated during this process.

Topic No.: 8
Topic Title: Exergy
Topic Objectives:  Define Exergy in engineering
point of view.
 Derive exergy equations for thermodynamic systems.
 Define and derive equations for irreversibility.
 Apply exergy to real engineering problems.

Theory and Discussion

The energy content of the universe is constant, just as its mass nt is. Yet
conte
at times of crisis we are
bombarded with speeches and articles on how to “conserve” energy. As engineers, we know that energy is
already conserved. What is not conserved exergy,
iswhich is the useful work potential of the energy. Once the
exerg
y is wasted, it can never be recovered. When we use energy (to heat our homes, for example), we
not destroying any energy; we are merely converting it to a less useful form, a form of less exergy.

Exergy and the Dead State

The useful wo
rk potential of a system is the amount of energy we extract as useful work. The
useful work potential of a system at the specified stateexergy.
is called
Exergy is a property and is associated
with the state of the system and the environment. A system
at is in th
equilibrium with its surroundings has
dead
zero exergy and is said to be at the state.
The exergy of the thermal energy of thermal reservoirs is
equivalent to the work output of a Carnot heat engine operating between the reservoir and ent.
the environ

Exergy Forms
Now let’s determine the exergy of various forms of energy.
1. Exergy of kinetic energy

161 | P a g e
 Kinetic energy is a form of mechanical energy and can be converted directly into work. Kinetic
energy itself is the work potential or exergy of
ic energy
kinet independent of the temperature and
pressure of the environment.

2. Exergy of potential energy

Potential energy is a form of mechanical energy and can be converted directly into work. Poten
energy itself is the work potential or exergy
potential
of energy independent of the temperature and
pressure of the environment.

3. Useful Work and Reversible work

The work done by work producing devices is not always entirely in a useable form. Consider th
piston-cylinder device shown in the followin
g figure.

 W  P dV  ( P  P0 ) dV  P0 dV
  Wb, useful  P0 dV

The actual work done by the fluid

W  Wb, useful   P0 dV
 Wb, useful  P0 (V2  V1 )
The word done on the surroundings is
Wsurr   P0 dV  P0 (V2  V1 )
Any useful work delivered by a piston
-cylinder device is due to the pressure above the atmospheric
level.
Wu  W  Wsurr

Reversible Work
Reversible workrevWis defined as the maximum amount of useful work that can be produced (or th
minimum work that needs to be supplied) as a system undergoes a process between the specif
initial and final states. This is the usefuloutput
work (or input) obtained when the process between
the initial and final states is executed in a totally reversible manner.

4. Exergy of flow
The energy needed to force mass to flow into or out of a control volume is the flow work per uni
mass given by
wflow  Pv

162 | P a g e
 P0 to displace
The exergy of flow work is the excess of flow work done against atmospheric air at it
by volumev. According to the above figure, the useful work potential due to flow work is
wflow, energy  Pv  P0 v

5. Exergy of a closed system

𝑚 𝑚𝑔
𝑋 = 𝑈 − 𝑈0 + 𝑃0 𝑉 − 𝑉0 − 𝑇𝑂 𝑆 − 𝑆0 + ∇2 + 𝑧
2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐
on a unit mass basis, the closed system (or nonflow) exergy is
1 𝑔
∅ = 𝑢 − 𝑢0 + 𝑃0 𝑣 − 𝑣0 − 𝑇𝑂 𝑠 − 𝑠0 + ∇2 + 𝑧
2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐

Here,u0, v0, ands0 are the properties of the

systemevaluated at the dead state. Note that the
exergy of the internal energy of a system is zero at the dead state isu zero
= u0, vsince
= v0, ands =
s0at that state.
The exergy change of a closed system during a process is simply the difference between the final and
initial exergies of the system,

∆𝑋 = 𝑋2 − 𝑋1 = 𝑚 ∅2 − ∅1 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 + 𝑃0 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 − 𝑇𝑂 𝑆2 − 𝑆1
𝑚 𝑚𝑔
∆𝑋 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 + 𝑃0 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 − 𝑇𝑂 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 + ∇22 − ∇12 + 𝑧 − 𝑧1
2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 2

On a unit mass basis the exergy

hangec of a closed system is
∆𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = ∆∅ = ∅2 − ∅1 = 𝑒2 − 𝑒1 + 𝑃0 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 − 𝑇𝑂 𝑠2 − 𝑠1

1 𝑔
∆𝑥 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 + 𝑃0 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 − 𝑇𝑂 𝑠2 − 𝑠1 + ∇22 − ∇12 + 𝑧 − 𝑧1
2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 2

6. Exergy of Flowing Fluid

Since flow energy is the sum of nonflow energy and the flow energy, the exergy of flow is the su
the exergies of nonflow exergy and flow exergy.

𝑋𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑋𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 + 𝑋𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑒𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑔𝑦

𝑚 𝑚𝑔
𝑋 = 𝑈 − 𝑈0 + 𝑃0 𝑉 − 𝑉0 − 𝑇𝑂 𝑆 − 𝑆0 + ∇2 + 𝑧 + 𝑃 − 𝑃0 𝑉
2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐

163 | P a g e
 𝑚 𝑚𝑔
𝑋 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉 − 𝑈0 + 𝑃0 𝑉0 − 𝑇𝑂 𝑆 − 𝑆0 + ∇2 + 𝑧
2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐
𝑚 𝑚𝑔
𝑋 = 𝐻 − 𝐻0 − 𝑇𝑂 𝑆 − 𝑆0 + ∇2 + 𝑧
2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐

The flow (or stream) exergy per unit mass is given by

1 𝑔
𝜑 = 𝑕 − 𝑕0 − 𝑇𝑂 𝑠 − 𝑠0 + ∇2 + 𝑧
2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐

The exergy of flow can be negative if the pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure.
The exergy cha
nge of a fluid stream as it undergoes a process from state 1 to state 2 is
1 𝑔
∆𝜑 = 𝜑2 − 𝜑1 = 𝑕2 − 𝑕1 − 𝑇𝑂 𝑠2 − 𝑠1 + ∇22 − ∇12 + 𝑧 − 𝑧1
2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 2

Irreversibility
The difference between the reversible W work
rev and the useful work Wu is due to the irreversibilities
present during the process and is called irreversibility
the I.It is equivalent to the
exergy destroyed
and is expressed as
I  X destroyed  T0 S gen  Wrev, out  Wu, out  Wu, in  Wrev, in
whereSgenis the entropy generated during the process. For a totally reversible process, the useful and
reversible work terms are identical and thus ibility irrevers
is zero.
Irreversibility can be viewed aswasted
the work potential or thelost opportunity to do work. It
represents the energy that could e been
hav converted to work but was not.
Exergy destroyed represents the lost work potential and is alsowasted called work
theor lost work.

Second
-Law Efficiency
The second-law efficiency is a measure of the performance of a device relative to the
nceperforma
under reversible conditions for the same end states and is given by
In general, the second
-law efficiency is expressed as
Exergy recovered Exergy destroyed
 II   1
Exergy supplied Exergy supplied
For heat engines and other -producing
work devices and
 W
II  th  u
th, rev Wrev
For refrigerators, heat pumps, ther
and owork-consuming devices.
COP Wrev
II  
COPrev Wu
For adiabatic heat exchangers with two unmixed fluid streams (cold fluid 3 to 4 and hot fluid 1 to
𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝜓4 − 𝜓3 𝑇𝑜 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝜂𝐼𝐼 = = 1−
𝑚𝑕𝑜𝑡 𝜓1 − 𝜓2 𝑚𝑕𝑜𝑡 𝜓1 − 𝜓2
For an adiabatic mixing chamber where a hot stream 1 is mixed with a cold stream 2, forming a
mixture 3
𝑚3 𝜓3 𝑇𝑜 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝜂𝐼𝐼 = =1−
𝑚1 𝜓1 + 𝑚2 𝜓2 𝑚1 𝜓1 + 𝑚2 𝜓2

164 | P a g e
Exergy Transfer
Exergy can be transferred by heat, work, and mass flow, and exergy transfer accompanied by h
work, and mass transfer are given by the following.

1. Exergy transfer by heat transfer

By the second law we know that only a portion of heat transfer
a temperature
at above the
environment temperature can be converted into work. The maximum useful work is produced fr
it by passing this heat transfer through a reversible heat engine. The exergy transfer by heat is
 T 
X heat  1  0  Q
 T 
Note that exergy
ransfer
t by heat is zero for adiabatic systems.
2. Exergy transfer by work
Exergy is the useful work potential, and the exergy transfer by work can simply be expressed as
W  Wsurr (for boundary work)
X work  
W (for other forms of work)
where
Wsurr  P0 (V2  V1 )
P0 is atmospheric pressure,Vand
1 andV2 are the initial and final volumes of the system. The exergy
W itself.
transfer for shaft work and electrical work is equal to the work
Note that exergy transfer by work is zero for systems that have no work.

3. Exergy transfer by mass

Mass flow is a mech
anism to transport exergy, entropy, and energy into or out of a system. As mas
in the amount m enters or leaves a system the exergy transfer is given by
X mass  m
Note that exergy transfer by mass is zero for systems that involve no flow.

The Decrease of Exergy Principle and Exergy Destruction

The exergy of an isolated system during a process always decreases or, in the limiting case of a
decrease
reversible process, remains constant. This is known as the of exergy principle
and is
expressedas
X isolated  ( X 2  X1 )isolated  0
Exergy Destruction
Irreversibilities such as friction, mixing, chemical reactions, heat transfer through finite temperat
difference, unrestrained expansion, -quasi
non
-equilibrium compression, or expansion always generate
entropy,and anything that generates entropy always destroys exergy. The exergy destroyed is
proportional to the entropy generated as expressed as
X destroyed  T0 Sgen
The decrease of exergy principle does not imply that the exergy of a system cannot
he increase. T
exergy change of a system can be positive or negative during a process, but exergy destroyed c
be negative. The decrease of exergy principle can be summarized as follows:
 0 Irreversible proces

X destroyed  0 Reversible process
 0 Impossible process


165 | P a g e
Exergy Balances
Exergy balance any
for system g any process
undergoin can be expressed as
 Total   Total   Total   Change in the 
       
 exergy    exergy    exergy    total exergy 
 entering   leaving   destroyed   of the system 
       
X in  X out  X destroyed  X system
   
    
Net exergy transfer Exergy Change
by heat, work, and mass destruction in exergy

X in  X out  X destroyed  X system

       
Rate of net exergy transfer Rate of exergy Rate of change
by heat, work, and mass destruction of exergy
“Engineering is the science of economy, of conserving the energy, kinetic and potential, provided and stored
up by nature for the use of man. It is the business f engineering
o to utilize this energy to the best advantage,
so that there may be the least possible waste.”

Question and Answer

1. How does reversible work differ from useful work?
2. What final state will maximize the work output of a device?
3. Is the exergy
of the system different in different environment?
4. Consider a process that involves no irreversibility. Will the actual useful work for that process be eq
the reversible work?
5. What is the second law efficiency? How does it differ from thefficiency?
first law e
6. Consider an environment of zero absolute pressure (such as the space). How will the actual work a
useful work compare in that environment?
7. Consider two systems that are at the same pressure as the environment. The first system ame is at the
temperature as the environment, whereas the second system is at lower temperature than the
environment. How would you compare the exergies of these two systems?
8. Can a process for which the reversible work is zero be reversible? Can it beExplain.
irreversible?
9. Consider two geothermal wells whose energy contents are estimated to be the same. Will the exerg
these wells necessarily be the same? Explain.
10. Under what conditions does the reversible work equal irreversibility for a process?

Exercise
1. Refrigerant 134
-a enters an adiabatic compressor at 160kPa superheated by 3C, and leaves at 1Mpa.
compressor has a second-law efficiency of 80%, determine a) the actual work input, b) the isentropic
efficiency, and c) the exergy destruction. the
Take
environment temperature to be 25C. Ans. A)49.8kJ/kg
b) 0.78 c) 9.95kJ/kg

2. Steam is to be condensed in the condenser of a steam power plant at a temperature of 60C with co
water from a nearby lake that enters the tubes of the condenser
5C at aatrate
1 of 140kg/s and leaves at
25C. Assuming the condenser to be perfectly insulated, determine a) the rate of condensation of th
steam and b) the rate of exergy destruction in the condenser. Ans. A)2.48kg, b) 694kW.

166 | P a g e
3. An insulated vertical piston
-cylinder device initially contains 15kg of water, 9kg of which is in the vapor
phase. The mass of the piston is such that it maintains a constant pressure of 200kPa inside the cy
Now steam at 1 Mpa and 400C is allowed tohe enter
cylinder
t from a supply line until all the liquid in
the cylinder is vaporized. Assuming the surrounding to be at 25C and 100kPa, determine a) the am
steam that has entered and b) the exergy destroyed during the process. Ans. A) 23.66kg kJ b) 7610

4. A 0.6m3 rigid tank is filled with saturated liquid water at 170C. a valve at the bottom of the tank is now
opened, and one -half of the total mass is withdrawn from the tank in liquid form. Heat is transferred to
water from a source of 210C so that temperature
the in the tank remains constant. Determine a) the
amount of heat transfer and b) the reversible work and exergy destruction for this process. Assume
surroundings to be at 25C and 100kPa.

5. Oxygen gas is compressed in a-cylinder

piston device f an initial state of 0.83/kg
rom m and 25 o
C to a final
state of 0.13/kg
m and 287o
C. Determine the reversible work input and the increase in the exergy of the
o
oxygen during this process. Assume the surroundings to Cbe
and at 100
25 kPa.
We assume thatygen
ox is an ideal gas with constant specific heats. From R = 0.2598
-2,Table A
K. The specific heat is determined at the average temperature
kJ/kg K.
Cv, ave= 0.690 kJ/kg

6. Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 6 MPa,C, 600

and 80 m/s and leaves at 50 kPC, and 140 m/s.
a, 100
The surroundings to the turbine areC.
at 25
If the power output of the turbine is 5MW, determine
(a)the power potential of the steam at its inlet conditions, in MW.
(b) the reversible power, in MW.
(c)the second law efficiency.
Weassume steady -flow and neglect changes in potential energy.

7. A 200m3 rigid tank initially contains atmospheric air at 100kPa and 300K and is to be used as a stora
vessel for compressed air at 1Mpa and 300K. Compressed air is to be supplied ssorbythat
a compre
takes
in atmospheric air at 100kPa and 300K. Determine the minimum work requirement for this process.

8. An insulated piston
-cylinder contains 2L of saturated liquid water at a constant pressure of 150kPa. An
electric resistance heater inside
cylinder
the is turned on, and electrical work is done on the water in the
amount of 2299kJ. Assuming the surroundings to be at 25C and 100kPa, determine a) the minimum
with which this process could be accomplished and b) the exergy destroyed process.
during this

9. Nitrogen gas enters a diffuser at 100kPa and 150C with a velocity of 180m/s, and leaves at 110kPa
25m/s. it is estimated that 4.5kJ/kg of heat is lost from the diffuser to the surroundings at 100kPa an
27C. the exit area of the diffuser i 2. Accounting for the variation of the specific heats with
s 0.06m
temperature, determine a) the exit temperature b) the rate of exergy destruction and c) the second
efficiency of the diffuser.

167 | P a g e
References
h, 6th Edition, Yunus Cengel and Michael Boles, McGraw Hill
Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approac
th
Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics;
Edition,
4 M. J. Moran and H. N. Shapiro, Wiley

Engineering Thermodynamics, Burghardt, McGraw Hill

th
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics,
Edition;
7 Borgn
akke C. and Sonntag R. E.; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
nd
Thermodynamics for Engineers,
Edition;
2 Wong K. V.; CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group

Thermodynamics II

1. MIXTURE OF IDEAL GASES

Introduction
In the analysis and application of the basic laws of thermodynamics, consideration is normally given to
systems involving constant and uniform chemical compositions. Many Engineering applications,
however, involve mixtures of gases whose properties are determined in the same way as for a single gas.

An ideal gas is one which strictly obeys all the gas laws under given conditions of temperature and
pressure

The concept of the ideal gas represents a limiting state that can be approached but not achieved by any
real gas.

Analysis of many Mechanical Engineering processes are conducted at pressures and temperatures that the
ideal gas laws can be used as simple and reasonably close approximations to the behaviour of the real gas.

The characteristic Gas Equation

The Physical properties of a gas are controlled by:

• The pressure P exerted by the gas

• The Volume V occupied by the gas and
• The temperature T of the gas
The behavior of an ideal gas, undergoing any change in the above variables, is governed by such laws as
Boyle‘s and Charle‘s law.

Boyle’s law states that ―the volume of a given mass of a gas varies inversely as its absolute pressure
provided the temperature remains constant

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 1
v
p
Charles’ lawstates that ―the volume of a given mass varies directly as its absolute temperature provided the pressure is kept
constant‖
vT
In Engineering practice, volume, pressure and temperature of a system varies simultaneously. When both temperature T and
Pressure p vary
T
v
p
The proportionality may be replaced by R
RT
v
p
The constant R is known as the characteristic gas constant. For the mass m of a particular gas
pv  mRT
P=absolute pressure of gas in N/m2
T= absolute temperature of gas in K,
R=characteristic gas constant in Nm/kg.K
V= volume of gas in m3
m= mass pf gas in kg
The product of the characteristic gas constant R and the molecular weight M of an ideal gas is constant known as the universal gas
constant Ro
Ro  MR  8314.3Nm / moleK
The discussions in this chapter are restricted to nonreactive ideal-gas mixtures.
Many thermodynamic applications involve mixtures of ideal gases. That is, each of the gases in the mixture individually behaves
as an ideal gas. In this section, we assume that the gases in the mixture do not react with one another to any significant degree.
We restrict ourselves to a study of only ideal-gas mixtures. An ideal gas is one in which the equation of state is given by
PV  mRT or PV  NRuT
Air is an example of an ideal gas mixture and has the following approximate composition.
Component % by Volume
N2 78.10
O2 20.95
Argon 0.92
CO2 + trace elements 0.03
Consider a container having a volume V that is filled with a mixture of k different gases at a pressure P and a temperature T.
A mixture of two or more gases of fixed chemical composition is called a nonreacting gas mixture. Consider k gases in a rigid
container as shown here. The properties of the mixture may be based on the mass of each component, called gravimetric analysis,
or on the moles of each component, called molar analysis.
k gases
T = TmV = Vm
P = P mm = m m
The total mass of the mixture mm and the total moles of mixture Nm are defined as
k k
mm   mi and N m   Ni
i 1 i 1
The mass and mole number for a given component are related through the molar mass (or molecular weight).
mi  Ni Mi
To find the average molar mass for the mixture Mm , note

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 k k
mm   mi   N i Mi  N m M m
i 1 i 1
Solving for the average or apparent molar mass Mm
k k
mm N
Mm    i Mi   yi Mi ( kg / kmol )
N m i 1 N m i 1
The apparent (or average) gas constant of a mixture is expressed as

Ru
Rm  ( kJ / kg  K )
Mm
Can you show that Rm is given as
k
Rm   mf i Ri
i 1
To change from a mole fraction analysis to a mass fraction analysis, we can show that
yi Mi
mf i  k

y M
i 1
i i

To change from a mass fraction analysis to a mole fraction analysis, we can show that

mf i / Mi
yi  k

 mf
i 1
i / Mi

Volume FRACTION (Amagat model)

Divide the container into k sub-containers, such that each sub-container has only one of the gases in the mixture at the original
mixture temperature and pressure.

Amagat's law of additive vol-umes states that the volume of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the volumes each gas would
occupy if it existed alone at the mixture temperature and pressure.
k
Vm  Vi (Tm , Pm )
i 1
The volume fraction of the vfi of any component is
k

vf i 
Vi (Tm , Pm )
Vm
 vf
i 1
i =1
For an ideal gas mixture
N i Ru Tm N m Ru Tm
Vi  and Vm 
Pm Pm

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Taking the ratio of these two equations gives
Vi N
vf i   i  yi
Vm N m
The volume fraction and the mole fraction of a component in an ideal gas mixture are the same.
Partial pressure (Dalton model)
The partial pressure of component i is defined as the product of the mole fraction and the mixture pressure according to Dalton‘s
law. For the component i
k

Pi  yi Pm Pm  
i 1
Pi (Tm ,Vm )
law of additive pressures. Also, the h, u, cv , and cp of an ideal gas depend on temperature only and are independent of the pressure
or the volume of the ideal-gas mixture.
The partial pressure of a component in an ideal-gas mixture is simply Pi = yi Pm, where Pm is the mixture pressure.
Evaluation of ∆u or ∆h of the components of an ideal-gas mixture during a process is relatively easy since it requires only a
knowledge of the initial and final temperatures. Care should be exercised, however, in evaluating the ∆s of the components since
the entropy of an ideal gas depends on the pressure or volume of the component as well as on its temperature. The entropy change
of individual gases in an ideal-gas mixture during a process can be determined from

where Pi,2 = yi,2Pm,2 and Pi,1 = yi,1Pm,1. Notice that the partial pressure Pi of each component is used in the evaluation of the entropy
change, not the mixture pressure Pm

2: GAS
-VAPOR MIXTURES AND
-CONDITIONING
AIR PROCESSES
INTRODUCTION
At temperatures below the critical temperature, the gas phase of a substance is frequently referred to as a vapor. The term vapor
implies a gaseous state that is close to the saturation region of the substance, raising the possibility of condensation during a
process.
When we are dealing with a gas–vapor mixture, however, the vapor may condense out of the mixture during a process,forming a
two-phase mixture. This may complicate the analysis considerably. Therefore, a gas–vapor mixture needs to be treated differently
from an ordinary gas mixture.
Several gas–vapor mixtures are encountered in engineering. In this chapter, we consider the air–water vapor mixture, which is the
most commonly encountered gas–vapor mixture in practice. We also discuss air-conditioning, which is the primary application
area of air–water vapor mixtures.
Dry and atmospheric air
We will be concerned with the mixture of dry air and water vapor. This mixture is often called atmospheric air.
The temperature of the atmospheric air in air-conditioning applications ranges from about –10 to about 50°C. Under these
conditions, we treat air as an ideal gas with constant specific heats. Taking C pa = 1.005 kJ/kg.K, the enthalpy of the dry air is
given by (assuming the reference state to be 0°C where the reference enthalpy is taken to be 0 kJ/kg.k)

171 | P a g e
The assumption that the water vapor is an ideal gas is valid when the mixture temperature is below 50oC. This means that the
saturation pressure of the water vapor in the air-vapor mixture is below 12.3 kPa. For these conditions, the enthalpy of the water
vapor is approximated by hv(T) = hg at mixture temperature T. The following T-s diagram for water illustrates the ideal-gas
behavior at low vapor pressures.

The saturated vapor value of the enthalpy is a function of temperature and can be expressed as

Dew Point, Tdp

The dew-point temperature Tdp is defined as the temperature at which condensation begins when the air is cooled at constant
pressure.
Consider cooling an air-water vapor mixture while the mixture total pressure is held constant. When the mixture is cooled to a
temperature equal to the saturation temperature for the water-vapor partial pressure, condensation begins.
Tdp = Tsat @Pv

Relative Humidity, ϕ
Mass of vapor in air m
  v
Mass of in saturated air mg
Pv

Pg
Pv and Pg are shown on the following T-s diagram for the water-vapor alone.

172 | P a g e
 Steam
125

75
T [C]

Tm 25 Pg = 3.169 kPa o Vapor State

Tdp Pv = 1.491 kPa

-25
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

s [kJ/kg-K]
Absolute humidity or specific humidity (sometimes called humidity ratio), 
Mass of water vapor in air mv
 
Mass of dry air ma
PVM / ( Ru T ) Pv M v
 v v 
PVM
a a / ( Ru T ) Pa M a
P Pv
 0.622 v  0.622
Pa P  Pv
Using the definition of the specific humidity, the relative humidity may be expressed as

P 0.622Pg
 and  
(0.622   ) Pg P  Pg
Volume of mixture per mass of dry air, v
V m R T /P
v  m m m m
ma ma
After several steps, we can show (you should try this)
V RT
v  va  a m
ma Pa
So the volume of the mixture per unit mass of dry air is the specific volume of the dry air calculated at the mixture temperature
and the partial pressure of the dry air.
Mass of mixture
mv
m  ma  mv  ma (1  )  ma (1   )
ma
Based on the volume flow rate of mixture at a given state, the mass flow rate of dry air is
V m3 / s kga
m a  3

v m / kga s
Enthalpy of mixture per mass dry air, h

173 | P a g e
 Hm Ha  Hv ma ha  mv hv
h  
ma ma ma
 ha  hv
The Adiabatic Saturation Process
Air having a relative humidity less than 100 percent flows over water contained in a well-insulated duct. Since the air has RH <
100 percent, some of the water will evaporate and the temperature of the air-vapor mixture will decrease.

If the mixture leaving the duct is saturated and if the process is adiabatic, the temperature of the mixture leaving the device is
known as the adiabatic saturation temperature.
Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures
In normal practice, the state of atmospheric air is specified by determining the wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperatures. These
temperatures are measured by using a device called a psychrometer. The psychrometer is composed of two thermometers
mounted on a sling. One thermometer is fitted with a wet gauze and reads the wet-bulb temperature. The other thermometer reads
the dry-bulb, or ordinary, temperature. As the psychrometer is slung through the air, water vaporizes from the wet gauze, resulting
in a lower temperature to be registered by the thermometer. The dryer the atmospheric air, the lower the wet-bulb temperature will
be. When the relative humidity of the air is near 100 percent, there will be little difference between the wet-bulb and dry-bulb
temperatures. The wet-bulb temperature is approximately equal to the adiabatic saturation temperature. The wet-bulb and dry-
bulb temperatures and the atmospheric pressure uniquely determine the state of the atmospheric air.

174 | P a g e
The Psychrometric Chart
For a given, fixed, total air-vapor pressure, the properties of the mixture are given in graphical form on a psychrometric chart. The
air-conditioning processes are shown in the figure.

3: FUELS AND COMBUSTION

The combustion process is a chemical reaction whereby fuel is oxidized and energy is released.

Fuels are usually composed of some compound or mixture containing carbon, C, and hydrogen, H 2.
Examples of hydrocarbon fuels are
CH4 Methane
C8H18 Octane
Coal Mixture of C, H2, S, O2, N2 and non-combustibles
Classification of fuels:
1. Solid fuels Ex. Coal, baggase, wood barks, biomass, coke

175 | P a g e
 2. Liquid fuels Ex. Gasoline, distillate fuel oil, blended fuel oil, alcohols, kerosene
3. Gaseous fuels Ex. Natural gas, coke, blast furnace gas, producer gas, biogas
4. Nuclear fuel Ex. Natural uranium, prepared uranium
Basic Desired Fuel Properties
1. It must have a high heating or calorific value.
2. Easy to handle.
Four Basic conditions that must be considered to burn a fuel completely:
1. Maintain a high flame temperature enough to ignite incoming air-fuel ratio mixture
2. Sufficient time to complete the burning process of the combustible elements in the fuel.
3. Correct air-fuel ratio
4. Thorough mixing of air and fuel.
Initially, we shall consider only those reactions that go to completion. The components prior to the reaction are called reactants
and the components after the reaction are called products.
Reactants  Products
For complete or stoichiometric combustion, all carbon is burned to carbon dioxide (CO2) and all hydrogen is converted into water
(H2O). These two complete combustion reactions are as follows:
C  O2  CO2
1
H2  O2  H2 O
2
The complete combustion process is also called the stoichiometric combustion, and all coefficients are called the stoichiometric
coefficients.
In most combustion processes, oxygen is supplied in the form of air rather than pure oxygen.
Air data: volumetric analysis; XN=79%, XO=21%
Gravimetric analysis; fmN=76.9%, fmO=23.1%
Standard air: 60% RH, at 26.7C (80F) humidity ratio= 0.013kgv/kgda or lbv/lbda
Air-Fuel Ratio
Since the total moles of a mixture are equal to the sum of moles of each component, there are 12.5(1 + 3.76) = 59.5 moles of air
required for each mole of fuel for the complete combustion process.
Often complete combustion of the fuel will not occur unless there is an excess of air present greater than just the theoretical air
required for complete combustion.
To determine the amount of excess air supplied for a combustion process, let us define the air-fuel ratio AF as
a) Mole basis
kmol air
AF 
kmol fuel
b) Mass basis
Mass of air
AF =
mass of fuel
Theoretical Air requirements when gravimetric analysis of C,H,O,S are known;
 O
A / F  11.56C  34.63 H    4.33S
 8
Percent Theoretical and Percent Excess Air
In most cases, more than theoretical air is supplied to ensure complete combustion and to reduce or eliminate carbon monoxide
(CO) from the products of combustion. The amount of excess air is usually expressed as percent theoretical air and percent excess
air.
AFactual
Percent theoreticalair  100%
AFth
AFactual  AFth
Percent excessair  100%
AFth
Dew Point Temperature
The dew point temperature for the product gases is the temperature at which the water in the product gases would begin to
condense when the products are cooled at constant pressure. The dew point temperature is equal to the saturation temperature of

176 | P a g e
the water at its partial pressure in the products.
Enthalpy of Formation
When a compound is formed from its elements (e.g., methane, CH4, from C and H2), heat transfer occurs. When heat is given off,
the reaction is called exothermic. When heat is required, the reaction is called endothermic. Consider the following.

The reaction equation is

C  2 H2  CH4
The conservation of energy for a steady-flow combustion process is
Ein  Eout
Qnet  HReactants  HProducts

Qnet  HProducts  HReactants

Qnet  N h
Products
e e  Nh
Reactants
i i

Qnet  1hCH4  (1hC  2hH2 )

A common reference state for the enthalpies of all reacting components is established asThe enthalpy of the elements or their
stable compounds is defined to be ZERO at 25 oC (298 K) and 1 atm (or 0.1 MPa).
Qnet  1hCH4  (1(0)  2(0))
 hCH4
This heat transfer is called the enthalpy of formation for methane, ℎ𝑓𝑜 . The superscript (o) implies the 1 atm pressure value and the
subscript (f) implies 25oC data, ℎ𝑓𝑜 is given in Table A-26.
During the formation of methane from the elements at 298 K, 0.1 MPa, heat is given off (an exothermic reaction) such that
kJ
Qnet  h fo CH  74,850
4 kmolCH4
𝑜
The enthalpy of formation ℎ𝑓 is tabulated for typical compounds. The enthalpy of formation of the elements in their stable
form is taken as zero. The enthalpy of formation of the elements found naturally as diatomic elements, such as nitrogen, oxygen,
and hydrogen, is defined to be zero.
Adiabatic Flame Temperature
The temperature the products have when a combustion process takes place adiabatically is called the adiabatic flame
temperature.
Enthalpy of Reaction and Enthalpy of Combustion
When the products and reactants are at the same temperature, the enthalpy of reaction hR, is the difference in their enthalpies.
When the combustion is assumed to be complete with theoretical air supplied the enthalpy of reaction is called the enthalpy of
combustion hC. The enthalpy of combustion can be calculated at any value of the temperature, but it is usually determined at
25oC or 298 K.
hC  H P  H R when TP  TR  25o C  298 K
 N h
Products
e
o
f e  Nh
Reactants
i
o
f i

177 | P a g e
 Heating Value
The heating value, HV, of a fuel is the absolute value of the enthalpy of combustion or just the negative of the enthalpy of
combustion.
HV  hC
The lower heating value, LHV, is the heating value when water appears as a gas in the products.
LHV  hC   hC with H2 Ogas in products
The lower heating value is often used as the amount of energy per kmol of fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine.
The higher heating value, HHV, is the heating value when water appears as a liquid in the products.
HHV  hC   hC with H2 Oliquid in products
The higher heating value is often used as the amount of energy per kmol of fuel supplied to the steam power cycle.
The higher and lower heating values are related by the amount of water formed during the combustion process and the enthalpy of
vaporization of water at the temperature.
HHV  LHV  N H2 O h fg H2 O
HHV  LHV  9H 2 (2442) KJ / kg  9H 2 (1050.1) Btu / lb
Where, H2 is the ultimate analysis of hydrogen in the fuel.

4: VAPOR AND COMBINED POWER CYCLES

We consider power cycles where the working fluid undergoes a phase change. The best example of this cycle is the steam power
cycle where water (steam) is the working fluid.
Carnot Vapor Cycle

The heat engine may be composed of the following components.

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The working fluid, steam (water), undergoes a thermodynamic cycle from 1-2-3-4-1. The cycle is shown on the following T-s
diagram
Carnot Vapor Cycle Using Steam
700

600

500

6000 kPa
400
T [C]

300 2
3 100 kPa

200

100 1 4
0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0

s [kJ/kg-K]
The thermal efficiency of this cycle is given as
Wnet Q
 th , Carnot   1  out
Qin Qin
T
 1 L
TH
Note the effect of TH and TL on th, Carnot.
• The larger the TH the larger the th, Carnot
• The smaller the TL the larger the th, Carnot

To increase the thermal efficiency in any power cycle, we try to increase the maximum temperature at which heat is added.
Reasons why the Carnot cycle is not used:
• Pumping process 1-2 requires the pumping of a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor at state 1 and the delivery
of a saturated liquid at state 2.

179 | P a g e
 • To superheat the steam to take advantage of a higher temperature, elaborate controls are required to keep TH constant
while the steam expands and does work.
To resolve the difficulties associated with the Carnot cycle, the Rankine cycle was devised.
Rankine Cycle
The simple Rankine cycle has the same component layout as the Carnot cycle shown above. The simple Rankine cycle continues
the condensation process 4-1 until the saturated liquid line is reached.
Ideal Rankine Cycle Processes
Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression in pump
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in boiler
3-4 Isentropic expansion in turbine
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in condenser

Energy Analysis of the Rankine Cycle:

On a per unit mass basis, the energy quantities are as follows:

Alternatively, pump work can also solve by

Where:

The thermal efficiency can be interpreted as the ratio of the area enclosed by the cycle on a T-s diagram to the area under the heat-
addition process.
The Actual Rankine Cycle
The figure below shows the actual process diagram of Rankine Cycle.

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How to increase the thermal efficiency of a Rankine Cycle?
1.) Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers T L,avg)
2.) Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increases T H,avg)
3.) Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases T H,avg)

Ideal Reheat Cycle

The figure below shows a single stage of reheating in a Rankine Cycle together with its Ts diagram.

The single reheat in a modern power plant improves the cycle efficiency by 4 to 5% by increasing the average temperature at
which heat is transferred to the steam.
The average temperature during the reheat process can be increased by increasing the number of expansion and reheat stages. As
the number of stages is increased, the expansion and reheat processes approach an isothermal process at the maximum
temperature. The use of more than two reheat stages is not practical. The theoretical improvement in efficiency from the second
reheat is about half of that which results from a single reheat. The reheat temperatures are very close or equal to the turbine inlet
temperature. The optimum reheat pressure is about one-fourth of the maximum cycle pressure.
Ideal Regenerative Cycle
In steam power plants, steam is extracted from the turbine at various points. This steam, which could have produced more work by
expanding further in the turbine, is used to heat the feedwater instead. The device where the feedwater is heated by regeneration is
called a regenerator, or a feedwater heater (FWH).
A feedwater heater is basically a heat exchanger where heat is transferred from the steam to the feedwater either by mixing the two
fluid streams (open feedwater heaters) or without mixing them (closed feedwater heaters).
An open (or direct-contact) feedwater heater is basically a mixing chamber, where the steam extracted from the turbine mixes with
the feedwater exiting the pump. Ideally, the mixture leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure.
Another type of feedwater heater frequently used in steam power plants is the closed feedwater heater, in which heat is transferred

181 | P a g e
from the extracted steam to the feedwater without any mixing taking place. The two streams now can be at different pressures,
since they do not mix.

The closed feedwater heaters are more complex because of the internal tubing network, and thus they are more expensive. Heat
transfer in closed feedwater heaters is less effective since the two streams are not allowed to be in direct contact. However, closed
feedwater heaters do not require a separate pump for each heater since the extracted steam and the feedwater can be at different
pressures.
Open feedwater heaters are simple and inexpensive and have good heat transfer characteristics. For each heater, however, a pump
is required to handle the feedwater. Most steam power plants use a combination of open and closed feedwater heaters.
Cogeneration
Many industries require energy input in the form of heat, called process heat. Process heat in these industries is usually supplied by
steam at 5 to 7 atm and 150 to 200°C. Energy is usually transferred to the steam by burning coal, oil, natural gas, or another fuel in
a furnace.
Industries that use large amounts of process heat also consume a large amount of electricpower. It makes sense to use the already-
existing work potential to produce power instead of letting it go to waste. The result is a plant that produces electricity while
meeting the process-heat requirements of certain industrial processes (cogeneration plant).
Cogeneration: The production of more than one useful form of energy (such as process heat and electric power) from the same
energy source.
The utilization factor of the ideal steam-turbine cogeneration plant is 100%. Actual cogeneration plants have utilization factors as
high as 80%. Some recent cogeneration plants have even higher utilization factors.
At times of high demand for process heat, all the steam is routed to the process-heating units and none to the condenser. The waste
heat is zero in this mode.
If this is not sufficient, some steam leaving the boiler is throttled by an expansion or pressure-reducing valve to the extraction
pressure P6 and is directed to the process-heating unit.
Maximum process heating is realized when all the steam leaving the boiler passes through the PRV (m 5= m4). No power is
produced in this mode.
When there is no demand for process heat, all the steam passes through the turbine and the condenser (m5=m6=0), and the
cogeneration plant operates as an ordinary steam power plant.
Combined Gas-Vapor and Binary Cycle
The continued quest for higher thermal efficiencies has resulted in rather innovative modifications to conventional power plants. A
popular modification involves a gas power cycle topping a vapor power cycle, which is called the combined gas–vapor cycle, or
just the combined cycle.
The combined cycle of greatest interest is the gas-turbine (Brayton) cycle topping a steam-turbine (Rankine) cycle, which has a
higher thermal efficiency than either of the cycles executed individually. It makes engineering sense to take advantage of the very
desirable characteristics of the gas-turbine cycle at high temperatures and to use the high-temperature exhaust gases as the energy
source for the bottoming cycle such as a steam power cycle. The result is a combined gas–steam cycle. Recent developments in
gas-turbine technology have made the combined gas–steam cycle economically very attractive.
The combined cycle increases the efficiency without increasing the initial cost greatly. Consequently, many new power plants
operate on combined cycles, and many more existing steam- or gas-turbine plants are being converted to combined-cycle power
plants. Thermal efficiencies over 50% are reported.

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5: GAS POWER CYCLES
Introduction
Our study of gas power cycles will involve the study of those heat engines in which the working fluid remains in the gaseous state
throughout the cycle. We often study the ideal cycle in which internal irreversibilities and complexities (the actual intake of air
and fuel, the actual combustion process, and the exhaust of products of combustion among others) are removed.
We will be concerned with how the major parameters of the cycle affect the performance of heat engines. The performance is
often measured in terms of the cycle efficiency.

Wnet
 th 
Qin
Carnot Cycle
The Carnot cycle was introduced in Chapter 5 as the most efficient heat engine that can operate between two fixed temperatures TH
and TL. The Carnot cycle is described by the following four processes.
Carnot Cycle
Process Description
1-2 Isothermal heat addition
2-3 Isentropic expansion
3-4 Isothermal heat rejection
4-1 Isentropic compression

Note the processes on both the P-v and T-s diagrams. The areas under the process curves on the P-v diagram represent the work
done for closed systems. The net cycle work done is the area enclosed by the cycle on the P-v diagram. The areas under the
process curves on the T-s diagram represent the heat transfer for the processes. The net heat added to the cycle is the area that is
enclosed by the cycle on the T-s diagram. For a cycle we know Wnet = Qnet; therefore, the areas enclosed on the P-v and T-s
diagrams are equal.
TL
 th , Carnot  1 
TH
Thermal efficiency increases with an increase in the average temperature at which heat is supplied to the system or with a decrease
in the average temperature at which heat is rejected from the system.

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Air-Standard Assumptions
In our study of gas power cycles, we assume that the working fluid is air, and the air undergoes a thermodynamic cycle even
though the working fluid in the actual power system does not undergo a cycle.
To simplify the analysis, we approximate the cycles with the following assumptions:
 The air continuously circulates in a closed loop and always behaves as an ideal gas.
 All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.
 The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process from an external source.
 A heat rejection process that restores the working fluid to its initial state replaces the exhaust process.
 The cold-air-standard assumptions apply when the working fluid is air and has constant specific heat evaluated
at room temperature (25oC or 77oF).
Terminology and Parts of Reciprocating Devices
The following is some terminology we need to understand for reciprocating engines—typically piston-cylinder devices.
Let‘s look at the following figures for the definitions of top dead center (TDC), bottom dead center (BDC), stroke, bore,
intake valve, exhaust valve, clearance volume, displacement volume, compression ratio, and mean effective pressure.
Otto Cycle
-The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines
Processes
Intake stroke
Compression stroke
Power (expansion) stroke
Exhaust stroke
The air-standard Otto cycle is the ideal cycle that approximates the spark-ignition combustion engine.
Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection
The P-v and T-s diagrams are

We see that increasing the compression ratio increases the thermal efficiency. However, there is a limit on r depending upon the
fuel. Fuels under high temperature resulting from high compression ratios will prematurely ignite, causing knock.
Diesel Cycle
The air-standard Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle that approximates the Diesel combustion engine
Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection
Air Standard Dual Cycle
The PV and Ts diagram of a Dual Cycle

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Stirling Cycle
The PV and Ts Diagram of an Stirling Cycle:

Erricson Cycle

Brayton Cycle
The Brayton cycle is the air-standard ideal cycle approximation for the gas-turbine engine. This cycle differs from the Otto and
Diesel cycles in that the processes making the cycle occur in open systems or control volumes. Therefore, an open system, steady-
flow analysis is used to determine the heat transfer and work for the cycle.
We assume the working fluid is air and the specific heats are constant and will consider the cold-air-standard cycle. The open and
closed cycle are as follows:

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 Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection
The T-s diagrams for closed cycle are

What happens to th, win /wout, and wnet as the pressure ratio rp is increased? Consider the T-s diagram for the cycle and
note that the area enclosed by the cycle is the net heat added to the cycle. By the first law applied to the cycle, the net
heat added to the cycle is equal to the net work done by the cycle. Thus, the area enclosed by the cycle on the T-s
diagram also represents the net work done by the cycle.
Regenerative Brayton Cycle
For the Brayton cycle, the turbine exhaust temperature is greater than the compressor exit temperature. Therefore, a heat
exchanger can be placed between the hot gases leaving the turbine and the cooler gases leaving the compressor. This heat
exchanger is called a regenerator or recuperator.
Brayton Cycle with Regeneration, Reheating and Intercooling
Inter-cooling and reheating are two important ways to improve the performance of the Brayton cycle with regeneration.

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Reheating
When using multistage expansion through two or more turbines, reheating between stages will increase the net work done (it also
increases the required heat input). The regenerative Brayton cycle with reheating was shown above.
The optimum intermediate pressure for reheating is the one that maximizes the turbine work. Following the development given
above for intercooling and assuming reheating to the high-pressure turbine inlet temperature in a constant pressure steady-flow
process, we can show the optimum reheat pressure to be
P7  P6 P9
or the pressure ratios across the two turbines are equal
P6 P7 P8
 
P7 P9 P9

6: REFRIGERATION CYCLES
The vapor compression refrigeration cycle is a common method for transferring heat from a low temperature to a high
temperature.

The above figure shows the objectives of refrigerators and heat pumps. The purpose of a refrigerator is the removal of heat, called
the cooling load, from a low-temperature medium. The purpose of a heat pump is the transfer of heat to a high-temperature
medium, called the heating load. When we are interested in the heat energy removed from a low-temperature space, the device is
called a refrigerator. When we are interested in the heat energy supplied to the high-temperature space, the device is called a heat
pump. In general, the term heat pump is used to describe the cycle as heat energy is removed from the low-temperature space and
rejected to the high-temperature space.
The performance of refrigerators and heat pumps is expressed in terms of coefficient of performance (COP), defined as

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 Desired output Cooling effect QL
COPR   
Required input Work input Wnet ,in
Desired output Heating effect Q
COPHP    H
Required input Work input Wnet ,in
Both COPR and COPHP can be larger than 1. Under the same operating conditions, the COPs are related by
COPHP  COPR 1
Refrigerators, air conditioners, and heat pumps are rated with a SEER number or seasonal adjusted energy efficiency ratio. The
SEER is defined as the Btu/hr of heat transferred per watt of work energy input. The Btu is the British thermal unit and is
equivalent to 778 ft-lbf of work (1 W = 3.4122 Btu/hr). An EER of 10 yields a COP of 2.9.

Refrigeration systems are also rated in terms of tons of refrigeration. One ton of refrigeration is equivalent to 12,000 Btu/hr or 211
kJ/min. How did the term ―ton of cooling‖ originate?
Reversed Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump
Shown below are the cyclic refrigeration devices operating between two constant temperature reservoirs and the T-s diagram for
the working fluid when the reversed Carnot cycle is used. Recall that in the Carnot cycle heat transfers take place at constant
temperature. If our interest is the cooling load, the cycle is called the Carnot refrigerator. If our interest is the heat load, the cycle
is called the Carnot heat pump.

The standard of comparison for refrigeration cycles is the reversed Carnot cycle. A refrigerator or heat pump that operates
on the reversed Carnot cycle is called a Carnot refrigerator or a Carnot heat pump, and their COPs are
1 TL
COPR , Carnot  
TH / TL  1 TH  TL
1 TH
COPHP , Carnot  
1  TL / TH TH  TL
Notice that a turbine is used for the expansion process between the high and low-temperatures. While the work interactions for the
cycle are not indicated on the figure, the work produced by the turbine helps supply some of the work required by the compressor
from external sources.
The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle has four components: evaporator, compressor, condenser, and expansion (or throttle)
valve. The most widely used refrigeration cycle is the vapor-compression refriger-ation cycle. In an ideal vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor and is cooled to the saturated liquid state in the
condenser. It is then throttled to the evaporator pressure and vaporizes as it absorbs heat from the refrigerated space.
The ideal vapor-compression cycle consists of four processes.

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 Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser
3-4 Throttling in an expansion valve
4-1 Constant pressure heat addition in the evaporator

Gas Refrigeration Systems

The power cycles can be used as refrigeration cycles by simply reversing them. Of these, the reversed Brayton cycle, which is also
known as the gas refrigeration cycle, is used to cool aircraft and to obtain very low (cryogenic) temperatures after it is modified
with regeneration. The work output of the turbine can be used to reduce the work input requirements to the compressor. Thus, the
COP of a gas refrigeration cycle is
qL qL
COPR  
wnet , in wcomp , in  wturb , out

Absorption Refrigeration Systems

Another form of refrigeration that becomes economically attractive when there is a source of inexpensive heat energy at a
temperature of 100 to 200oC is absorption refrigeration, where the refrigerant is absorbed by a transport medium and compressed
in liquid form. The most widely used absorption refrigeration system is the ammonia-water system, where ammonia serves as the
refrigerant and water as the transport medium. The work input to the pump is usually very small, and the COP of absorption
refrigeration systems is defined as

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 Desired output Cooling effect QL Q
COPR     L
Required input Work input Qgen  Wpump ,in Qgen

7: THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES RELATIONS

Some thermodynamic properties can be measured directly, but many others cannot. Therefore, it is necessary to develop some
relations between these two groups so that the properties that cannot be measured directly can be evaluated. The derivations are
based on the fact that properties are point functions, and the state of a simple, compressible system is completely spec-ified by any
two independent, intensive properties.
Some Mathematical Preliminaries
Thermodynamic properties are continuous point functions and have exact differentials. A property of a single component system
may be written as general mathematical function z = z(x,y). For instance, this function may be the pressure P = P(T,v). The total
differential of z is written as

Where:

Taking the partial derivative of M with respect to y and of N with respect to x yields

Since properties are continuous point functions and have exact differentials, the following is true

The equations that relate the partial derivatives of properties P, v, T, and s of a simple compressible substance to each other are
called the Maxwell relations. They are obtained from the four Gibbs equations. The first two of the Gibbs equations are those
resulting from the internal energy u and the enthalpy h.
du  T ds  P dv
dh  T ds  v dP
The second two Gibbs equations result from the definitions of the Helmholtz functiona and the Gibbs function g defined as
a  u  Ts
da  du  T ds  s dT
da   s dT  P dv

g  h  Ts
dg  dh  T ds  s dT
dg   s dT  v dP

Setting the second mixed partial derivatives equal for these four functions yields the Maxwell relations

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General Relations for du, dh, ds, Cv, and Cp
The changes in internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy of a simple, compress-ible substance can be expressed in terms of pressure,
specific volume, tem-perature, and specific heats alone.
Consider internal energy expressed as a function of T and v.

Recall the definition of the specific heat at constant volume

Then du becomes

Using the third Maxwell‘s relation

 s   P 
   
 v T  T v
 u   P 
  T   P
 v T  T v
Thus the total differential for u = u(T,v) is written as

Specific Heats
For specific heats, we have the following general relations:

Let Cp0 be the ideal-gas, low-pressure value of the specific heat at constant pressure. Integrating the above relation for Cp along
an isothermal (T = constant) path yields

Given the equation of state, we can evaluate the right-hand side and determine the actual specific heat as Cp = Cp(T,P).
Other relations for the specific heats are given below.

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