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International Guidelines and Standards Pertaining to Indoor Air Quality

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 International Guidelines and Standards
Pertaining to Indoor Air Quality

Dr. Ali Al-Hemoud, PhD, CSP, CIH, CMIOSH

Crisis Decision Support Program, Environment and Life Sciences Research Center,
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research

ABSTRAT: Although it is may be true that some standards are better than no
standards at all, in certain aspects this may not be true. Indoor air quality (IAQ) has
received less attention than ambient air even though people spend most of their times
indoors. Schools and homes are common indoor air places where there are more
susceptible population to health disorders, especially children who have higher
inhalation rates per body and are more prevalent to respiratory diseases such as
asthma and allergies. Older people/senior citizen are also more prone to pulmonary
and infectious diseases.

This paper discusses the various international guidelines of IAQ and the confusion,
and possibly misinterpretation between standards and guidelines pertaining to indoor
air. Extensive comparison will be made between the available international standards
and guideless pertaining to seven indoor air quality organizations including World
Health Organization (WHO), European Union (EU-JRC), OSHA, NIOSH, ACGIH,
HSE COSHH, MAK Germany. Kuwait's IAQ EPA standards will also be presented.
The paper concludes with whether Kuwait EPA should adopt USA ACGIH TLV
TWA and STEL for their occupational and indoor air standards. It also discusses the
scientific knowledge available at the time of development and setting standards and
whether countries should transform the recommended guidelines into legally
enforceable standards.

1 INTRODUCTION

It is important to distinguish between indoor air quality (IAQ) guidelines and

standards; equally important is to distinguish whether IAQ is set for workers
(occupational) or other population sectors such as children and elderly (non-
occupational). Various international guidelines and standards are developed with the
aim to offer guidance in reducing adverse health effects of air pollution based on
evaluation of scientific research. It is important to note that the World Health
Organization (WHO, 2005, 2006) IAQ is applied to non-occupational environments,
including households, schools, day-care centers, and vehicles. The WHO (2006)
initially proposed recommendations to address IAQ using the following guidelines: A.
Guidelines for specific agents / substances, B. Biological agents, C. Combustion of
fuels indoors.

2 INDOOR EXPOSURES

Many people are exposed to levels of a number of chemicals and pollutants which are
higher indoors than outdoors. Most of the air pollution epidemiology is based on
outdoor measurements of pollutant levels in the analysis of the association between
exposures and health outcomes; less is concerned with indoor air effects on health.
Indoor air may present higher certain higher pollutants than outdoors due to the
enclosed nature of indoor spaces and lower ventilation rates. Besides, large number of
pollutants may penetrate indoor through open windows, doors, and cracks in
basements or structures of buildings. OSHA (1999) identified many sources of indoor
air pollutants (table 1). The European Commission project (INDEX) in 2004
identified 14 chemical compounds that are associated with high health risk. Based on
exposure and toxicity data 5 priority compounds were selected: formaldehyde,
nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, benzene, and naphthalene. These compounds
could be released by human metabolism, from building material, furnishing product
items, equipments, combustion of solid fuels, dampness, and consumer products.

3 IDENTIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS

The WHO identified different international organizations that have existing standards
and guidelines including WHO AQG, IARC, INDEX, US-EPA, IEH-UK, and
Germany. Based on existence of indoor sources, availability of toxicological and
epidemiological data (e.g., NOAEL, LOAEL), and risk assessment of pollutants the
WHO group identified nine pollutants as shown in table 2. The guidelines are
intended for indoor settings in which the general population or susceptible population
groups like children, elderly, asthmatics etc. are potentially exposed to indoor air
pollution. Indoor settings include homes, schools, day care centers, nurseries, and
public places such as libraries. Exposures in industrial settings, construction,
agriculture, mining where the exposure is related to occupational activities are not
covered by the WHO guidelines; rather they are covered under work safety legislation
or guidance.
 Table 1: Major Indoor Air Quality Contaminant and Sources (OSHA Technical Manual).

Major Indoor Air

Sources
Contaminants
1
Acetic Acid X-ray development equipment, silicone caulking compounds.
2 Unvented gas and kerosene appliances, improperly vented devices,
Carbon Dioxide processes or operations which produce combustion products, human
respiration.
3 Tobacco smoke, fossil-fuel engine exhausts, improperly vented fossil-
Carbon Monoxide
fuel appliances.
4 Off-gassing from urea formaldehyde foam insulation, plywood, particle
Formaldehyde board, and paneling; carpeting and fabric; glues and adhesives; and
combustion products including tobacco smoke.
5
Combustion products from gas furnaces and appliances; tobacco smoke,
Nitrogen Oxides
welding, and gas- and diesel-engine exhausts.
6
Ozone Copy machines, electrostatic air cleaners, electrical arcing, smog.
7
Radon Ground beneath buildings, building materials, and groundwater.
8 Miscellaneous Inorganic
Gases
Microfilm equipment, window cleaners, acid drain cleaners, combustion
Includes: ammonia,
products, tobacco smoke, blueprint equipment.
hydrogen sulfide, sulfur
dioxide.
9
Insulation and other building materials such as floor tiles, dry wall
Asbestos
compounds, reinforced plaster.
10
Synthetic Fibers Fibrous glass and mineral wool.
11
Tobacco Smoke Cigars, cigarettes, pipe tobacco.
12 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC's) Include trichloroethylene, benzene, toluene, methyl ethyl
ketone, alcohols, methacrylates, acrolein, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and pesticides.
Sources: Paints, cleaning compounds, moth-balls, glues, photocopiers, signature machines, silicone
caulking materials, insecticides, herbicides, combustion products, asphalt, gasoline vapors, tobacco
smoke, dried out floor drains, cosmetics and other personal products.
13 Microorganisms and Other Biological Contaminants (Microbials)
Includes viruses, fungi, mold, bacteria, nematodes, amoeba, pollen, dander, and mites.
Sources: Air handling system condensate, cooling towers, water damaged materials, high humidity
indoor areas, damp organic material and porous wet surfaces, humidifiers, hot water systems, outdoor
excavations, plants, animal excreta, animals and insects, food and food products.

Source: OSHA Technical Manual (1999) - Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Investigation
 Table 2: Identification of pollutants recommended for WHO guideline development.

Development of IAQ Guidance Recommended in 2005

Pollutant WHO IARC INDEX US- IEH- MAK

AQG EPA UK Germany
1 Formaldehyde √ √ √ √ √ √
2 Benzene √ √ √ √ √
3 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) √ √ √ √
4 Carbon monoxide (CO) √ √ √ √
5 Particulate matter PM2.5 & PM10 √ √ √
6 Naphthalene √ √ √
7 Halogenated compounds (tetra- √ √
chloroethylene, tricholoethylene)
8 Polycyclic aromat hydrocarbons √ √
(PAH), ie Benzo-a-pyrene (BaP)
9 Radon (Rn) √ √
WHO AQG: WHO Air Quality Guidelines, 2000, 2006
IARC: International Agency for Research on Cancer
INDEX: Critical appraisal of exposure limits in the EU
US-EPA: US Environmental Protection Agency
IEH UK: www.silsoe.cranfield.ac.uk/ieh/publications/airpoll.html
MEK Germany: recommended guideline value

4 FINAL SELECTION OF IAQ POLLUTANTS

In 2009 a multidisciplinary group of international experts studying the toxic

properties and health effects of indoor pollutants decided to include a total of nine
pollutants based on the availability of toxicological and epidemiological data and on
exposure levels causing health concerns. The substances considered are: benzene,
carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, naphthalene, nitrogen dioxide, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (especially benzo [a] pyrene), radon, trichloroethylene and
tetrachloroethylene.

5 WHO Guidelines for Selected Pollutants

The primary aim of IAQ levels depends on the organization that sets such criterions.
Some organizations are aimed to occupational workers, while others are aimed to the
protection of public health from adverse effects of indoor exposure to air pollution. It
is worth mentioning that such guidelines have the character of recommendations.
Nevertheless, WHO states that "countries may wish to use the guidelines as a
scientific basis for legally enforceable standards" (table 3).

6 Comparison of international IAQ standards and guidelines

Table 4 presents comparison of pollutant concentration levels set by various

international standards such as: WHO, ACGIH, OSHA, NIOSH, UK COSHH,
Germany MAK, EU-JRC. Kuwait IAQ standards are presented in table 5.
 Table 3: Summary of WHO IAQ Guidelines (2009).

Pollutant Critical outcome Guidelines

1. Acute myeloid leukemia • No safe level of exposure can be recommended

Benzene (sufficient evidence on
causality) • Unit risk of leukemia per 1 μg/m3 air
concentration is 6 × 10−6
2. Genotoxicity

Carbon monoxide Acute exposure-related reduction of

exercise tolerance and increase in
symptoms of ischemic heart disease
(e.g. ST-segment changes)
• 15 minutes – 100 mg/m3
• 1 hour – 35 mg/m3
• 8 hours – 10 mg/m3
• 24 hours – 7 mg/m3

Formaldehyde Sensory irritation 0.1 mg/m3 – 30-minute average

The guideline (valid for any 30-minute period) will

also prevent effects on lung function as well as
nasopharyngeal cancer and myeloid leukemia.

Naphthalene Respiratory tract lesions leading to 0.01 mg/m3 – annual average

inflammation and malignancy in
animal studies The long-term guideline is also assumed to prevent
potential malignant effects in the airways

Nitrogen dioxide Respiratory symptoms, broncho-

• 200 μg/m3 – 1 hour average
constriction, increased bronchial
reactivity, airway inflammation and • 40 μg/m3 – annual average
decreases in immune defense, leading
No evidence for exposure threshold from
to increased susceptibility to
epidemiological studies
respiratory infection

Polycyclic Lung cancer

• No threshold can be determined and all indoor
aromatic
exposures are considered relevant to health
hydrocarbons
• Unit risk for lung cancer for PAH mixtures is
estimated to be 8.7 × 10−5 per ng/m3 of B[a]P
B[a]P is taken as a marker of the PAH mixture

Radon Lung cancer

• The excess lifetime risk of death from radon-
Suggestive evidence of an association
induced lung cancer (by the age of 75 years) is
with other cancers, in particular estimated to be 0.6 × 10−5 per Bq/m3 for lifelong
 Pollutant Critical outcome Guidelines

leukemia and cancers of the extra- non-smokers and 15 × 10−5 per Bq/m3 for
thoracic airways current smokers (15–24 cigarettes per day);
among ex-smokers, the risk is intermediate,
depending on time since smoking cessation

Tri-chloroethylene Carcinogenicity (liver, kidney, bile

• Unit risk estimate of 4.3 × 10–7 per μg/m3
duct and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma),
with the assumption of genotoxicity

Tetra- Effects in the kidney indicative of 0.25 mg/m3 – annual average

chloroethylene early renal disease and impaired
performance Carcinogenicity is not used as an end-point as there
are no indications that tetrachloroethylene is
geotaxis and there is uncertainty about the
epidemiological evidence and the relevance to
humans of the animal carcinogenicity data
6.1 ELABORATIONS FOR TABLE 4 BELOW ON INTERNATIONAL
STANDARDS/GUIDELINES AS RELATED TO IAQ

1. World Health Organization (WHO): Guidelines are intended for indoor

settings in which the general population or susceptible population groups like
children, elderly, asthmatics for homes, schools, etc.

2. American Conference for Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH,

USA): Guidelines that are health-based values intended for workplaces that a
typical worker can experience without adverse health effects (not intended for
homes or schools, etc.)

3. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA, USA): A standard

that is under the US department of labor; intended for employers (it is a law)
that must comply with all applicable OSHA standards (not intended for homes
or schools, etc.)

4. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH, USA): A

research agency under the department of health and human services; provides
guidelines on worker safety and health

5. Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH, UK): a law that is set by

the Health and safety Executive (HSE, UK) and issues workplace exposure
limits (WEL); intended for workers and not children or elderly at homes.

6. Germany IAQ Values: Intended for spaces in public buildings (hospitals,

schools, kindergartens, sports facilities, libraries, restaurants, theaters,
cinemas, and other public event venues, and interior of motor vehicles and
public means of transport.

7. European Union – Joint research Center IAQ: Intended for indoor

environments for communities (buildings, homes) taken into consideration
infants, children, pregnant women, asthmatics, and individuals with diseases.
 Table 4: Comparison of international IAQ standards and guidelines for the ten selected pollutants.
Pollutant WHO ACGIH OSHA NIOSH UK- HSE Germany EU- JRC
Guideline TLV PEL & STEL REL COSHH IAQ
TWA is for WEL
10 hours
1 Formaldehyde 100 μg/m3 0.3 ppm TWA 0.75 TWA 0.016 TWA VI 30 µg/m3
(1 ppm = 1.23 30 minute C ppm ppm 2 ppm 0.1 mg/m3 NOAEL
mg/m3) average STEL 2 ppm C STL
0.1ppm 2 ppm
2 Benzene No safe TWA 0.5 TWA 1 ppm TWA 0.1 TWA Carcinogen
(1 ppm = 3.19 level ppm STEL 5 ppm ppm ST 1 1 ppm LARA
mg/m3) STEL 2.5 For gasoline ppm
ppm and other fuel
operations:
TWA 10 ppm NA
C 25 ppm
50 ppm (max
10 min)
3 NO2 TWA 0.2 C ST 1 ppm Under 40 µg/m3
(1 ppm = 1.88 200 μg/m3 ppm 5 ppm review, (1 week)
mg/m3) 1 hour previously NA 200 µg/m3
average TWA (1 hour)
40 μg/m3 1 ppm
annual
average
4 CO TWA 25 TWA 50 ppm TWA 35 TWA 10 mg/m3
(1 ppm = 1.15 100 mg/m3 ppm ppm C 200 30 ppm (8 hours)
mg/m3) 15 min ppm STL NA 30 mg/m3
35 mg/m 1 3 200 ppm (1 hour)
hour
10 mg/m3 8
hours
7 mg/m3 24
hours
5 PM10 & PM5 3 mg/m3, TWA Total 4 mg/m3,
respirable dust 15 mg/m3 respirable
particles, (50 mppcf) particles,
- and 10 TWA - and 10 NA NA
mg/m3, Respirable mg/m3,
inhalable dust 5 mg/m3 inhalable
particles (15 mppcf) particles
6 Naphthalene 0.01 mg/m3 TWA 10 TWA 10 ppm TWA 10 TWA VI 10 µg/m3
(1 ppm = 5.24 annual ppm ppm 53 mg/m3 0.01 long-term
mg/m3) average STEL 15 STEL 15 STL mg/m3 value
ppm ppm 80 mg/m3 VII
0.03
mg/m3
7 tetra- 0.25 mg/m3 TWA 25 TWA 100 ppm Minimize TWA
chloroethylene, annual ppm C 200 ppm workplace 50 ppm
(1 ppm = 6.78 average STEL 300 ppm (max exposure STL NA NA
mg/m3) 100 ppm 5 min in any 3 concentration 100 ppm
hours) s
8 Tricholoethylen TWA 10 TWA 100 ppm 2 ppm 60- TWA
e 4.3 × 10–7 ppm C 200 ppm minute 100 ppm
(1 ppm = 5.37 μg/m3 Unit STEL 25 300 ppm (max CEILING STL
mg/m3) risk ppm 5 min in any 2 during usage 150 ppm NA NA
estimate hours) as an
anesthetic
agent and 25
ppm
9 PAH Benzo-a- TWA 0.2 TWA = 0.1 0.5 μg/m3 NA NA
pyrene BaP mg/m3 mg/m3 maximum

10 Radon (Rn) 0.6 × 10−5 NA NA

per Bq/m3
for lifelong
non-
smokers 15
× 10−5 per
Bq/m3 for
smokers
Pollutant Illustrations

1 Formaldehyde OSHA 1910.1048

(1 ppm = 1.23 mg/m3) PEL: no employee shall be exposed to an airborne concentration which exceeds 0.75 ppm as
an 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA).
STEL: no employee shall be exposed to an airborne concentration which exceeds
2 ppm as a 15-minute short-term exposure limit (STEL).

EU JRC
NOAEL: No Observed Adverse Effect Level
2 Benzene OSHA 1910.1028
PEL: no employee shall be exposed to an airborne concentration which exceeds
1 ppm as an 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA).
STEL: no employee shall be exposed to an airborne concentration which exceeds
5 ppm as a 15-minute short-term exposure limit (STEL).

EU JRC
LARA: Low As Reasonably Achievable

3 NO2 C: Ceiling Value. An exposure limit that an employee shall at no time exceed this
5 ppm value

ACGIH:
Napthalene is on the 'Notice of Intended Changes' to be TWA 5 ppm
4 CO No comments
5 PM10 & PM5 mppcf: million of particles per cubic foot of air, based on impinge samples counted by light-
field techniques.

ACGIH:
Inhalable Particulate Matter for those materials that are hazardous when deposited anywhere
in the respiratory tract.
Thoracic Particulate Matter for those materials that are hazardous when deposited anywhere
within the lung airways and the gas-exchange region.
Respirable Particulate Matter for those materials that are hazardous when deposited in the
gas-exchange region.
6 Naphthalene Ex. mothball as mentioned by Germany IAQ
7 tetra- chloroethylene,
tricholoethylene
8 PAH Benzo-a-pyrene OSHA & NIOSH: considered as coal tar pitch volatiles.
BaP OSHA: TWA = 0.2 mg/m3 (benzo soluble fraction)
NIOSH: TWA = 0.1 mg/m3 (cyclohexane-extractable fraction)

Table 5: Kuwait EPA IAQ Standards.

Pollutant Kuwait IAQ Standard

1 Formaldehyde
(1 ppm = 1.23 mg/m3) 0.1 mg/m3 30 min
0.12 mg/m3 Maximum
2 Benzene NA
(1 ppm = 3.19 mg/m3)
3 NO2
(1 ppm = 1.88 mg/m3) 0.66 mg/m3 30 min
0.2 mg/m3 1 hour
0.1 mg/m3 24 hour
4 CO
(1 ppm = 1.15 mg/m3) 100 mg/m3 15 min
30 mg/m3 1 hour
10 mg/m3 8 hours
60 mg/m3 30 minutes
5 Total Suspended Particles (TSP)
0.23 mg/m3 24 hours
0.75 mg/m3 annual
6 Naphthalene NA
(1 ppm = 5.24 mg/m3)

7 tetra- chloroethylene, NA
(1 ppm = 6.78 mg/m3)
8 Tricholoethylene
(1 ppm = 5.37 mg/m3) NA
9 PAH Benzo-a-pyrene BaP NA
10 Radon (Rn) 4 Bq/L annual
7 RECOMMENDATIONS:

The following recommendations are suggested:

1. WHO IAQ guidelines are applied to non-occupational environments,

including households, schools, day-care centers, and vehicles. Countries may
wish to use the guidelines as a scientific basis for legally enforceable standards
for the above mentioned IAQ places.

2. ACGIH does not believe that their TLVs should be adopted as standards
(laws) without full compliance with applicable regulatory procedures,
including an analysis of other factors necessary to make appropriate risk
management decisions.

3. Kuwait adopted the ACGIH TLVs and BELs (USA) as regulatory standards to
be enforced by KEPA for workplaces (occupational); keeping in mind that
Kuwait EPA law was set in 2001 and the ACGIH TLVs and BELs are revised
and issued yearly.

4. It is not clear from which organization KEPA adopted its IAQ standards.

5. To set standards that have the weight of law, it is preferable to adopt OSHA
(USA), HSE (UK), or international laws from WHO, etc.

6. NIOSH have excellent guidelines that are based on research and should be
consulted when a country sets or promulgate new standards.

7. COSHH WEL from UK is intended for workers and not children or elderly at
homes or schools.

8. Germany IAQ values are intended for spaces inside public buildings such as
hospitals and schools and public means of transport.

9. European Union – Joint research Center IAQ values is Intended for indoor
environments for communities (buildings, homes) taken into consideration
infants, children, pregnant women, asthmatics, and individuals with diseases.

8 REFERENCES

COMEAP, 2004. Guidance on the Effects on Health of Indoor Air Pollutants. Committee on the
Medical Effects of Air Pollutants, Department of Health, UK.

European Commission, JRC, 2004. The INDEX Project: Critical Appraisal of the Setting and
Implementation of Indoor Exposure Limits in the EU.

OSHA 1999. OSHA Technical manual, Indoor Air Quality Investigation.

WHO, 1987. Air quality guidelines for Europe, World Health Organization, Regional Office for
Europe, European series, No 23, Copenhagen, Denmark.
WHO, 2000a. The Right to Healthy Indoor Air. Report on a WHO meeting, Bilthoven, the
Netherlands.

WHO, 2000b. Air quality guidelines for Europe; Second edition, World Health Organization, Regional
Office for Europe, European series No 91, Copenhagen, Denmark.

WHO, 2005. Air Quality Guidelines Global Update. Report on a working group meeting Bonn,
Germany.

WHO, 2010. Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality: Selected Pollutants. Geneva.