IE 555 Safety Engineering Management Online Manual

Safety Engineering and Management
IE 555
Prepared by:
Tarek Qasim, PhD
Jordan University of Science and Technology
(JUST)
Faculty of Engineering
Industrial Engineering Department
Email: tqqasim@just.edu.jo
Tel: +962-2-720 1000 Ext: 22318
All Rights Reserved: Dr. Tarek Qasim. Safety Engineering and Management (IE 555) online course
Overview
Course Objectives:
The major objectives of this course are to provide the students with…
• Understand and appreciate the role of Engineering Safety in Industrial Plants.
• Develop modeling techniques essential to analyze and manage safety.
• To become familiar with the analytical and practical understanding of complementary
concepts and methods in Engineering Safety.
• Practice examples of real-world situations where the learned Engineering Safety
precautions and standards are used.
• Develop professional ethics, encourage lifelong learning, foster teamwork, and
enhance students’ communication skills (via exams and classroom activities as
individuals and in a group).
Expected Outcomes:
At the end of this course, the students are expected to be capable of…
• Understand the safety precautions and procedures in any industrial setting.
• Recognize potential hazards in the workplace.
• Develop an understanding of the international and national laws governing safety
issues in the workplace.
• Discuss real-world applications of engineering safety.
• Decide on the idea for a project on one practical application.
• Collect relevance field data on the selected project - case study.
• Write professional engineering reports on a project idea, progress, and discussions.
All Rights Reserved: Dr. Tarek Qasim. Safety Engineering and Management (IE 555) online course
Contents:
Part I: General Safety Page
1.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 3
1.2 Liability and Safety Legislations........................................................................................ 8
1.3 Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) Act............................11
1.4 Appraising Plant Safety........................................................................................................... 17
1.5 Hazards and Their Control................................................................................................... 23
1.6 Safety Analysis...............................................................................................................................31
Part II: Hazards at Work Place
2.1 Acceleration Falls, Falling Objects, and Other Impacts............................... 40

2.2 Mechanical Injury...................................................................................................................... 43
2.3 Heat and Temperature.......................................................................................................... 48
2.4 Pressure Hazards..................................................................................................................... 55
2.5 Electrical Hazards......................................................................................................................61
2.6 Fires and Fire Suppression................................................................................................ 66
2.7 Hazards of Toxic Materials.................................................................................................76
2.8 Environments…............................................................................................................................ 81
2.9 Confined Space Entry............................................................................................................ 84
2.10 Vibration and Noise............................................................................................................... 87
2.11 Radiation....................................................................................................................................... 92
2.12 Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorder............................................................... 98
Appendix (A): OSHA Self-Inspection checklist............................................................... i

Appendix (B): Portable fire extinguishers, how they work................................. ix
Appendix (C): Safety measures for toxic hazards...................................................... xiii
________________________________________________________________________________________
All Rights Reserved: Dr. Tarek Qasim Page | 1
Part I: General Safety
1.1 Introduction.
1.2 Liability and Safety Legislations.
1.3 Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) Act.
1.4 Appraising Plant Safety.
1.5 Hazards and Their Control.
1.6 Safety Analysis.
________________________________________________________________________________________
1.1 Introduction
________________________________________________________________________________________
Cost of Well Being
Health and safety issues are important in engineering, management, and other fields. Most
professional engineering associations point out that health and safety are issues of utmost importance
in engineering practice. Safety at the workplace aims to reduce and eliminate accidents. Reducing
and eliminating accidents at workplaces is influenced by the:
• Cost (The economic costs, both direct and indirect costs*).
• Moral regard (It is generally accepted that employers have a moral responsibility to provide a
safe working environment for their employees).
In the past, the cost of safety measures was believed to be expensive. The big corporation now
believes safety is economically beneficial in the short and long terms. Also with safety measures at
the workplace, workers become motivated and more productive. Some small companies still believe
that safety programs are expensive that might put them out of business.
Because accidents occurred almost daily, people happened to accept them as minor road accidents.
In general, massive accidents bring about the issue of safety. For example, Nuclear accidents,
airplane, and train accidents…etc. Nowadays, people are aware that accidents do not influence
(affect) only workers but extended to families or even the whole society.
Industrial Revolution and Accidents

The Industrial Revolution was a period (1760-1850) in which fundamental changes occurred in
agriculture, textile and metal manufacturing, transportation, economic policies, and the social
structure in England. The Industrial revolution increases the awareness of accidents. For example,
at that time in the United States railroad accidents were the major concern at railway crossings.
Increasing Hazards
Hazards existed from earlier times (falls from heights, cuts by sharp objects…etc.). The introduction
of tools and machinery exposed people to increasingly complex hazards. New tools and industrial
settings have introduced more complex hazards; such as CTD (Cumulative Trauma Disorder) and
RMD/RMI (Repeated Motion Disorder/Injuries) these traumas become more recognized in safety
legislation. Computer control energy and software errors could be bringing a disaster. Chemical
plants and nuclear plants are good examples if increasing hazards. These days the magnitude of
hazards has increased rapidly.
Cumulative trauma disorder is a disorder that can affect bones, muscles, tendons, nerves, and
other anatomical features. It develops when micro-traumas, or minute injuries, occur repeatedly from
overuse or misappropriate use of a body part or external force applied to the body.
Repetitive motion disorders are a family of muscular conditions that result from repeated motions
performed in the course of normal work or daily activities. Such as twisting the arm or wrist, incorrect
posture, or muscle fatigue.
*Students should know or give an example of the direct and indirect costs of accidents.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Physical Effects of Accidents
Industrial accidents lead to fatalities and disabling injuries and cause long-term effects for the injured
person. Also,
• Accidents are a major contribution to death.
• Unsafe conditions could cause long-term medical effects.
• Death caused by accidents contributes the most to people ages 24 and below.
• Death caused by accidents is commonly not reported because the cause of death could be
unrecognizable.
Number of Accidents vs. Cost

In the past, the accident rate was measured by the number of fatalities only, the financial measure
now is considered. The cost of accidents goes beyond the immediate costs of work time losses and
damages to the equipment and material; Safety cost includes immediate loss, rehabilitation,
prevention cost, insurance, welfare, other safety costs, and immeasurable cost*.
For some companies, the total accident cost exceeds the worker's compensation. Workers'
compensation known as workers' comp in North America and compo in Australia is a form of
insurance that provides wage replacement and medical benefits for employees who are injured in the
course of employment. In exchange for mandatory relinquishment of the employee's right to sue his
or her employer for the tort of negligence.
Many law suites cost companies a huge amount of money due to accidents, in USA Occupational
Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) is the main agency for observing the regulations (in Jordan:
Department of Health and Occupational Safety- Ministry of Labor).
Why Care About Safety Costs?

In one of the few published comparisons of costs, Ludwig (textbook) pointed out: “One plant’s
accident/injury performance was so good that insurance-covered costs were only $435 rather than
the carrier’s estimated cost of $30,000.With new projects, such potential savings may be made
evident by having the carrier quote what costs would be under other circumstances.” Any comment
that the cost of accident prevention is economically unjustifiable is belied by Ludwig’s comparison.
Does safety pay? The vast majority of managers must justify everything based on dollars. If they do
not believe safety will pay, there will not be safety practices at the workplace.
Cost of Occupational Injuries

Occupational safety and health is a cross-disciplinary area concerned with protecting the safety,
health, and welfare of people engaged in work or employment. These costs are large when compared
to those for other diseases. The costs are roughly five times the costs for AIDS, three times the costs
for Alzheimer's disease, more than the costs of arthritis, nearly as great as the costs for cancer, and
roughly 82 percent of the costs of all circulatory (heart and stroke) diseases.
*Students should know or give an example of the immeasurable cost of accidents.

________________________________________________________________________________________
Cost of accidents to the Company:
• Medical and rehabilitation costs
• Hiring replacement
• Training replacement
• Lost productivity of injured and co-workers
• Morale
• Equipment, facility repair
• Awards to survivors
• Legal action
• Market share*
• Fines
• …etc.
Cost of accidents to Injured Personal:
• Lost income (seeking 2nd job)
• Out-of-pocket medical
• Family members caring for injured
• Home Services such as cleaning or laundry
• Morale
• Pain and suffering
• Loss of a family member
• …etc.
Numbers of Occupational Illnesses and Injuries

Occupational health and safety specialists work for government agencies. After they gather
information, specialists analyze it. They determine which, if any, health hazards are present.
• Worldwide: 250 million occupational injuries, 335,000 occupational deaths each year
• In the United States, occupational disease claims are distinct from injury claims.
• The introduction and impact of occupational injury and illness trends in 1995 and OSHA
recordkeeping regulation changes in the US in 2001 are shown in figure 1-1.
Figure 1-1 Workplace illness cases, private industry, 1982-2001 in the US.
*Students should know the relation between market shares and the cost of occupational injuries.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Lessening Safety Cost
Companies insure themselves to reduce the cost of accidents. In almost every instance investigators
found that total losses far exceed the amount reimbursable by insurance companies (paid by
insurance). Penalties are imposed on companies for not confirming safety regulations not covered by
insurance. Some companies did not use self-converge insurance for cases estimated to cost less
than the insurance premium. Insurance pays when the cost is more than the deductible*.
Deductible: The amount that the insured must pay out-of-pocket before the insurer pays its share of
expenses.
Accident Losses for Personnel vs. Equipment and Facilities
In February 1973, an explosion took place in an empty liquefied natural-gas storage tank on Staten
Island, New York. The collapse of the tank killed 37 workers and 3 safety inspectors. The total cost
to insurers was only $2.8 million for the 40 persons killed and $40 for the tank.
• The cost of personnel loss is far beyond equipment loss.
• Sometimes criminal indictments are imposed on employers if they are found negligent.
• Safety becomes a problem not because of hazards but also for financial reasons. In the USA
and Europe, the cost of accidents jumps from 11.9 million in 1960 to 280 million in 1978.
• Awards for injury: millions of dollars could be awarded for accidents….see cases in reference
books or visit: http://www.theclaimline.com/howmuch.html
________________________________________________________________________
*Students should know or give an example of when the deductible is paid to the insurance company.
________________________________________________________________________________________
1.2 Liability and Safety Legislations
________________________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Laws and regulations of affairs and behavior of individuals and communities are necessary for the
governments for the benefit of all. As societies and communities grow and become more complex,
so do the laws and the organization necessary for the enforcement and administration of them. The
industrial society in which we live has brought particular problems relating to the work situation and
concerning the protection of the worker’s health and safety, his employment, and his right to take
‘industrial action’.
Types of Law Statue

In general, (in the US and Britain) there are three types of laws:
• Statute.
• Common law.
• Administrative.
An Engineer should know something of the legal ramifications of their workplace, such as:
• Responsibilities.
• Liabilities.
• Effect on employers.
• Effect on employees.
• Effect on any other persons.
Statute
In the modern era, a statute begins as a bill proposed or sponsored by a legislator.
• Any person causing injury to others of any kind is considered criminal. (Hammurabi code “eye
for an eye”; regardless of the intention).
• The crime is an offense against the state. It is considered disturbing to community peace.
• Misdeeds not of criminal nature directed to civil law. (Misdeeds: Civil wrong* – to adjudicate
between the parties concerned, with the ruler acting only as a referee).
• A civil action is between individuals. One individual initiates proceedings against another and
can later decide to settle out of court. Over 90% of accident claims are so settled.
Common-Law
Derived from custom and judicial precedent rather than statutes.
• The judgment on disputes undergoes different steps (court).
• At each step, a different judge made the judgment.
• The new judge might reverse the previous judge's decision.
• Different courts have emerged initial, appeal, and supreme.
• Legislative can issue a statue that overcomes any common law.
Administrative
Governs the internal operations of these agencies and ensures that they do not abuse their power.
The main goal of administrative law is to protect the interests of the public as it interacts with the
government.
_______________________________________________________________________________
*Students should know or give an example of civil wrong action.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Obligation to Employees
Common law obligations between a master (employer) and servant (employee) are based on the
presumption that the worker was free to choose where to work…in the case of any dispute, workers
have to go to court for some entitlements.
Under common law, the employer should provide employees with…

• A safe place to work.
• Safe tools.
• Knowledge of hazards.
• Competent fellow employees and supervisors*.
• Rules of safety are followed by everyone.
Employee obligation to the employer:

 Good timekeeping: Arrive at work on time.
 Dress suitably for the job (including wearing appropriate safety equipment if required).
 Work to the best of your ability.
 Take care of your employer's property.
 Follow your employer’s 'reasonable and lawful' instructions (that is, illegal instructions, do not
threaten your health and safety and you are capable of doing).
 Obey safety rules.
 Ask for help if you need it.
 Not act in a way that puts you – or others – at risk of injury in the workplace.
Industrial Revolution
Industrial Revolution brought up a new demand for workers. Workers worked with a very low salary
under hazards conditions derived by greedy employers just to survive. Judges in industrial nations
withhold liability for accidents even when faults are obvious such as:
• Negligence was later added to the employer advantage: proof of employer negligence was
needed before awarding any compensation to the employee
• Misadventure: commit a fatal injury without intention; the problem is usually solved by striking
deals with the kin of the victim.
• Strict Liability: The perpetrator is liable in some circumstances when he is expected to reserve
public well-being.
Note:
The engineer read and understand the laws and regulations of the country he works in and any rules
that govern the type of industry he is involved with, to protect himself and others from any legal
ramification.
_______________________________________________________________________________
*Why the employer should provide competent fellow employees and supervisors to work with. How
is this related to safety?
________________________________________________________________________________________
1.3 Occupational Safety & Health
Administration (OSHA) Act
________________________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Occupational health and safety are concerned with the identification, evaluation, and control of
hazards associated with the workplace. Companies and organizations often have occupational health
and safety programs, the objectives of which are to reduce the:
• Occupational injuries, which include any harm from a workplace accident (e.g., fracture, cut,
burn…etc.).
• Occupational illnesses, which include abnormal conditions caused by exposure to factors
associated with the workplace. Occupational health and safety are often grouped, but they
are not the same even though they are closely related. It is important to understand both. One
way to differentiate occupational health and safety is as follows:
– Safety usually is concerned with situations that cause injury and deals with hazards that
lead to severe and sudden outcomes.
– Occupational health usually is concerned with situations that cause illness or disease and
deals with adverse reactions to exposure over prolonged periods to hazards that are
usually less severe, but still dangerous.
New Concepts of Accidents Avoidance

It was believed that accidents were caused by operators. Nowadays the blame could extend to
include designers, manufacturers, managers, maintenance men, or even environmental deficiency*.
New measures of safety regulations and equipment were introduced. OSHA act was the result of
these new ideas; it was effective on April 28, 1971.
The objectives of the OSHA act are to reduce the:

• Occupational injuries, which include any harm from a workplace accident (e.g., fracture, cut,
burn, minor injury…).
• Occupational illnesses, which include abnormal conditions caused by exposure to factors
associated with the workplace.
• OSHA act and its standards were developed to ensure the employee provides safe tools with
which to work and suitable work rules.
• Other responsibilities include requiring hazard information, safe design of equipment and
facilities, indicating penalties, and providing guidelines and information.
• The fundamental aim is to provide a healthy working environment.
Purpose of the OSHA act:

• To reduce the number of occupational injuries & diseases, and to minimize employee death
& suffering.
• To assure safe and healthful working conditions for working men and women by :
– Authorizing enforcement of the standards developed under the Act.
– Assisting and encouraging the States in their efforts to assure safe and healthful working
conditions.
– Providing for research, information, education, and training in the field of occupational
safety and health; and for other purposes.
_____________________________________________________________________________
*Students should know or give an example of environmental deficiency, and the relation between
safety and environmental deficiency.
________________________________________________________________________________________
OSHA has the Authority to
• Distribute, modify, and revoke health & safety standards.
• Investigate, inspect, issue citations, and propose penalties.
• Require record keeping by employers.
• Petition the courts for restraining orders.
• Approve state plans for programs under the Act.
• Provide training & education to employers and employees.
• Grant funds for program development.
• Maintain a statistical database.
Who is covered? By OSHA act

• All organizations, even if they only have one employee. No small business exemption.
• Organizations with 10 or fewer employees are exempt from inspections and record-keeping
requirements as are some industries, but they must report to OSHA any workplace incident
that results in a fatality or the hospitalization of three or more employees.
General Duty Clause of OSHA Act

1. Each employer shall furnish to each of his employees employment and a place of employment,
which are free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death or serious
physical harm to his employees; shall comply with occupational safety and health standards
promulgated under this Act.
2. Each employee shall comply with occupational safety and health standards and all rules,
regulations, and orders issued according to this Act, which is applied to his actions and
conduct.
What is a Recognized Hazard?

Definition of a hazard: Any existing or potential conditions in the workplace that by itself or by
interacting with other variables can result in deaths, injuries, property damage, and other losses (See
figure 1-2). A hazard is recognized if it occurs and is recognizable by:
– Human Senses*
– Accepted Tests
Figure 1-2 Examples of potentially hazardous conditions

_______________________________________________________________________________
*Students should know or give an example of how the human senses can recognize hazards.
________________________________________________________________________________________
The Standards
• Must help to define hazards.
• Must tell what needs to control hazards.
• Are enforced by OSHA
• Voluntary (consensus) standards exist but may conflict with other associations* like:
– ANSI (American National Standards Institute )
– Amer. Soc. for Testing & Materials
– National Fire Prot. Assoc.
– Amer. Elec. Code
– Amer. Welding Society
– NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health).
OSHA Standards
OSHA standards are rules that describe the methods that employers must use to protect their
employees from hazards. OSHA standards are:
• General Industry: 29 CFR 1910 Subparts A-T, Z.
• Maritime Standards: 29 CFR 1915, 1917, 1918, 1919: Shipbuilding, Ship repairing, Ship
wrecking.
• Construction standards: 29 CFR 1926 Subparts A-Z: Construction, alteration, and repair
activities.
Reading OSHA Standards

• All regulations of all federal agencies are published in the Code of Federal Regulations,
including OSHA standards.
• Title 29 contains all standards for OSHA.
• The title is divided into parts, then subparts, and then into sections, and then subsections.
• OSHA website:
http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owasrch.search_form?p_doc_type=STANDARDS&p_toc_
level=0&p_keyvalue=
29 CFR 1910.123 (A) (4) (ii)
Regulation (Title) Part # and subpart Sections and subsections
What can OSHA do for you?

• Consultation services (non-OSHA employees contracted by OSHA) to Identify hazards;
correct hazards develop and implement safety programs.
• Voluntary protection programs – to recognize companies with excellent health and safety
programs.
• Training and education
_______________________________________________________________________________
*Out of 5000 provisions, OSHA eliminated 928 rules in 1978. Changes will also occur as experience
indicates that they are needed. Why?
________________________________________________________________________________________
Employer Responsibilities
The OSHA 2203 workplace poster explains employee rights and responsibilities under the
Occupational Safety and Health Act. Employees are provided easy access to this poster that contains
federal standards regarding how to respond to hazards and incidents in the workplace.
• Meet the general duty clause (section informal document).
• Maintain injury and medical records.
• Inform regarding toxic exposures.
• Minimize or reduce hazards.
• Provide required training.
Employee Rights
• Complain about safety or health hazards
• File safety or health grievances
• Participate in workplace safety and health committees
• Participate in OSHA inspections and other activities
• Request standard adjustment.
• Receive safety and health training.
• Ask OSHA to conduct an investigation (may request name be withheld).
• Be informed when the employer requests standards variance.
• Participate in variance hearing. Right to all information, that affects safety & health.
• Be told when exposed to hazardous materials and corrective action taken.
Record-Keeping*
• Standardized method for record-keeping by employers with 11 or more employees.
• Original requirements are universally hated-time consuming.
• OSHA recently changed the forms and requirements to simplify.
Record-Keeping Requirements
• All work-related and new illnesses and injuries must be reported if one of the following occurs:
– Death
– One or more days away from work
– Work restrictions
– Loss of consciousness
– Transfer
– Medical treatment beyond 1st aid
– A significant injury or illness diagnosed by a physician or other licensed healthcare
professional
• Records for all locations of business.
• Maintained on an annual basis.
• Use special forms from OSHA.
• Maintain records for at least 3 years and have them available for OSHA or BLS (Bureau of
Labour Statistics) surveys or inspections.
_______________________________________________________________________________
* According to OSHA, who is exempt from record keeping? In addition, why?
________________________________________________________________________________________
What is Work-Related?
An injury or illness is considered work-related if an event or exposure in the work environment either
caused or contributed to the resulting condition or significantly aggravated a pre-existing injury or
illness. Work-relatedness is presumed for injuries and illnesses resulting from events or exposures
occurring in the work environment unless an exception in 1904.5(b) (2) specifically applies.
OSHA record-keeping forms

• OSHA 300: Log or Work-related Injuries and Illnesses: Plant-wide summary
• OSHA 301: Injury and Illness Incident Report: details for each injury/illness
• OSHA 300A: Summary of Work-related Injuries and Illnesses – year-end summary
Available online at: https://www.osha.gov › new-osha300form1-1-04-FormsOnly
Record Keeping
Record keeping: very expensive but mandatory, impact of OSHA:

– Believed little impact.
– The start of observing workplace violence.
– The large company has more compliance due to cost issues.
– Small companies objected to OSHA because of cost (devices, fines, record keeping).
– New devices and designers are forced to design to meet OSHA standards.
Other Organizations
NIOSH: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health*
• Mainly focused on research and education.
• It is a finding used to find the tolerance level of hazards and the effects of the substance on
humans and publish a list of toxic substances.
Inspection
• The compliance officer might have an unannounced visit
• The officer has the right to access all the safety records and provide access to them
• There are some cases where inspection is a priority
– Death or injury of five or more: it should be reported within 72 hours
– A report on imminent hazards
– Periodic inspection for especially hazards industries
Violations and Penalties

Note theses fines for the USA (OSHA)
• Maximum 70,000 dollars penalty for willful or repeated violation.
• $7000 for each serious violation.
• $5000 minimum for obvious violation.
• Violation is based on the base amount size, good faith, and history of the employer.
• The employer can contest within 15 days; a settlement could take place.
_______________________________________________________________________________
* Students should differentiate between the role of OSHA and the role of NOISH.
________________________________________________________________________________________
1.4 Appraising Plant Safety
________________________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Managers would like to know a plant’s safety posture to direct whether or where corrective actions
are to be taken. Personnel would like to know whether a particular action results in improvement or
degradation. Evaluating plant’s safety posture. “Quantifying a problem is the only way to understand
it”.
New Plants and Equipment

Safety engineers should review plants and ensure:
1. Plants include egresses (emergency exits) and exits
2. Electrical system
3. Pressure vessels
4. Firefighting equipment
5. Newly purchased equipment met OSHA standards.
6. Fire lanes
7. Emergency equipment
8. Ventilation equipment is clean
9. Adequate workspaces
10. Hazardous operations are isolated or controlled.
• Numerous problems can be avoided
• Preconstruction approval, in-site, after completion and before the operation, and continually
after that.
• Designers are NOT preferable to evaluate the safety posture*. They believe too optimistically
in their designs.
Qualitative Methods
Indicating plant hazards (Figure 1-4):
• Color-code map: showing areas as high-hazard, moderate-hazard, or low-hazard.
• All conditions that are hazardous to any degree are appraised periodically.
Figure 1-4 Qualitative methods for indicating plant hazards.
_______________________________________________________________________________
* If designers are NOT preferable to evaluate the safety posture, who should do that?
________________________________________________________________________________________
Safety inspection:
• Informal done by supervisor or safety officer, not scheduled.
• Formal done by regulatory agency:
– Use checklist
– High risk are given special attention
– Review previous inspections
– Workers suitably equipped.
– A report, including specific findings and recommendations (see Figure 1-5)
Checklist:
• To evaluate many safety features (or their lack) in industrial plants.
• Can be prepared from numerous sources. OSHA standards, articles, handbooks, books,
brochures, etc. See Appendix (A) for OSHA Self-Inspection Checklist.
• The questions asked in the checklist are usually broad in scope, so more details are
sometimes required.
Quantitative Methods
Quantifying Risk: Manage risk uses the tools of probability and possibility theories. It is related to
safety, danger, hazards, losses, injury, death, toxicity, and peril.
• After-the-fact data (accident statistics)
• Frequency & severity rates.
• Statistics do provide valuable information to regularity agencies, and insurance companies
about the general plant’s safety posture
Disadvantages:
1. The data may be indicative only after there has been a sizable accumulation of past
numerical accident information. (So, many people may be killed or injured before
corrective action).
2. If any action is taken, the past numerical data are NO longer applied.
3. Statistics provide limited answers about relationships between causes and effects.
Therefore, broad accident preventive measures are taken.
Severity Rates
• Time charges are used in determining the rates. These time charges (days) are based on
average experience. Examples:
• A fatality or permanent total disability is assigned time charges of 6,000 days.
• Loss of an arm = 4,500 days
• Loss of an eye = 1,800 days
• Loss of both eyes = 6,000 days
• Loss of hearing = 3,000 days
[Severity Rate = (total days charged X 1,000,000*)/ employees hours of exposure]

______________________________________________________________________________
*If 1,000,000 man-hours are used as the base
________________________________________________________________________________________
Frequency Rate
• The frequency rate of accidents or injuries.
• If A is the event for which the frequency rate is to be computed, B the numerical base (man-
hours), and C the exposure, then:
• Frequency rate = (A X B)/C
• If 1,000,000 man-hours are used as the base, an accident frequency rate:
[Frequency Rate (FR) = (No. of accidents X 1,000,000*)/man-hours of employee exposure]
Example:
For a plant that had 18 accidents in a year during which employees worked 1,200,000 man-hours.
FR = 18 X 1,000,000 / 1,200,000 = 15.0 (accident per million man-hours)

If 1,000,000 man-hours are used as the base
If disabling injuries = 6
FR = 6 X 1,000,000 / 1,200,000 = 5.0 (injuries per million man-hours)
The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) uses 100 full-time employees as the basis.
100 full-time employees would work 200,000 hours per year (40 hrs. /week x 50 weeks)
FR = 6 X 200,000 / 1,200,000 = 1.0 (injuries per 200,000 man-hour)
Note: When rates are cited it is important to know the basis on which they were calculated.
Safety Engineers use FR and SR to compare*:

 With the average of similar industries;
 Period to period;
 Different types of hazards;
 Between different departments at the same factory.
________________________________________________________________________
* In your opinion which is more indicative of the size of the problem FR or SR?
________________________________________________________________________________________
Risk
Risk is defined as the “Effect of uncertainty on objectives.” (From ISO 31000:2009)
• Risk: can be physical or legal (accepted).

• Risk Assessment: is the process of measuring, or assessing risk and developing strategies to
manage it. Strategies include:
1. Avoid the risk (do not accept)
2. Reduce negative effects (safety guards)
3. Transfer the risk to another party*.
4. Accepting some or all of the consequences of a particular risk
Risk Identification:
Risks are events that when triggered cause problems. So start with the source of the problems or
with the problem itself.
Risk Assessment:
• Once risks are identified, they must be assessed as to their potential severity of loss and the
probability of occurrence.
• It is critical to make the best-educated guess.
• The fundamental difficulty in risk assessment is how to determine the rate of occurrence since
statistical information is not available on all kinds of past incidents.
Two methods of risk indication:

1. Relative methods: An accident (or event) is rated by a group of knowledgeable personnel
according to a numerical scale (range from 1-10) to indicate degrees of hazard. The double
scale is not necessarily a double hazard (liquid A flashpoint =150oC and liquid B flash point
=250oC. The flammability or toxicity of gas is rated 6, and another gas is 3).
2. Probability of occurrence: From experience, over a large time and for similar conditions. Risk
= PA X LA (PA: Probability of accident occurrence; LA: Probable loss resulting from an accident).
This equation should include a factor of exposure! The number of persons or activities
number.
Acceptance of risk
Acceptance varies with benefits. Two types of risk acceptance:
1. Voluntary: freely accepted based on the individual own values and experience. For
example, in swimming or scuba diving, people are aware of the chance of injury or death
and accept the risk (Own judgment)
2. Involuntary: subjected or herself to another person’s judgment. For example, flying in an
airplane, or riding a bus or train. Outside the public's control such as exposure to air
pollution.
Risk Communication: not enough to appraise safety and manage risk, information about risk passed
to other employees.
________________________________________________________________________
* Give an example of how to transfer the risk to another party.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 1-5 Hazard report.
________________________________________________________________________________________
1.5 Hazards and Their Control
________________________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
A hazard is a scenario, which, if it occurs, can have negative consequences to personnel, material
(or the environment).
Types of Workplace Hazards: (Details in part two of this manual)

- Mechanical
- Fall-related
- Lifting-related
- Pressure
- Sound, noise, and vibration
- Heat, cold
- Fire
- Explosion
- Electrical
- Chemical
- Biological
- Toxic, harmful substances
- Radiation
- Automation
- Ergonomic
- Human and psychosocial factors (e.g., stress)
Determining exactly which hazard might be responsible for an accident is not as simple as it seems.
Often, exactly what happened is a complex series of events.
Example: the rupture of a high-pressure tank made from carbon steel.

– Moisture can cause corrosion.
– Corrosion reduces the strength of the metal
– Strength reduction causes the rupture under pressure
– The rupture and fragments hit and injured personnel and damaged nearby equipment.
– Which hazard: moisture, corrosion, reduced strength, or pressure, caused the failure?
• Rupture of tank: which caused the injury and damage considered as the primary hazard?
• The moisture: called the cause or initiating hazard.
• The corrosion, the loss of strength, and the pressure: are called contributory hazards.
• Figure 1-6 illustrates how safeguards are provided to prevent or reduce any possible injury
and damage.*
• The primary hazard is one that directly causes:
1. Injury or death.
2. Damage to equipment, vehicle, structure, or facility.
3. Degradation of functional capabilities.
4. Loss of material.
________________________________________________________________________
* Pay attention to safe guards used to correct each hazard in this example (Figure 1-6).
________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 1-6 Pressurized tank rupture accident
Determining Existing Hazards

• Each product or operation will have a certain number of primary hazards and a large number
of initiating and contributory hazards.
• A list of potential hazards developed by experience, which extended with theoretical
possibilities.
Eliminating and Controlling Hazards*

Hazards are eliminated or controlled by good design or procedures for accident avoidance. The
following features were observed (in order of preference):
1. Design to eliminate hazards is preferred.
2. Where safeguards by design are not feasible, protective safety devices are employed.
3. Where neither design nor safety devices are practical, automatic warning devices
(signs).
4. Where none of the above is feasible, adequate procedures and personnel, training is
used.
_______________________________________________________________________
* Note that eliminating and controlling hazards is done in an order of preference.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Intrinsic Safety
The basic principle, on which intrinsic safety works, is to limit, under normal conditions, the amount
of electrical energy in Hazardous Area circuits such that any sparks or arcs or high surface
temperatures cannot ignite the explosive atmosphere. Electrical equipment, in Hazardous Area, as
well as the interconnected instrumentation in Safe Area, must be designed to reduce the open-circuit
voltage (Voc) and short-circuit current (Isc) to values that cannot cause ignition by opening, closing,
or earthling the circuit or by heating of any parts belonging to the circuit. The most effective method
of avoiding accidents is with designs that are “intrinsically safe” – No possible accident can result
from the hazard in question. Intrinsic safety achieved by:
1. Eliminating the hazard.
2. Limiting the hazard to a level below which it cannot harm.
Elimination of Hazards
Hazards are eliminated by taking measures such as:
• Good housekeeping (no wet or oily surfaces…)
• Using noncombustible* instead of combustible materials. (Paints, fabrics...).
• Using pneumatic or hydraulic, instead of electric systems (to eliminate fire and excessive
heating)
• Rounding edges and corners on equipment.
• Eliminating leaks by using continuous lines.
Hazard-Level Limitation
If hazard elimination is not possible, the hazard might be limited so that no injury or damage will result.
For example:
– Using low-voltage, low-amperage power (battery)
– Providing overflow arrangement to prevent too high liquid levels.
– Ensuring that the concentration of flammable or toxic gas is far below a dangerous limit.
– Automatic relief to keep pressure within a safe limit
– Using grounds on the capacitor or capacitive circuits to reduce charge accumulation.
_____________________________________________________________________________
*Students should know or give an example of noncombustible materials.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Isolation, Lockouts, Lockins, and Interlocks (Commonly used safety measures)
Isolation is used to separate incompatible conditions or materials that together would constitute a
hazard. Examples:
– Fire requires fuel, oxidizer, and ignition sources: Isolate once source.
– Isolating workers inside protective equipment to prevent environmental injuries:
Breathing apparatus
– Thermal isolation to prevent contact with hot surfaces: Firefighters
– Noise isolation: Insulation walls
– Keep corrosive gases or liquid from some materials: Isolates in a special cabinet
– Shielding persons from radiation, welding, and sandblasting: Appropriate shield
– Machine guards in industrial plants: over rotating parts, sharp edges, hot surfaces, and
electric devices.
A lockout prevents an event from occurring or prevents a person, object, force, or other factors from
entering an undesired zone. Examples:
– Locking a switch on a circuit to prevent current from being energized.
– Fenced enclosure for high-voltage transformers.
– Shielding on reactors
– Guards to protect from moving machinery and parts
A lockin keeps a person, object, force, or other factors from leaving a restricted zone. Examples:
– Storing material from the air
– Child lock-in cars
– Etc.
Interlocks are one of the most commonly used safety devices, especially with electrically operated
equipment. Interlocks are provided to ensure that event A does not occur under the following
conditions:
– Inadvertently: For the event, A to occur a preliminary, intentional action B is needed.
Example: Lifting the cover that prevents a critical switch from activating.
– While Condition C exists. An interlock may place on an access door to equipment
where high voltage exists. If the door is open, the circuit is inactivated.
– Before event D: desirable where the sequence of operations is important.
• Examples of interlocks:
– Limit switches: They are operated by moving an external part of the switch.
– Tripping devices: action releases a mechanical block.
– Key interlock: inserting and turning a key in a mechanical lock permits action.
– Signal coding: sequences of pulses emitted by a transmitter must match the sequence
in a suitable receiver.
– Parameter sensing: Presence, absence, excess, or inadequacy of pressure,
temperature, flow, or other.
– Timers.
– Ultrasonic: senses the presence of nonporous materials.
_____________________________________________________________________________
*Students should know the difference between lockouts, and lockins concerning hazards.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Fail-Safe Designs (Safeguard)*
Equipment failure produces accidents. Fail-safe design to prevent injury to person and damage to
equipment
• Fail-safe designs ensure that failures will leave the system unaffected or convert them to
states in which no injury or damage will result.
• Can be categorized into three types*:
1. The fail-passive arrangement reduces the system to its lowest energy level. The system
will not operate again until corrective action is taken. Examples: Circuit breakers and
fuses (No further damage).
2. The fail-active design maintains an energized condition that keeps the system in safe
operation mode until corrective action occurs. Examples: Battery-operated smoke
detector. A Street-crossing signal light that continues to blink when there is a failure.
3. The fail-operational arrangement allows the system functions to continue safely until
corrective action is possible. This type is preferable. Example: Feedwater valves for
boilers (No loss of function).
Failure Minimization
To ensure that the possibility of failure, which causes accidents, is minimized:
1. Safety factors and margins.
2. Failure rate reduction.
3. Parameter monitoring.
4. The warning means and devices.
If the fail-safe design cannot be provided, the system will fail only rarely.
Safety Factors
• Components and structures are designed with strengths far greater than those normally
required.
• This is to allow for calculation errors, variation in material strengths and stresses, unforeseen
transient loads, material degradation, and other factors.
• A safety factor ratio of 4 (safety factor) means that the system would fail ½ as frequently as
one that has a safety factor of 2, a system with a safety factor of 1.25 would indicate a safety
margin of 0.25.
Monitoring
• Monitoring devices are used to keep any selected parameter, such as temperature or
pressure, under control to ensure it remains at proper levels. Monitors can be employed to
indicate whether:
– A specific condition does or does not exist.
– The system is ready for operation and is operating satisfactorily.
– The measured parameter is normal or abnormal.
– A specified limit met or exceeded.
A monitor system should lead to suitable corrective action, simply by passing the information to the
operators to take action.
____________________________________________________________________________
*Students should know examples of fail-safe design procedures.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Failure-Rate Reduction
• Operating components and systems will not last forever (reliability engineering).
• To reduce failure while the system is operating:
1. Increase life expectancies to times longer than normally required (de-rating):
• For example, reducing the stresses and temperature under which the components will
operate.
2. Screening:
• Close control of component quality.
• Screening can be done by visual inspections or any other tests.
3. Timed replacements:
• Components are replaced in a timely fashion.
• Two means by which time replacement can be made effectively :
- By testing similar components OR
- By noting component degradation or drift in operation
4. Redundant arrangements
• Standby redundancy: an operative unit operates until failure is indicated after that,
another unit is turned on.
This can be done as decision redundancy (majority vote or median select) and standby redundancy
Warning Means and Devices

• Warning devices are means of avoiding accidents by attracting or focusing the attention of the
operator on an item that constitutes a hazard.
• Warnings are required by law to inform workers, users, and the public about any dangers that
might not be obvious.
• Every method of identifying and notifying personnel that a hazard exists requires
communication. All human senses have been used for this purpose.
Physical Isolation
1. Distance, by citing possible points of accidents far from persons and equipment.
2. Deflectors and energy absorbers*.
3. Containment to prevent the spread of fire such as water sprays.
4. Barriers of metal, concrete blocks, or other impenetrable or nonconductive material.
Damage Minimization
As long as hazards exist, a possibility for an accident exists. Functional requirements and costs make
it impossible to eliminate all hazards or to incorporate safeguards for complete protection. Some of
the means of minimizing and containing the effects of accidents include:
– Physical isolation
– Personal protective equipment
– Energy-absorbing mechanism. Heat reflectors from fire, noise shields…etc.
– Weak links
– Escape and rescue…later.
_____________________________________________________________________________
*Students should know and give an example of energy absorbers.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Personal Protective Equipment*
This includes the equipment persons may wear for protection against an accident. They are into three
categories:
1. For schedules hazardous operations (example: spray painting).
2. For investigation and corrective purposes.
3. Against accidents.
The equipment must not degrade performance, must be reliable, and suitable, and work as intended
Weak links
• A weak link is one designed to fail at a level of stress that will minimize and control any
possibility of a more serious failure or accident.
• Weak links have been used in electrical, mechanical, and structural systems.
• Examples: electrical fuses, and shear pins.
_____________________________________________________________________________
* Does personal protective equipment should be comfortable and looks good during use?
________________________________________________________________________________________
1.6 Safety Analysis
________________________________________________________________________________________
Safety Analysis (SA)
SA is a safety management tool in which the risks or hazards of a specific job in the workplace are
identified and then measures to eliminate or control those hazards are determined and implemented.
• Companies that don’t analyze safety
– May not prevent accidents
– Can’t defend themselves from lawsuits
• Managers should see foreseeable. (Reasoning)
• The analysis is to identify reasons
– Inductive (bottom-up): Starts at the component level…undesirable end events.
– Deductive (top-down): Generally evaluated in terms of their validity and soundness
• The hazards of new operations should be always checked for safety
Preliminary Hazards
• The initial study will be expanded on later
• Find out if the hazards can be
– Eliminated
– If not how to control it (look for standards)
Note about Initial Hazard Report: Broad in scope investigates what hazards might be present and
whether they can be eliminated or controlled.
Consequences
Consequences are usually described qualitatively with words like catastrophic, Hazardous, Major, or
Minor (Table 1-1). It is, presumably, intuitive that we accept minor incidents more frequently than
major disasters.
Table 1-1 Qualitative discretion of hazard consequences
_____________________________________________________________________________
* When safety analysis should be done?
________________________________________________________________________________________
Failure Modes and Effects Analyses (FMEA)
FMEA: Excellent for determining optimum points for improving and controlling product quality.
• A method is used originally for reliability design
– Inductive techniques (Starts at the component level…undesirable end events).
– Determine how long equipment operates satisfactorily
– Determine the effect of failure in the upper assembly
• We can use it for the safety of equipment and processes
– Find failure mode and frequency
– Find maintenance schedule
Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)

• Was initiated in 1959 by Bell lab for the Air Force
• Was introduced to find probabilities of missiles that could be launched non-intentionally,
intentionally by an unauthorized person, or sabotage
• It involves Boolean logic used by electronics (and arithmetic)
• Note about FTA: Widely used to determine the probability of mishaps in complex systems.
• Examples of event and gate symbols used in FTA are shown in Figures 1-8 and 1-9.
Rectangle: Output event represented by a gate
Circle: Basic event with sufficient data (component failure)
Diamond: Undeveloped event (lack of information)
Triangle: Transfer symbol
Figure 1-8 Events symbols used in FTA
_____________________________________________________________________________
*Students should know when to use proper evens and gate symbols linking these events.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Gate name Relation Boolean relation
C
AND Both A and B C=AB

Needed for event C
A B
C
OR Either A or B C=A+B
Needed for event C
A B
Figure 1-9 Gate symbols used in FTA and their relation
________________________________________________________________________________________
Example: Crash at Main Road Junction
Solution: FTA for the roadside accident.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Quantitative FTA
Quantitative (Probability) can also be expressed in qualitative terms like Extremely Remote,
Improbable, Remote, Occasional, Probable, or Frequent
• Use probabilities calculations to find the probability of the top event
• See figure 1-10 for sample calculations of top event probability.
• Table 1-2 shows qualitative expression, based on probability calculations of the top event.
Table 1-2 Qualitative expression of quantitative numbers obtained from FTA
_____________________________________________________________________________
*Note that after getting quantitative numbers obtained from FTA we qualitative the risk (top event) under
study.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 1.10 Correctly calculating quantitative Fault Tree Analyses
________________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise: Road Sign Light Fault
Events:
Output
event
Basic
Undeveloped
Transfer
Draw FTA using symbols and gates (self-answer exercise)
________________________________________________________________________________________
Part II: Hazards at Work Place
2.1 Acceleration Falls, Falling Objects, and other Impacts.

2.2 Mechanical Injury.
2.3 Heat and Temperature.
2.4 Pressure Hazards.
2.5 Electrical Hazards.
2.6 Fires and Fire Suppression.
2.7 Hazards of Toxic Materials.
2.8 Environments.
2.9 Confined Space Entry.
2.10 Vibration and Noise.
2.11 Radiation.
2.12 Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorder.
________________________________________________________________________________________
2.1 Acceleration Falls, Falling Objects
And Other Impacts
________________________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
The injuries resulted from being struck by objects, struck against objects, falling to lowered level, or
falling to the same level.
• Fall contribute to a high rate of death-related cause.
• The damages because of falling could include broken bones.
• Head injury is the most serious injury.
• The average energy that causes skull fracture is about 60Nm.
• Fifty % of a person's impact against a hard surface with a velocity of 30 Km per hour killed.
• This is equal to free fall from 3m height.
• To determine the impact of a body on the hard surface we use the kinetic energy KE =
(1/2mv2)
• If the object decelerates for long-distance less impact will occur.
• OSHA requires the use of a safety net* when work is done in a location with an elevated
structure.
• Different factors are involved in withstanding deceleration impact such as body orientation.
• Body orientation, hitting foot first compared to hitting headfirst.
Preventive Measures against fall

To avoid the ladder falling, check table 2-1
• Some people have physiological and psychological problems to work at height.
• A new worker should be accompanied by an experienced worker when working at heights.
• Workers who experienced nervousness should not be permitted to work at heights.
• Any person who recovered from a cold or flu should be discouraged from working at heights.
• The worker should be tested for vertigo (sense of unbalanced at height).
Impacting Objects
• In cases where falling objects within 60Nm, workers should wear a helmet (Figure 2-1).
• Sometimes impact could occur from non-falling objects such as fragments from pressurized
metals or pieces thrown from blowing fans.
• Safety goggles or glasses are needed when small particles are thrown.
• Other impact injuries include structure collapse, cars collision, dropping heavy objects on
feet…etc.
Figure 2-1 Personal protective equipment
________________________________________________________________________________________
Table 2-1 Precautionary measure for use of ladders.
________________________________________________________________________________________
2.2 Mechanical Injury
________________________________________________________________________________________
Mechanical Injury - OSHA Acts
• 1910 – Machinery and Machine Guarding (Subpart O): For machine operation
• 1910.147 – Lockout/Tagout (subpart J) For maintenance/service
What Does 1910 Subpart O Require?
• One or more methods of machine guarding shall provide to protect the operator and other
employees in the machine area from hazards such as those created by point of operation,
ingoing nip points, rotating parts, flying chips, and sparks.
• "Point of operations" (POO) means the point at which cutting, shaping, boring, or forming is
accomplished upon the stock.
Mechanical Injury
• Mechanical injury caused by belt-driven rotating equipment, open-geared power press, and
power hammers.
• Guards enforced the point of danger that reduces the injuries.
• The injury includes cutting and tearing, shearing, breaking, and straining of the body.
Basic Goal of Machine Safety
• Prevent the machine from doing to an employee what it is supposed to do to the material.
• Prevent machine-operator contact.
Cutting and Tearing
• Cutting occurs when the skin encounters a sharp edge (Figure 2-2).
• A tear of the skin occurs when the skin is pierced then the flesh is pulled away violently.
• It is prohibited to wear watches and rings if there is a possibility of being caught
• Cuts might also occur when getting in contact with poorly finished surfaces (rough surfaces).
• No standards for such a hazard.
Figure 2-2 Injury due to cutting tearing.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Shearing
• Occurs when the sharp edge is in linear motion in a vertical direction to the edger (Figure 2-
3)
• Injury includes amputation of the hand.
• OSHA requires two-handed control in such an operation.
• Complex design now prevents any machining if there is any interface.
Figure 2-3 Injury due to shearing by paper cutting machine.
Crushing
• Crushing occurs when the body is caught between two hard objects. Figure 2-4 shows some
serious consequences of such a hazard.
• Squeeze point: created by 2 solid objects one of them at least on a motion that does not
necessarily come in contact (powered hammer)
• Run- in point: 2 objects at least on rotating (pulley and belt)
• Equipment that causes crushing might cause breaking
Figure 2-4 Injury due to crushing by hard objects.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Pinch Point
Any point was other than the point of operation at which a part of the body can be caught between
the moving parts of a press or auxiliary equipment, between moving and stationary parts of a press
or auxiliary equipment, or between the material and moving part or parts of the press or auxiliary
equipment.
Machine Guards and Safety
Machine guards are safety devices that act as a machine control preventing or interrupting operation
when the operator's body gets into the hazard area
• The machine injury becomes less due to the guard’s use
• A guard is a barrier to body parts from getting into hazards
• The guards should meet some criteria such as easy access, easy to use, cannot be
bypassed…etc.
Type of Guards
• Fixed total enclosed

• Fixed limited access
• Enclosure with interlock: machine shuts off if removed
• Movable barrier or gate: it allows access when the operation is over
• Optical sensors
• Ultrasonic
• Electrical field: used along with wired wrist
• Two hand control
1910.147 – Lockout/Tagout (Subpart J)
• The standard applies to the control of energy during servicing and/or maintenance of
machines and equipment (electrical is separate)
• Requires employers to establish a program and utilize procedures for affixing appropriate
lockout devices or tagout devices to energy isolating devices, and to otherwise disable
machines or equipment to prevent unexpected energization, start-up, or release of stored
energy to prevent injury to employees
Lockout
• Lockout: placement of a lockout device on an energy-isolating device, following an

established procedure, ensuring that the energy-isolating device and the equipment
controlled cannot be operated until the lockout device is removed.
• Lockout device: A device that utilizes a positive means such as a lock, either key or
combination type, to hold an energy-isolating device in a safe position and prevent the
energizing of a machine or equipment.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Types of Lockout
Several types of lockouts can be found readymade. The use of a specific type depends on
the application and location to fulfill the purpose of using the lockout. Figure 2-5 shows some
of the lockout devices used in the industry.
Figure 2-5 Lockout devices.
Tagout
• Tagout: Placement of a tagout device on an energy-isolating device, following an established

procedure, to indicate that the energy-isolating device and the equipment controlled may not
operate until the tagout device is removed.
• Tagout device: Prominent warning devices, such as a tag and a means of attachment, which
can be secure, fastened to an energy-isolating device following an established procedure, to
indicate that the energy-isolating device and the equipment controlled may not operate until
the tagout device is removed.
• Only used if a lock isn’t feasible and must provide an equivalent level of protection
Different Types of Tagout

Figure 2-6 shows tagout warning signs used during electrical work.
Figure 2-6 Tagout samples and locations.
________________________________________________________________________________________
2.3 Heat and Temperature
________________________________________________________________________________________
Working in Hot Environments
Reference guidelines are found in:

• NIOSH publication at:
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/hotenvt.html
• OSHA technical manual on heat stress:
• http://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_iii/otm_iii_4.html#iii:4_1
• Occupational Exposure to Hot Environments (NIOSH):
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/pdfs/86-113a.pdf
Jobs Where Temperature is Important
Heat contributes to 1.5% injury or illnesses as shown in figure 2-7. Examples of hot
environments;
• Ironworkers
• Construction
• Farming operations
• Iron, steel, and nonferrous foundries
• Brick-firing and ceramics operations
• Glass products manufacturing plants
• Rubber products manufacturing plants
• Electrical utilities (particularly boiler rooms)
• Bakeries
• Restaurant kitchens
• Laundries
• Mines
• Meat processing
• …etc.
Figure 2-7 Nature of injury or illness

________________________________________________________________________________________
The Goal of Temperature Controls
To maintain core body temperature in a safe range (36-38oC)
Heat / Cold Strain
Physiological response to heat/cold strain by

– Dissipating excess heat (heat buildup inside the body in hot environments).
– Retaining heat (Maintain body temperature in cold environments).
Heat / Cold Stress
• Net heat/cold load to which a worker may expose from the combined contributions of the
metabolic cost of work, environmental factors, and clothing.
How is Heat Regulated? (NIOSH)
• To regulate body temperature, the body must get rid of its excess heat by:
– Varying the rate and amount of blood circulation through the skin (Figure 2-8, left).
– Release of fluid onto the skin by the sweat glands (Figure 2-8, right).
• In this process of lowering internal body temperature, the heart begins to pump more blood,
blood vessels expand to accommodate the increased flow, and the microscopic blood vessels
(capillaries) that thread through the upper layers of the skin begin to fill with blood.
• The blood circulates closer to the surface of the skin, and the excess heat is lost to the cooler
environment
Figure 2-8 Shows blood vessels expanding and sweat glands in the skin.
How Does Heat Strain Occur?
• Heat builds up from body heat generated by the muscles during work and from the heat
coming from warm and hot environments.
• If the air temperature is as warm as or warmer than the skin, blood brought to the body's
surface cannot lose its heat.
• Under these conditions, sweat becomes the principal effective means of maintaining constant
body temperature.
• Sweating does not cool the body unless the moisture is removed from the skin by evaporation.
Under conditions of high humidity, the evaporation of sweat from the skin decreases and the
body's efforts to maintain an acceptable body temperature may be significantly impaired.
________________________________________________________________________________________
How Cold Strain Does Occur.
• The body loses heat primarily through radiation, which increases with airflow
• The body’s first response to a cold environment is constriction of the blood vessels of the skin,
which reduces heat loss from the surface of the skin by decreasing peripheral blood flow;
and/or shivering, which generates heat by increasing the body's metabolic rate.
More on Physiological Reaction to Heat

• With so much blood going to the external surface of the body, relatively less goes to the active
muscles, the brain, and other internal organs; strength declines; and fatigue occurs sooner
than it would otherwise. Alertness and mental capacity also may be affected.
• Workers who must perform delicate or detailed work may find their accuracy suffering, and
others may find their comprehension and retention of information lowered.
Heat/Cold and Performance

• Heat
– Reduced strength
– Increased fatigue
– Reduced mental performance
• Cold
– Reduced psychomotor performance
– Impaired decision-making and judgment
– Reduced alertness
• High temperatures degrade performance, but we do not necessarily know the exact point.
Varies by:
– Heat intensity and duration of exposure
– Task
– People
– Presence of other stresses
Heat / Cold Stress

• Net heat/cold load to which a worker may expose from the combined contributions of the
metabolic cost of work, environmental factors, and clothing.
• Heat transfer
• Heat sources
– Heat of reaction
– Heat of metabolism
– Electric heat
– Mechanical heat
Effects of Heat / Cold Stress on Personnel

Skin is about 1.8 square meters of our body. Protect us from external invasion. Act as a sense organ.
Store fat, water, and other needed substances. Heat disorder and health effects:
• Heat Stroke- Heat Exhaustion- Heat Cramps- Heat Collapse- Heat Rashes- Heat Fatigue …
• Skin burn
________________________________________________________________________________________
Types of Burns
• First degree (Figure 2-9, 1)

– Cause redness and mild inflammation
– The time of the heat transfer determines the severity of the burn and the amount of heat
transfer
– The skin might get tanned
– The cold could have the same effects
• Second degree (Figure 2-9, 2)
– Blisters of skin form
– More painful than the third degree
– Broken blister causes inflammation
• Third-degree (Figure 2-9, 3)
– Less painful but the damage is serious
– Tissues, red blood cells, and capillaries are destroyed
– The skin might be white or become charred black
– Skin contact with a hot surface produces 100 times more effects than radiation or
convection
– Freezing of tissue has the same effects
1 2 3
Figure 2-9 Shows the effect of type pf burns on human skin.
Classification of Burn Severities

• Critical
• Moderate
• Minor
Ability to survive
– Tolerance to burn
– level of heat exposure (4.2 cal/cm2 for 540 msec) causes third-degree burns
Other Temperature effects
– Imbalance of metabolism
High-temperature causes
– Heat cramps: Muscle pain, attributed to an electrolyte imbalance caused by sweating. It
is important to understand that cramps can be caused by both too much and too little salt.
– Heat exhaustion: Dizziness, inability to stand, and maybe fainting.
– Heatstroke: Dizziness, weakness, vomiting, and loss of consciousness
– Heat collapse ("Fainting"): In heat collapse, the brain does not receive enough oxygen
because blood pools in the extremities.
– Heat rashes: Prickly heat manifested as red papules, usually appear in areas where the
clothing is restrictive.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Effects of Cold
• The effect of cold is not a big problem as heat
• The concern when working under freezing conditions
• The cold wind is a concern: could cause gangrene
• Obtain shelter to avoid wind action
Cold Injuries/Illnesses
• Trench Foot: caused by long, continuous exposure to a wet, cold environment, or actual
immersion in water, as shown in figure 2-10, left.
• Frostbite occurs when the skin tissue freezes, causing ice crystals to form between cells and
draw water from them, which leads to cellular dehydration as shown in figure 2-10, right.
• Hypothermia: occurs when body temperature falls to a level where normal muscular and
cerebral functions are impaired.
Figure 2-10 Sample pictures of trench foot and frostbite
Temperature and Performance

• The effect of heat on performance depends on different factors
– The heat index, duration, the task involved, person, presence of stress
• Comfort is measured as a combination of temperature and humidity
– 21 to 27oC with 70% humidity is considered comfortable
– High humidity causes fatigue
• More than 32oC is uncomfortable (60% efficiency, degrade 40% of performance)
• Acclimatization could increase the ability to withstand heat
Additional Effects
An elevated temperature could cause
– Fire hazards
– Increase reaction rate
– Reliability of electrical devices
– Increase gas pressure: the rupture of containers
– Freezing of water: causes pipes to rupture
– Liquid expansion: overflow of flammable materials
– Effects on metal: expansion, strength reduction, and could lead to failure
________________________________________________________________________________________
Protection from Thermal Extremes
• Alter the source of heat to produce less heat
• Replace the offensive source with one less offensive
• Provide air conditioning system
• Provide a barrier between the source and the host (thermal insulation, warning signs, roof
shade)
• Protection of heat at the administration level
– Medical screening
– Provide acclimatization
– Work cycles, as shown in tables 2-1 based on work categories listed in table 2-2,
– Provide hot or cold liquid and salt intake
– Ensure adequate and protective clothing
– Monitor workers during the heat exposure
– Provide spot heating or cooling through a source directed to a host
– Train workers to recognize symptoms of extreme exposure
Table 2-1 Permissible Heat Exposure Threshold Limit Values (acclimatized employees)-ACGIH
(American Council Government Hygiene) ... No need to memorize these numbers.
Table 2-2 ACGIH Work Category Examples
________________________________________________________________________________________
2.4 Pressure Hazards
________________________________________________________________________________________
Pressure
The standard atmospheric pressure 1 bar = 14.656 psi = 101.05 kPa (1psi = 6894.76 Pa = 6.9 KPa)*.
High pressure measured by its effects (application)
• Military service categorized high pressure between 2000-10000 psia (138-690 bar)
• OSHA standards for high-pressure cylinders is 900 psi (61 bar) or greater.
• The American Gas Association: For gas distribution line; high pressure = 2 psi
• The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME): 15 psi is high pressure for boiler
operation
Pressure-Vessel
• Vessels are tanks that contain hot fluid (liquid or gas)
• It ruptures as a result of pressure increases (Figure 2-11)
• Vessels could rupture under unfired conditions due to heat accumulation from the sun
• Some vessels containing gases with high pressure are to be stored in the shade
Figure 2-11 Rupture pressure vessel

Excessive Pressure from Non-Thermal Sources
• Containers might fail to excessive pressure due to:
– Regulator failure
– Pressure gauge failure
– Lack of pressure release device
• Pressure release devices are, figure 2-12 shows a sample of pressure release devices:
– Used to decrease the possibility of rupture
– Boilers are equipped with safety valves that opened up at high pressure
– It should be placed in a location that produces no harm when open
Figure 2-12 Pressure release valve

_______________________________________________________________________________
*These numbers are not for memorizing… they help the student to have a sense of pressure in term
or to compare with atmospheric pressure.
________________________________________________________________________________________
• Dynamics pressure hazard
– A tank that contains gas with a pressure of 2000 psig* could if exploded will create a
thrust 10 to 20 times its weight.
– Flying pieces could reach a speed of 15.24 m/sec in 1/10 seconds
– Safeguards should be provided to prevent accidents
• Whipping of hoses and lines
– Whipping occurs when a compressed flexible airline was not tightened enough
– Whipping line can break bones
– Flexible lines should be restrained by sandbags or replaced by rigid ones, as shown
in figure 2-13.
Figure 2-13 Flexible hose restrained
• Other effects
– Failure to realize the consequence of flow from a compressed gas system would
create many injuries
– Each pressurized line or vessel is considered dangerous until it is depressurized
– High-pressure gas could cut hands or legs.
– Check the workability of gauges and dischargers
– OSHA allows only 30 psi air pressure for cleaning
– Guards should be available for flying chips
– No one should direct compressed air to another person
• Water Hammer
– Occurs when the sudden stoppage of liquid flow
– The momentum of the fluid produces a shock wave (water hammer)
– The shock wave could break fittings, especially brittle materials
– Can be prevented by eliminating quick closing or having an air chamber slightly
upstream of the valve
– The water hammer is recognized by the noise it produces
• Negative pressure (vacuums)
– Occurs when creating an atmosphere that is below atmospheric pressure
– It damages structures that are usually designed not to take negative pressure.
– Condensation of vapors could have the same effects.
_______________________________________________________________________________
* psig: Gage pressure – pressure reading above atmospheric pressure.
________________________________________________________________________________________
• Testing of a pressurized system
– Test before use
– Periodic testing
– Hydrostatic testing (use water, not gas)
– Conduct a proof test (pressure applied 1.5-time operating pressure to check the yield
and deformation of the tank) without the shock effect
– Burst pressure: The vessel tested beyond the yield.
– Nondestructive testing: Dye penetrate, magnetic particles (ferroelectric materials such
as iron, nickel, cobalt), radiography can be used
– Corrective action needed to be done for failure
Leaks
• Leaks could occur from
– Poorly designed system: it is good to use welded joints and long pipes
– Separable connection: valves, and flanges screws have different degrees of a leak.
Care should be taken to choose them
– The fluid contains gases that leak more than liquid where liquid weight could cause a
leak.
– Inadequate fitted or tightened parts: lack of seals, and gaskets
– Vibration: loosen screws.
– Crack and holes: caused by over-pressurized
• Causes of leaks
– Porosity: due to defective materials
– Corrosion
– Worn parts: due to continuous use or disassembly
– Interference: Dirt plugs valve
– Temperature: high temperature loosen connection because of different expansion at
joints
– Operator error: valves not closed properly
Effects of Leakage
• Contamination: the release of toxic or flammable materials

• Damage of materials: fabric damage or damage by mixing with other material
• Loss of system fluid: lubricants that lead to system failure
• Electrical hazards: water leak
• Temperature: the leak of cold material to a hot surface leads to crack
• Moisture: increases humidity
Leak Detection
• Detection of the actual flow by vision or smell

• Measurements: sensors, or weighing
• Whistling noise
• Soap solution
• Using radioactive sensors for radioactive leak
________________________________________________________________________________________
Effects of Pressure
• Dysbarism: the disturbances of the body caused by pressure variation:
– It is due to the change of partial pressure of the gases present in the bloodstream
(especially nitrogen)
– Changes in the partial pressure lead to changes in the gas leaving or entering the
blood
– Decompression sickness: caused by the change of nitrogen dissolved in the blood
(leading to dizziness, headaches, or paralysis under extreme conditions
• Bends: problems on joints due to bubbles that affect joints due to pressure changes in the blood
– Workers go from one higher-pressure environment back to 1 atmosphere and suffer
from this problem
– Expansion of blood cells due to gas release produces chokes
– Expansion occurs when the pressure increases to a value an above 1 atmospheric
pressure
• Preventing Decompression injury
– Decompression due to 18 psig or less is not a problem
– OSHA has regulation for decompression pressure of 12 psig or higher
– Create a chamber to normalize the pressure
• The effect on gas body cavities
– Blockage or pain in the ears
– Teeth pain
– Gas pain in the stomach, colon, and bowls
• Effects on bones
– Nitrogen release blocks the flowing blood on bones
Compressed Gas Cylinders

• Different storage methods
– Permanent Gases: boiling point -66oC or lower and cannot be liquefied at room
temperature regardless of pressure (oxygen, nitrogen, and helium)
– Liquefied gas: liquefy at -54oC or higher at one atm. and can be liquidities at higher
pressure (ex. Carbon dioxide)
– Dissolved gas: some gases explode if compressed so they dissolved before
pressurizing in cylinders (Acetylene dissolved in acetone). Acetylene is filled with
calcium silicate (inert porous materials), then dissolved in acetone (acetone holds 35
times its volume)
• Sizes and volume
– Different sizes minimum 2-inch diameter and common 9-inches (it is common to use
inches for pressurized cylinders)
– Cylinders are labeled to reflect the pressure and temperature of the gas in cylinders
– If it is empty it is marked by the letter “MT”
– Small space should be left for liquid cylinders to allow expansion
– In the USA marking is done by (the DOT) Department Of Transportation
• Safety devices
– Pressure relief devices must be used
________________________________________________________________________________________
Engineering Controls
• Safe design – according to OSHA standards

• Limit the number of connections
• Barricade the system
• Prevent access
• Operate via remote control
• Secure hoses
• Secure containers
• Safety and relief valves
Pressure Relieving Devices
• Safety valve (aka pop valves) - pop open when a preset pressure is exceeded
• Relief valve – open slightly and then more as pressure increases (Figure 2-14)
• Safety/relief valve – can be used either way
• Fusible plug – alloy plug that melts at a predetermined temperature to relieve pressure
Figure 2-14 Shows the Safety valve and relief valve
General Guidelines for Working with Compressed Gas
• Trained personnel
• Cylinders are stored such that they are secure
• Protect cylinders from anything that can damage the container
• Use protective caps
• Protect against heat
• 6 meters minimum distance between oxygen cylinders and gas cylinders
• Only use cylinders having identifiable contents
Administrative Controls
 Inspection (By weight, Level indicators, Pressure indicators, Sound, Odor, NOT with fingers!)
 Training (Contents of containers, Proper function of the system, Hazard identification, Hazard
control, Proper handling, Proper maintenance
________________________________________________________________________________________
2.5 Electrical Hazards
________________________________________________________________________________________
OSHA Standard
• OSHA Standard 29 CFR 1910, Subpart S, NFPA 70 and NFPA 72

• Electrical hazards are divided into 5 categories
– Shock to personnel
– Ignition to combustible material
– Overheating and damaging equipment or burning personnel
– Electrical explosion
– Inadvertent activation of equipment
Shock
• Shock: Electrical potential created due to body resistance to electricity.

– Shocks occur when a person’s body completes the current path. The effects produced
by various flows (current intensity) of alternating current:
– 1 mA: cause involuntary motion that might lead to a fall or bump head
– 5 to 25 mA: cause the person to lose control of the muscles and inability to “let go”. 6-
9 mA for 60 Hz?
– 25 to 75 mA: very painful and if sustained could create paralysis and if sustained more
than 3 minutes will cause death
– 75 to 300 mA: death occurs if lasts a quarter second or more
– 2.5 ampere or more: stop heart functions, burns internal and external body organs
(Figure 2-15):
Figure 2-15 Electrical burns on hand and arm
Other Factors That Affect the Shock
• Other factors that affect the shock

– Current path: arm to arm or arm to leg...etc.
– Frequency: 20 Hz to 100 Hz are the most hazard
– Direct current vs. alternating current: DC has fewer effects than AC
– Body resistance: dry skin has high resistance
Dry Conditions: Current = Volts/Ohms = 220/100,000 = 2mA a barely perceptible level of current
Wet conditions: Current = Volts/Ohms = 220/1,000 = 220mA sufficient current to cause ventricular
fibrillation
________________________________________________________________________________________
Causes of Shock
– Contact with a bare conductor

– Contact with energized conductor where insulation is damaged
– Equipment failure that causes an open or short circuit
– Static electricity
– Lightning strike
Electrical Insulation Failure
– Heat and elevated temperature: Heat damages some polymers

– Moisture and humidity: moisture creates paths around the insulator and decreases it
is electrical resistance through a moist absorbent
– Oxidation: insulated material oxidized and eventually deteriorated.
– Radiation: solar or chemical radiation might initiate chemical reactions in synesthetic
materials that cause deterioration and cracking
– Chemical incompatibility: chemical such as acids, and lubricants might chemical
breakdown in an insulator
– Mechanical damage: installation of wires creates damage to conductors due to pulling,
cutting, or flexing
– High voltage: creates sparks that might produce a hole in the conductor
– Biological factors: insulation material could be nutrient to some living organisms such
as rats or fungi which leads to insulation deterioration
– Pressure: out-gazing due to vacuumed may create holes in insulators
Equipment Failure
– Failure on a device or appliance that makes the housing become a conductor

– Three wire system is usually used to reduce this effect by grounding mechanism.
– OSHA requires proper grounding from devices that carries 90 volts or greater
Shock Protection
– Insulation: insulating all parts that a person is in contact with such as switches, knobs,
dials...etc.
– Insulating personnel: use rubber or nonconductive mats shoes or gloves
– Interlocks: automatically shut down when an enclosure is breached
– Isolation: fence isolation for high voltage equipment such as transformers
– Marking: warning signs
– Warning devices: light, flashing equipment indicator
– Ground-fault circuit interrupter: a device that interrupts the circuit when fault current
faultily goes to ground
________________________________________________________________________________________
Static Electricity
• Reducing the effects of static electricity

– Selection of materials: cotton has less static electricity generation than wool
– Making a material suitable: by coating the materials
– Bonding and grounding: bonding surface that accumulates charges or grounding to
the earth
– Electrostatic neutralizers: produces positive charges that neutralize the electrons
– Humidifiers: humidity above 65 dissipate electrons
Lighting
• Massive natural discharge of static electricity

• The Lightning rod is used to discharge to earth
• The Lightning warning is used to warn about lightning density within 100 miles
• The shelter has to be taken in the building with the discharged rods
• In open areas, land depression is sought for protection
How to Protect an Explosion from Electrical Equipment
• Ignition of combustible materials

– Ignition occurs due to spark, arc, or corona through the flammable mixture
– Try to eliminate electrical circuits around flammable areas
– Use safe devices that consume less power such as integrated circuits around
flammable areas
– Embedment, Encapsulation, and potting: coating processes that decrease the
possibility of sparking
– Hermetic sealing: a process that is used to remove heat from a device in an
environment that contains flammable gases or moist
– Liquid filling: Electrical equipment is filled with liquid that can remove heat and has less
ionization property
• Explosion-proof equipment: A case that withstands the explosion, as shown in Figure 2-16
• Pressurization: the use of inner gas with a pressure above the ambient pressure to block the
entrance of the flammable gas
• Isolation: National electric code state in detail the best environment to isolate electrical
equipment
Figure 2-16 Protection devices from electrical explosion

________________________________________________________________________________________
Overheating
• Heating and overheating

– May ignite a flammable mixture
– Melt insulated material
– Evaporate liquid fuel that produces a flammable mixture
– Breakdown noncombustible materials
– Might cause burning to personnel
• Electrical explosion due to heavy current load
Circuit and Equipment Protection
• Trip the circuit when overloaded

– Fuses
– Circuit breakers
– Unit protection: protect separate pieces
• Protective devices give an indication there is something wrong with the system
Inadvertent Activation
• Accident activation of electric devices could cause death or injury.
________________________________________________________________________________________
2.6 Fires and Fire Suppression
________________________________________________________________________________________
OSHA Fire Compliance
• 1910 Subpart L, Fire Protection. Includes Standards 1910.155 to 1910.165, 1910.36, General
requirements (Means of Egress).
Introduction
Fires require fuel, an oxidizer, and a source of ignition. Fire is a result of the oxidization/reduction
chemical reaction that produces heat and visible light. A proper proportion of fuel and oxidizers is
required to enter the reaction
• Fuel
– Normally flammable (ex. Fuel for heating, insecticide, papers, clothes)
– Both flammable and nonflammable: burn on high oxidizer concentration (ex. Plastic)
– Product of other reactions or processes: acts as fuel (ex. Hydrogen released during
charging of storage batteries)
• Oxidizer
– Oxygen is the most common: (21 % available in the air)
– Some substances have low combustibility in the air but will burn in rich oxidizers
(methylene chloride burns on oxygen-rich but not air)
– Flare-type combustion: burning of fuel in oxygen-rich and produces more temperature
than air burning
– Pure oxygen is a higher oxidizer than air: oxygen-fed acetylene is used for welding
– Some substances are stronger than oxygen (Fluorine, chlorine, nitrates, peroxide, and
strong acids) they should be carefully handled
• Gases
– Different factors are needed when the oxidizer and the fuel are both gases
– The factors include: proportion, temperature, type of ignition, the concentration of
oxidizer, mixture pressure
– The flammability limit is not constant throughout the mixture so some areas could be
safe and other flammable
– Gases could ignite outside flammability limits if the spark energy is high
• Liquid Fuels
– The liquid first change to gas then the fire starts
– The fire evaporates the liquid and the fire sustain if the rate of evaporation is fast
enough
– Different factors involved such as heat of vaporization, wind velocity, and liquid surface
exposed
• Pool burning
– Fire is caused by a spill of flammable liquid
– It is rate burning is described as mass (weight lb/min) or linear (The speed at which
depth is consumed)
• Spray and mists
– Extremely rapid vaporization is produced
– Furnaces or internal combustion engines are an example
– Leaks from tanks are in mist or spray shape
________________________________________________________________________________________
Flammable Solids
– Solids burn after going from solid to gas

– Some solid goes from solids to gases without going to the liquid phase
– Some solids which have low melting points burn in a low oxidation process that create
flammable products which burn faster (ex. Coal)
– Metal burning depends on contact between fuel and oxidizer and surface roughness
– Thin wires and foils are the most combustibles compared to bulk
– Burning of metal particles depends on the size and specific heat of particles
Ignition
– Energize the reaction between fuel and oxidizer

– Activation energy is in the form of heat
– Photons of light might energize the reaction in some cases (hydrogen and chlorine
mixture)
– Different types of igniters include: electrical arcs spark, hot surface, mechanical or
chemical spark, spontaneous ignition, adiabatic compression, and catalytic action
Sources of Ignition
• Electrical arcs and sparks

– Static electricity discharge, broken conductors, and lightning strikes are some
examples
• Hot surface
– Boilers, electrical heaters, and cigarettes are some examples
• Mechanical and chemical sparks
– The friction of metals is a good example
• Adiabatic compression
– Compressing gas increases the temperature that leads to easy burning (ex. Diesel
engines)
– Compression is very dangerous because it increases the concentration of oxidizers
and fuel
– Sudden stoppage of gases in pipes might have the same effects
• Spontaneous combustion
– Hypergols. The fuel and oxidizer mix rapidly automatic ignition forms (the reaction is
called a hypergolic reaction. For example, nitric acid considered very hypergolically
with many fuels
• Radiation
– Sunlight-using lenses can be used as an igniter
– Glowing solids can be used as an igniter
– Laser beams
• Catalytic action
– A catalyst is an agent that accelerates the reaction (less energy needed)
– Example: Copper oxide accelerates the oxidation of organic compounds
– Example: Hydrazine with iron rust
________________________________________________________________________________________
Ignition Delay
• The flammable mixture does not burn instantaneously

• A heated environment decreases the delay
• A cold environment increases the delay
• Both of these environments could be dangerous
Ignition Sources
• A review of Figure 12-2 shows the major causes of fires which include igniters
• Cigarettes score one of the highest percentages that cause fires in residential and
manufacturing facilities
Effects of Fire on Personnel
• Fatalities are mainly due to suffocation not burning

• The main effects of fire are the production of carbon monoxide and depletion of air oxygen
• Effect of heat: acceptable tolerable temperature 65-70 degrees Celsius.
• Burns: Severity depends on the degree
Fire Detector System
• Fire detectors record abnormal conditions such as temperature, light density, or smoke
• Thermal Expansion detectors: uses the expansion of metal properties to open or close
electrical circuits
• Thermal sensitive devices: use low heat capacity thermocouples that produce voltage when
heated
• Thermal conductivity detectors: heat decreases insulation material resistance that allows
current flow
• Other types: radiant energy, and light interference
Fire Alarms
Figure 2-17 shows various types of fire and smoke alarms.
Figure 2-17 Various types of fire alarms
________________________________________________________________________________________
Placements of Sire Alarms
Figure 2-17 shows the location of fire and smoke alarms; note that each enclosed area; each level
of stairs should have one alarm.
Figure 2-18 shows typical locations for fire-detecting devices
Fire Classifications
• Class A: fire involves solids

• Class B: fire involves gases and liquid
• Class C: involve either class A or B and electrical power
• Class D: involved easily oxidized metals (manganese, aluminum.)
• Special category: involve extremely active oxidizer or fuel mixture ( ex. Nitric acid)
Fire Suppression
• Isolation fire from an oxidizer

– Cut fluid source
– Blanketing, foams
– Diluting gaseous fuel
• Cooling combustible: reduces the heat to continue the reaction
• Reaction inhibition
– Reverses the reaction by adding a catalyst
________________________________________________________________________________________
Water Extinguishing
• Advantages: low cost, simple to use, and effective

• Mainly is used for class A
• Solid Streams:
– used for long-range
• Spray and fog
– Work well as a coolant by absorbing the heat and evaporating
– The produced steam diluted the oxygen reducing its concentration
– Disadvantages: Only used for close range
• Steam: the main effect is to dilute the oxygen
• Thickening agent: thickening agents are added to reduce water runoff
• Salt:
– Salt can be added to depress the freezing point of water
– Some type of salts produces inhibitor to combustion (carbon dioxide)
Gas Extinguishing
• It is effective in enclosed space

• Carbon dioxide (Figure 2-19)
– Acts as coolant, blanketing, and reducing the oxygen concentration
• Nitrogen
– Works as diluents to oxygen
– It might combine with other gases and form a toxic gas
Figure 2-19 Shows carbon dioxide out of the gas fire extinguisher nozzle
________________________________________________________________________________________
Foams Extinguishing
• Foams:
– Suppress by cooling and blanketing (Figure 2-20)
– Produced by mixing water and foam (protein or synthetic materials)
• Light water
– Type of foam used with purple-k powder (potassium bicarbonate)
– Used for fighting oil and engine fuel spills
Figure 2-20 Fire suppression by foam
Solid Extinguishing
• Used for class B fires

• Sand and dirt are the most common (Figure 2-21)
• Powders: suffocate fires
• Solid extinguishers might not prevent the reigniting of fires
Figure 2-21 Fire suppression by solid material
________________________________________________________________________________________
Unsafe Suppressant
• Wrong suppressant use might be hazardous

• Examples:
– use of stream water on hot surfaces of materials might lead to an explosion
– Water-reactive chemicals: examples (calcium, potassium, sulfur)
– Use of carbon dioxide on hot pipes: fracture the pipes
– The use of conductive material in electrical fires
Extinguishing Systems
• The extinguishing system can be portable, mobile, or fixed

• Fixed automatic system
– It is used in places where fire spread rapidly or toxic material presents
– It reduces fire losses
– Sprinkler water is the common system used
– Other system carbon dioxide fixed the automated system, as shown in figure 2-22.
– One problem is reopening the system after maintenance
– Fixed manual system (hose rail, mushroom)
Figure 2-22 Fixed fire suppression system
________________________________________________________________________________________
• Mobile equipment’s
– Heavy types that are wheel-mounted, as shown in Figure 2-23
– Mainly made of 2 extinguishers (purple-K and other light water)
Figure 2-23 Mobile, fire suppression system
• Portable extinguisher (Figure 2-24)

– Capacity-related (for example 1A) has one capacity to extinguish class A
– They labeled with what they would be effective
– They should be located for easy access
– Required regular maintenance: hoses, extinguisher material level
– Appendix (C) shows the different models and how to operate them
Figure 2-24 Portable fire extinguishers
________________________________________________________________________________________
Fire Classification Signs and Systems
Each type of portable fire extinguisher is used to fire class as shown in Figure 2-25.
Figure 2-25 Portable fire extinguisher classification to fire type
________________________________________________________________________________________
2.7 Hazards of Toxic Materials
________________________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
• Fears of chemical release are a concern in industrial plants

• It has been estimated that new potentially hazardous chemical is introduced to the industry
every 20 minutes
• The problems with these chemicals are that their effect is not immediate (ex. cancer)
• Safety engineers should understand the physiology of absorbing toxic materials
Toxic Materials
• Toxic materials are the one that causes harm in small quantities
• Some materials are considered toxic but not considered poisons (overdose of oxygen)
• Some materials could be very harmful to some people but not others (allergy)
• One of the main problems is to determine the degree of toxicity and the factors that affect the
severity of the toxic materials
• Animals are used to determine these factors
Routes to Injury Sites
• Toxic material could be absorbed by different routes of exposure (respiratory system, skin,
gastrointestinal system)
• The most rapid route is injection through the bloodstream
• Detoxifying materials depends on the route of exposure
– Different toxicity outcomes
– Methyl alcohol if consumed produces more toxic formaldehyde
Hypoxia
• Oxygen deficiency creates problems in oxygen absorbance in the blood

• One of the main effects is a decrease in mental capabilities
• Reduce the ability to concentrate
• Could cause heart function failure and ultimately rapid increase in blood pressure
• The affected person grew pain, sweating, headache, dizziness, seizure, and death
• Hypoxic hypoxia
• Caused by low oxygen tension in the blood
• It is due to less oxygen consumption
– Confined space
– Fire where co2 replaces oxygen
– Blockage by an external barrier (food)
________________________________________________________________________________________
Mechanics of Toxic Agents
Effects of toxic materials

– Asphyxiants
• It is hypoxia with the presence of high carbon dioxide
• Carbon dioxide, nitrogen, methane, hydrogen, and noble gases cause the
problem
– Systemic poisons
• Interfering the function of organs
– Causes injury to the kidney and liver (Halogenated hydrocarbon)
– Injuries to bone marrow (Naphthalene, and benzene)
– Affect the nervous system such as paralysis depression, stimulants,
and anesthetics (alcohol, carbon disulfide, drugs)
– Irritant
• Inflammation of tissues under contact (pain swelling, blisters)
• Physical or chemical irritation: increases in the flow of mucus and congestion
of the throat
• Could cause gas, liquid, or fine particles (ammonia causes injury to the upper
respiratory system)
• Some substances are particulate were it not harmful by digestion by harmful
when inhaled (asbestos affects the respiratory system which leads to cancer)
• The respiratory system has different defenses system to prevent inhaling
substances (hair, sneezing, coughing)
• Fine particles could coat the respiratory system (cigarettes caused
emphysema)
• Eyes irritation includes redness and watery
– Carcinogens
• Chemicals that cause cancer
• Usually known through laboratory animals
• Substances with High uncertainty about their cancer effect should be avoided
or safeguarded
• So many substances are listed to cause cancer (vinyl chloride is an example)
– Skin absorption
• Some substances could be absorbed through the skin even if it is a good
barrier
• Skin absorption is very dangerous because of the lack of metabolism through
this route
• The effect on the skin include corrosive, dermatitis (inflammation), and eye
damage
________________________________________________________________________________________
Measurements of Toxicity
• L, Ct, D, ID,
– Ct: concentration of toxic in milligram/m3 and time of exposure in a minute and is used
when toxic is inhaled
– D: the dose in milligrams of solids in contact with the body
– L: lethality and could be replaced by (I) for incapacitating
– LD50: the dose that is lethal to 50 % of the population
– Toxicity is expressed in milligrams of toxicity per kilogram of body weight of the animal
used in the lab
• Threshold Limit Values (TLV)
– TLV: the average concentration of toxic agent that can be tolerated during exposure
for 40 hours per week continuous normal working lifetime
– OSHA uses PEL (permissible exposure limit)
– The TLV might be revised because of new information (TLV of vinyl chloride was
reduced from 500 ppm to 0)
• Emergency Exposure Limit (EEL)
– EEL: The approximate length of time a person might remain without ill effect under the
specified concentration of the toxic environment
Sources of Chemical Agents
• Industrial process chemicals and emission

• Fuel or heating power
• Product of combustion
• Agricultural chemicals
• Cleaning agents: bleach if mixed with acid could be deadly
• Safety engineers should know the substances used in their factory
Detection of Toxic Agents
• Distinctive odor color and irritation can be helpful to detect gases

• Devices are used to detect the level of toxins before reach it is a harmful level
Respiratory Protective Equipment
• Different categories of equipment based on operations

– Normal operation
• Spray painting, Cleaning with toxic solvent, and Sandblasting
• All these are known environment that requires special protective devices
– Investigation and corrosion: leaks that require wearing protective devices
– Emergencies: fire, explosion, and rupture of a container containing toxic substances
________________________________________________________________________________________
• Air purifiers
– Filters that are used for different substances, one type is shown in Figure 2-26
– Mechanical filters are also used to increase its inefficiency
– Color coding is used for such filters
– Gas masks are called canister
– Different types: charcoal, silica gel, and soda-lime
– Disadvantages: impedes breathing, limited protection
– Irritation or odor of toxic substance is an indication of the expiration of the canister
– In general, canisters protect concentration up to 2%
– They should be only used for the toxicant that they could filter
Figure 2-26 Air purifier
• Self –contained-air (oxygen breather)

– Consists of an oxygen supply, helmet, supply tube, gas regulator, valves, and gauges
– Different types: continuous flow, and demanding regulator
– Other types: open circuit (oxygen is used then exhausted) and closed circuit
(exhausted oxygen is recycled)
– So many systems available to produce oxygen (ex. KO2 produces oxygen by the
existence of user moisture)
• Airline breathing
– Oxygen is supplied through a connected line from a fixed source
– Used in limited space
– Disadvantage: restricted range to move
________________________________________________________________________________________
2.8 Environments
________________________________________________________________________________________
Extended Effects
The environment is the atmosphere or the place in which people work or live
• EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) is concerned with safety outside the workplace
• OSHA: concerns with safety in the workplace
• The Chornobyl accident extended beyond the local region (Figure 2-27, left)
• Exxon oil spill eleven million gallons of crude oil - The company was fined150 million US
dollars (Figure 2-27, right)
Figure 2-27 Extended effect of environmental disasters
Types of Environment
• Natural and induced environment

– Some natural environments are so strong that can’t be prevented (storms, tornadoes,
tsunamis, volcanic eruptions)
– The induced environment affected by a human (heat emitted from factories…)
– Environment effects
• Humidity
• Rain, clouds
• Sunlight
• High temperature
• Dust, lightning, pressure, radiation
– The induced environment has affected the environment and made it natural (global
warming)
– Global warming: temperature of the earth increases by 0.3 to 0.6 Celsius
– The balanced concentration of gases has been changed due to fossil burning that
changes the equilibrium of the natural greenhouse
– If the greenhouse effects are violated, catastrophic results will occur (severe flooding,
rise in the seabed, expansion of desert…etc.)
– The effect of the release chemical (chlorofluorocarbon) that depletes the ozone
– Many industrial nations have agreed to reduce the output of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases
________________________________________________________________________________________
 The controlled environment
– The controlled environment has been modified to avoid undesirable natural or induced
environment
– The controlled or artificial environment is only applicable to confined space
 Hazards of environment
– Environment hazards have different effects in different states (hot, cold, warm) each
of these could cause different hazards Figure 2-28.
Figure 2-28 Hazards of environmental disasters
Detecting Adverse Environment
• Detecting adverse environment

– Using human senses
– The presence of toxic substances should not exceed the TLV
– Instruments are used to detect flammable, toxic, or radioactive substances
– The disadvantages of such instruments are malfunction and inability to detect below
their range of detection
Protections against Environment
• Protections against environment

– The protection includes remedies to both natural and induced environment
• Industrial ecology: the responsibility of industry towards our environment. An environmental
concern could be
– Global: climate change, ozone depletion, loss of habitat, and reduction of biodiversity
– Regional: surface water chemistry changes, soil degradation, visibility, herbicide,
pesticide
– Local: groundwater pollution, radionuclides, oil spills, toxic sediments, and hazardous
waste site
– ISO 14000 concerns about environmental management and auditing
• Companies are held responsible for their contribution to the environment
________________________________________________________________________________________
2.9 Confined Space Entry
________________________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
What is a confined space? Figure 2-29 shows possible confined space areas.
– Based on OSHA (29 CFR 1910.146): a closed area that
• Large enough for the worker to work in
• Has limited restricted entry
• Not designed for continuous occupancy
– Confined space is considered when hazardous material exists
Figure 2-29 Photographs showing examples of confined spaces
Hazards
• Atmospheric hazards
– NIOSH classification for atmospheric hazards:
– Class-A: Immediately dangerous to life.
– Class-B: Dangerous, but not immediately life-threatening.
– Class-C: Potential hazard.
• Physical hazards
– Release of mechanical, electrical, hydraulic energies, and noise
– Engulfment hazards: bins, silos, and hoppers used to transfer grain, sand, gravel, and
lose materials
• Chemical, biological
– chemical
• Corrosive materials (acids)
• Gases that displace oxygen
– Biological
• Waste (sewers)
• Bacteria
________________________________________________________________________________________
Management Responsibilities for Confined Space
• Identify the location of the confined spaces

• Post warning signs
• Evaluate the hazards
• Entrance procedure: communications between inside and outside
• Issue permission for the hazards confined space
• Test air quality
• Preparation of confined space: the cleaning process
• Provide safety equipment: head protection, respiratory protection
• Worker training
• The person who issued the permit: insure the equipment presented, keep records
• Train team for first aid
Permit
permit-required confined space: space that contains potential hazards such as:
– Flammable gas
– combustible dust
– Oxygen concentration below 19.5 % above 23.5%
– Toxic materials that exceed permissible exposure limit (PEL)
– Any substance that is immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH)
– Liquid or solid that obstruct the respiratory system
– Configuration or shape that traps workers
– Physical, chemical, mechanical, biological, radiation, and temperature
– Figure 2-30 shows a sample of a confined space permit.
Figure 2-30 shows a sample of confined space permit
________________________________________________________________________________________
2.10 Vibration and Noise
________________________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
• In the United States in 1990, 10 million people have impaired hearing due to loud voice
• Millions of dollars cost of hearing loss
• Vibration noise- unwanted, could cause hearing loss in industrial plants
• The adverse effects of vibration and noise include:
- Loss of hearing sensitivity
- Immediate physical damage
- Annoyance
- Destruction
- Contribution to other disorders
Hearing Loss
• Hearing loss is the inability to recognize sounds (speech)

• Normal hearing can detect frequencies between 20 to 20,000 Hz and the most sensitive is
between 500 to 1000 Hz
• Degradation of hearing could be a result of aging, a high level of sound, or sudden intense
sound.
• Even hearing loss as a result of aging is attributed to continuous exposure to environmental
noise
• Hearing loss occurs at levels below OSHA recommendation
• See Figures 16-2 and 16-3 for:
– Octave frequency
– Decibel, Sound pressure level (SPL), dB, dBA*
– Permissible noise exposure related to the time of exposure
– Combining the noise level
• OSHA recommendations 90 dBA for 8 hours and NIOSH are trying to reduce it to 85 dBA
• OSHA requires hearing loss programs in faculty with noise levels exceeding 85 dBA (action
level)
• The threshold test is conducted to deterring the hearing threshold (the lowest level at which a
person can hear)
_______________________________________________________________________________
* The letters “A” or “C” following the abbreviation “dB” designate a frequency-response function that
filters the sounds that are picked up by the microphone in the sound level meter.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Octave
An octave is an interval between two points where the frequency at the second point is twice the
frequency of the first.
Table 2-3 shows octave intervals and corresponding frequencies. Figure 2-31 shows the frequency-
response function that filters the sounds picked up by the microphone in the sound level meter.
Table 2-3 Octave intervals and corresponding frequencies. No, need to memorize these numbers.
Figure 2-31 Frequency-response function
________________________________________________________________________________________
Sound Pressure Level
"Zero" reference sound pressure in air is 20 µPa, which is usually considered the threshold of human
hearing (at 1 kHz). As shown in Figure 2-32
Figure 2-32 Sound pressure levels. No need to memorize these numbers.
Mechanism of Hearing Injury
• It was believed that hearing loss by age is due to the changes in the small bones in the middle
ear
• Nowadays it is believed that hearing loss is due to modern society's noise
– The ciliated cells inner ear is damaged
Ciliated cells: They transfer the incoming vibration of sound to the brain
– Chronic due to continuous or intermittent loud noise
– Irreversible
– When the exposure has been removed the progress of hearing loss inhibited
• Impulsive noise
– occur suddenly (impact of the heavy steam hammer, explosion, or rifle shot)
– It could cause rupture of the eardrum, ringing in the ear, and reduction of blood flow to
the ears
– OSHA requires maximum impulsive noise not to exceed 140 dB
________________________________________________________________________________________
Elements of Hearing Conservations
• OSHA requires a hearing program when noise exceeds 85dBA

– Record keeping for the last two years
– Audiometric testing
– Monitor noise exposure
– Use hearing protection
– Training
• Audiometric testing
– Test hearing regularly, especially the first time of employment
– Keep accurate records
• Exposure monitoring
– Conduct surveys, take measurements
– Insure devices accuracy and environment calibrations
– Sound pressure limit (SPL) is used for measurements (Pascal)
– Different meters are used (linear and A, B, and C weighted meters)
• Hearing protection: minimizing adverse effects on hearing
– Natural hearing protection: the shape of the canal and the muscle around the drum
prevent direct sound to the drum
– Hearing protection devices (HPD)
• Needed when workers exposed to OSHA standards
• Passive HPD (plugs, foam, wools, muffs)
• Active: attenuate sound level (apply opposite sound wave to cancel incoming
noise
• The engineer should select proper HPD, ensure its effectiveness, and train
workers on how to use them
• Employee training: understand the danger, recognize noise exposure, and take action for the
protection
• Engineering control to eliminate noise
– OSHA considered administrative procedural control to wear protective devices as
good engineering
• Annoyance:
– A sound that is not necessarily loud but disturbing
– Loud sound
– Some people might tolerate it but others can't
• Distraction noise:
– not necessarily annoying but cause distraction (could cause accidents)
• Interference or masking
– Reduction in communication in the presence of noise
– Increase of sound in decibels so it will be understood to measure the masking level
– A solution for it can be by using oral communication or a special HPD that has built-in
electronic communication enhancements
________________________________________________________________________________________
2.11 Radiation
________________________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
What is the difference between ionizing and non-ionizing radiation?

Because living tissue is 70-90% water by weight, the dividing line between radiation that excites
electrons and radiation that forms ions is often assumed to equal the ionization of water: 1216 kJ/mol.
Radiation that carries less energy can only excite the water molecule. It is therefore called non-
ionizing radiation. Radiation that carries more energy than 1216 kJ/mol can remove an electron from
a water molecule, called ionizing radiation as shown in Table 2-4.
• Different types of radiation but ionization radiation is the main concerns
• Problems of radiation are that it is not easily sensed but it is there
Table 2-4 Types of radiation. No need to memorize these numbers.
Ionizing Radiation
• The ionizing radiation include

– Alpha, beta, X-ray, and Gamma-ray
• They cause injury to the body by ionizing the body tissue that creates functional changes
• Radioactive material doesn’t lose its potency by absorption or ingestion (animals eat it could
still be active and transfer to humans)
• Chronic effects when a small amount is exposed for a long time
In SI units, 1 (Roentgens) R = 2.58×10−4 Coulomb/kg

An exposure of 500 roentgens in five hours is usually lethal for human beings.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation
From the time radioactivity was discovered, it was obvious that it caused damage. As early as 1901,
Pierre Curie discovered that a sample of radium placed on his skin produced wounds that were very
slow to heal. What some find surprising is the magnitude of the difference between the biological
effects of non-ionizing radiation and ionizing radiation.
Radiation at the low-energy end of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as radio waves and
microwaves, excites the movement of atoms and molecules, which is equivalent to heating the
sample. Radiation in or near the visible portion of the spectrum excites electrons into higher-energy
orbital. When the electron eventually falls back to a lower-energy state, the excess energy is given
off to neighboring molecules in the form of heat. The principal effect of non-ionizing radiation is,
therefore, an increase in the temperature of the system. We experience the fact that biological
systems are sensitive to heat each time we cook with a microwave oven or spend too long in the sun.
However, it takes a great deal of non-ionizing radiation to reach dangerous levels. We can assume,
for example, that absorption of enough radiation to produce an increase of about 6oC in body
temperature would be fatal. Since the average 70-kilogram human is 80% water by weight, we can
use the heat capacity of water to calculate that it would take about 1.5 million joules of non-ionizing
radiation to kill the average human.
Ionizing radiation is much more dangerous. When ionizing radiation passes through living tissue,
electrons are removed from neutral water molecules to produce H2O+ ions. Between three and four
water molecules ionized for every 1.6 x 10-17 joules of energy absorbed in the form of ionizing
radiation. A dose of only 300 joules of an X-ray is fatal for the average human, even though this
radiation raises the temperature of the body by only 0.001oC. Alpha-particle radiation is even more
dangerous; a dose equivalent to only 15 joules is fatal for the average human. Whereas it takes seven
moles of photons of visible light to produce a fatal dose of non-ionizing radiation, absorption of only
7 x 10-10 moles of the Alpha -particles emitted by 238U is fatal.
Alpha Particles
• Emitted from atomic nuclei at high speed with high energy

• It has low penetration ability so it has little effects
• Its effect becomes dangerous if penetrates through wounds, inhalation, or the digestive
system
• The destruction is local but very destructive
Beta Particles
• Could be emitted from fuel and waste (strontium-90, iodine-131)

• Very small in mass
• Could penetrate the skin if it has high energy
• Work as alpha in ionizing tissues
• Very dangerous if inhaled or ingested
• Could be shielded using a thin aluminum sheet
________________________________________________________________________________________
Gamma rays and X-rays
• Gamma and X-rays are similar but gamma comes from natural products
• X-ray is produced by accelerating electrons to strike a suitable target
• Electrical equipment operating at voltage 15000 to 16000 could produce the x-ray
• Both of the rays ionize tissue and cause the damage
• They have high penetration power so they could affect long distance
• They affect the tissue and skin
Sources of Ionizing Radiation
• The main source is radioactive isotopes

• Chemical laboratories have many radioactive materials
• Accidents and mishandling are the most causes of radiation
• Isotopes: Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons; the different
possible versions of each element are called isotopes. For example, the most common
isotope of hydrogen has no neutrons at all; there is also a hydrogen isotope called deuterium,
with one neutron, and another, tritium, with two neutrons.
• The nucleus is composed of neutrons and protons except for the hydrogen (the nucleus
contains one proton only)
Beneficial Uses of Ionizing Radiation
• Medical diagnosis: detect a fracture, foreign bodies

• Treatment of cancer
• Examination of weld or fasteners for cracks
• Examination of packages for illegal articles
• Generation of heat and electrical power
• The beta particle is used to neutralize static electricity
Fears of Nuclear Radiation
• Could cause cancer from exposure even for beneficial use

• Public fear of nuclear power plants exceeds the benefits to them
• Bombing Hiroshima and Nagasaki bring the dangers of the radiation materials
Nuclear Accidents
• Chornobyl accident: overheating of the containers of the fissionable material

• The Chornobyl accident increased awareness
• Mining and processing of radioactive material also create fears
• Nuclear waste disposal :
– there will be about 80000 metric tons of high-level nuclear waste in the united states
– Mostly kept under geological isolation
________________________________________________________________________________________
Non-Ionizing Radiation
Include electromagnetic regions extending from ultraviolet to radio wave

– Ultraviolet
– Visible light
– Infrared
– Microwave
Ultraviolet Radiation
• Injuries due to heat or photochemical (affect the eye)

• Sun provides ultraviolet but it is filtered by the atmosphere (some will not)
• Acute exposure (approximately) 3 X10-7 ...causes first and second-degree burn
• Skin tan appears as a result of exposure
• Might cause cancer (sun sources not industrial sources)
• Industrial sources include mainly
– Electrical arc welding
– Laser: very dangerous (figure 17-4 state precautionary measures)
• Eye injury
– Causes blood shots to the eye, Irritation, tears, blindness
– May appear 6 to 12 hours after exposure
• Protection
– Skin cover by opaque cover
– Protected room, special goggles( ferric oxide), and face mask
Visible Light
The injury will be mainly to the eyes

– The eye has a protective mechanism through the iris and the pupil that usually protect
the retina
– The mechanism won't work when the intensity of energy is high (50 cal/cm2/min)
– Eye protection should be worn (welding)
– Welders suffer from color perception deficiencies
– Spotlight or high-intensity light could cause injury but to a limited degree
– Looking directly at the sun could cause injury (especially using magnifying lenses)
– The illumination coming from reflection could cause injury (snow reflection)
– Glare in industrial plants could cause eye fatigue and headaches
Infrared Radiation
Anybody that has a temperature above absolute zero will produce infrared
• The injury is caused by the heat that the radiation generated when striking objects
– Reddening and Burning of the skin
– Loosing of salt due to perspiration
• In industrial plants, IR is produced by any high-temperature process
• Could cause injury to the eye where the lens becomes opaque (cataracts) and retina burn
• Clothing and face masks can provide protection
________________________________________________________________________________________
Microwave Radiation
• Source (microwave ovens, high-powered radar systems, microwave communication systems,

alarm systems, and some industrial processes)
• Injuries usually caused by heat
• Could cause cataracts at high frequency
• OSHA has restricted the frequency as well as power density and energy density for safe use
• Other hazards: intensive heat resulting from the microwave radiation could cause sparks, metal
overheats, and an explosion of flammable materials
• Protection against microwave radiation
• No inspection of the emitter during the operation
• Absorbent of the radiation should use during inspection
• Radiation should not be directed to inhibited areas
• No metal should be worn or used around a place with microwave radiation
• Avoid the use of a flammable or explosive substance in the radian area
• A warning device should be used to indicate the radiating
Radio Frequencies Radiation: Wireless Communication
• Millions of people use wireless communications (mobile phones, data transmission)

• Some mobile user has been diagnosed with brain cancer
• In lab experiment on animals, some suggest that it cause cancer
• Other experiments suggest no cancer
• Federal communication commission FCC has established guidelines for maximum
permissible limits
• Devices should comply with FCC limits at construction or renewal (certification is issued)
________________________________________________________________________________________
2.12 Work-Related
Musculoskeletal Disorder
________________________________________________________________________________________
WMSD: Work-Related or Not Work-Related?
• WMSD (Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorder)

– Also referred to as Occupational Overuse Disorder (OOD)
– It includes Carpal Tunnel Syndrome, Tenosynovitis, Tension neck syndrome, and
back pain
– Most of these diseases are attributed to Cumulative Trauma Disorder (CTD) or
Repetitive Stress Injury (RSI)
– WMSD is very expensive on the work capacity
– Major causes are harmful materials, irregular motion, and unnatural posture
Tenosynovitis is inflammation of the lining of the sheath that surrounds a tendon (the cord that joins
muscle to bone)
The Effects of WMSD
Joints with muscles, tendons, nerves, and blood vessels are at risk (Figures 2-33 and 2-34)
• Effects of overuse disorder
– Strain: Muscle or tendon injury due to lack of blood for a long time
– Inflammation: Due to bacterial invasion
– Sprains: stretching, tearing, or pulling a ligament
– Nerve compression: Pressure on the nerve either from internal or external factors
Tendon Injuries
• Tendon tear = strain

• Some tendons are surrounded by a sheath
• The sheath has a lubricant called synovial fluid
• With overuse, synovial fluid may be reduced, causing friction between the tendon and sheath
(Inflammation)
Ligament and Bursa Injuries
• Ligament tears = sprains

• Sprains can contribute to joint instability
• Where ligaments are subject to friction, the bursa shields them from rubbing against bone
(shoulder, elbow, knee)
• A tendon that becomes rough from overuse or a lot of use can irritate the adjacent bursa,
causing an inflammatory response called bursitis
• Bursitis limits the free movement of the tendon
________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 2-33 A view of the finger
tendons, their sheaths, and the
carpal ligament in the hand
Figure 2-34 A magnified view

of a muscle-tendon-bone unit
illustrating the relationship
between a bursa and tendon
in the shoulder
________________________________________________________________________________________
Nerve Disorders
Caused by pressure on the nerves from surfaces, tools, nearby bones, ligaments, and tendons
(Figure 2-35)
• Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS)
Figure 2-35 Shows impinged nerve disorder
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS)
• It is caused by the swollen tendon and the blood vessels around the carpal tunnel (Figure 2-
36)
• It becomes very important due to the increased magnitude of the injury and the related cost
• Symptoms
– Painful hands tingling
– Finger Numbness
– Feelings of swelling
– Weakened in grip
• There are some non-working related causes for CTS such as arthritis or diabetes
• Smoking, caffeine, and alcohol magnify the diseases
• Women seem to have more risk factors than men
Figure 2-36 Cross-section of carpal tunnel
________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 2-37 Shaded areas typically affected by symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome
Neurovascular Disorders
• Involve nerves and adjacent blood vessels

• Thoracic outlet syndrome (aka cervicobrachial disorder): involves the shoulder and upper arm.
The term is used to describe the compression of nerves and blood vessels between the neck
and shoulder. Symptoms are similar to CTS. Caused by pressure to the neurovascular bundle
• Vibration syndrome (aka white finger or Raynaud’s syndrome): finger blanching due to closure
of finger arteries. From forceful gripping of vibrating tools (Figure 2-28)
Factors of WMSD
• Age
• Gender
• Smoking: Associated with back pain
• Physical Activities: exercise decreases it, however, a wrong way of doing contributes to
WMSD
• Strength: strength less than needed for tasks causes MSD
• Anthropometrics: obesity, weight, and height are potential factors
Low Back Pain
• 20 % of work-related injury due to back pain with cost ranges between 20 -50 billion
• Prevention
– Reemployment
– Training of lifting
• Straight back bent the knee, hip flex, kinetic (trajectory with no back bent),
dynamic (same kinetic but with back bent), stooped)
– Workplace design: A design for no lifting, or control of the lifting (method, objects, the
meant to lift, and environment)
________________________________________________________________________________________
Black Belt
• NIOSH concludes that a black belt is not effective (Figure 2-39)

• Other studies prove its effectiveness
• Homeostasis could increase the risk: when a worker feels they are protected they might lift
more
Figure 2-38 Shows white fingers Figure 2-39 Blackbelt and sport uses
Ergonomics
The fitting task to man, maintain proactive ergonomics program, good design from the beginning
• Steps by NIOSH to evaluate WMSD, and look for signs of WMSD
– Looks for claims or complaints of discomfort
– Contact insurance claims to gather information from competitors
 Set the stage of action
– Each company should make ergonomics in its programs
– An integrated approach between personnel, engineers, health care human
resources, and Ergonomists
 Train personnel to build in-house expertise
– Training includes workplace risk factors, symptoms of WMSD, company health
procedures, and observing employees.
 Gather and examine evidence of WMSD
– Reports
– Posture awkwardness
– Repetitive motion
– Cold, work rest, new or unfamiliar work, duration to risk factors
– Checklist and walkthrough
 Identify effective control of WMSD risky task
– Engineering control, administration control, and protective equipment
– If possible, eliminate the risk, devices use should be evaluated first
 Implementing healthcare management
– Training and encouragements
– Report on early signs
________________________________________________________________________________________
References:
W. Hammer and D. Price (2001). Occupational Safety Management and Engineering, 5th edition,
Prentice-Hall. ISBN: 0-13-896515-3
J. Ridley and J Channing (2003). Safety at Work, 6th edition, Butterworth Heinemann. Burlington, MA.
Tania Mol. (2003). Productive Safety Management. Butterworth-Heinemann, Burlington MA 01803
Selected topics on Professional Safety, Journal of the American Society of Safety Engineers.
Selected topics from the Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health
OSHA and NIOSH websites
Note that the topics of this course are part of a certified safety-training program, approved by the Ministry of
Labor and Ministry of higher education in connection with the Consultative Center for Science and
Technology and in collaboration with the Safety, Occupational, and Environmental Health Department at
JUST.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix (A)
OSHA Self-Inspection Checklist
SAFETY AND HEALTH PROGRAM
• Do you have an active safety and health program in operation that deals with general safety and health
program elements as well as the management of hazards specific to your worksite?
• Is one person responsible for the overall activities of the safety and health program?
• Do you have a safety committee or group made up of management and labor representatives that meet
regularly and report in writing on its activities?
• Do you have a working procedure for handling in-house employee complaints regarding safety and health?
• Are you keeping your employees advised of the successful effort and accomplishments you and/or your
safety committee have made to assuring they will have a workplace that is safe and healthful?
• Have you considered incentives for employees or workgroups who have excelled in reducing workplace
injuries/illnesses?
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
• Are employers assessing the workplace to determine if hazards that require the use of personal protective
equipment (for example, head, eye, face, hand, or foot protection) are present or are likely to be present?
• If hazards or the likelihood of hazards are found, are employers selecting and having affected employees
use properly fitted personal protective equipment suitable for protection from these hazards?
• Has the employee been trained on PPE procedures that is, what PPE is necessary for a job task, when they
need it, and how to properly adjust it?
• Are protective goggles or face shields provided and worn where there is any danger of flying particles or
corrosive materials?
• Are approved safety glasses required to be worn at all times in areas where there is a risk of eye injuries
such as punctures, abrasions, contusions, or burns?
• Are employees who need corrective lenses (glasses or contacts) in working environments having harmful
exposures, required to wear only approved safety glasses, or protective goggles, or use other medically
approved precautionary procedures?
• Are protective gloves, aprons, shields, or other means provided and required where employees could be
cut or where there is reasonably anticipated exposure to corrosive liquids, chemicals, blood, or other
potentially infectious materials? See 29
• CFR 1910.1030(b) for the definition of "other potentially infectious materials."
• Are hard hats provided and worn where the danger of falling objects exists?
• Are hard hats inspected periodically for damage to the shell and suspension system?
• Is appropriate foot protection required where there is the risk of foot injuries from hot, corrosive, or poisonous
substances, falling objects, and crushing or penetrating actions?
• Are approved respirators provided for regular or emergency use where needed?
• Is all protective equipment maintained in a sanitary condition and ready for use?
• Do you have eyewash facilities and a quick drench shower within the work area where employees are
exposed to injurious corrosive materials? Where special equipment is needed for electrical workers, is it
available?
• Where food or beverages are consumed on the premises, are they consumed in areas where there is no
exposure to toxic material, blood, or other potentially infectious materials?
• Is protection against the effects of occupational noise exposure provided when sound levels exceed those
of the OSHA noise standard?
• Are adequate work procedures, protective clothing, and equipment provided and used when cleaning up
spilled toxic or otherwise hazardous materials or liquids?
• Are there appropriate procedures in place for disposing of or decontaminating personal protective
equipment contaminated with, or reasonably anticipated to be contaminated with, blood or other potentially
infectious materials?
________________________________________________________________________________________
All Rights Reserved: Dr. Tarek Qasim Page | i
FLAMMABLE AND COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS
• Are combustible scrap, debris, and waste materials (oily rags, etc.) stored in covered metal receptacles and
removed from the worksite promptly?
• Is proper storage practiced to minimize the risk of fire including spontaneous combustion?
• Are approved containers and tanks used for the storage and handling of flammable and combustible liquids?
• Are all connections on drums and combustible liquid piping, vapor, and liquid tight?
• Are all flammable liquids kept in closed containers when not in use (for example, parts cleaning tanks, pans,
etc.)?
• Are bulk drums of flammable liquids grounded and bonded to containers during dispensing?
• Do storage rooms for flammable and combustible liquids have explosion-proof lights?
• Do storage rooms for flammable and combustible liquids have mechanical or gravity ventilation?
• Is liquefied petroleum gas stored, handled, and used following safe practices and standards?
• Are "NO SMOKING" signs posted on liquefied petroleum gas tanks?
• Are liquefied petroleum storage tanks guarded to prevent damage from vehicles?
• Are all solvent wastes and flammable liquids kept in fire-resistant, covered containers until they are removed
from the worksite?
• Is vacuuming used whenever possible rather than blowing or sweeping combustible dust? Are firm
separators placed between containers of combustibles or flammables, when stacked one upon another, to
assure their support and stability?
• Are fuel gas cylinders and oxygen cylinders separated by distance, and fire-resistant barriers, while in
storage?
• Are fire extinguishers selected and provided for the types of materials in areas where they are to be used?
• Class A Ordinary combustible material fires.
• Class B Flammable liquid, gas, or grease fires.
• Class C Energized-electrical equipment fires.
• Are appropriate fire extinguishers mounted within 75 feet of outside areas containing flammable liquids, and
within 10 feet of any inside storage area for such materials?
• Are extinguishers free from obstructions or blockage?
• Are all extinguishers serviced, maintained, and tagged at intervals not to exceed 1 year?
• Are all extinguishers fully charged and in their designated places?
• Where sprinkler systems are permanently installed, are the nozzle heads so directed or arranged that water
will not be sprayed into operating electrical switchboards and equipment?
• Are "NO SMOKING" signs posted where appropriate in areas where flammable or combustible materials
are used or stored?
• Are safety cans used for dispensing flammable or combustible liquids at a point of use?
• Are all spills of flammable or combustible liquids cleaned up promptly?
• Are storage tanks adequately vented to prevent the development of excessive vacuum or pressure as a
result of filling, emptying, or atmosphere temperature changes?
• Are storage tanks equipped with emergency venting that will relieve excessive internal pressure caused by
fire exposure?
• Are "NO SMOKING" rules enforced in areas involving the storage and use of hazardous materials?
________________________________________________________________________________________
All Rights Reserved: Dr. Tarek Qasim Page | ii
HAND AND PORTABLE POWERED TOOLS
Hand Tools and Equipment
• Are all tools and equipment (both company and employee-owned) used by employees at their workplace in
good condition?
• Are hand tools such as chisels and punches, which develop mushroomed heads during use, reconditioned
or replaced as necessary?
• Are broken or fractured handles on hammers, axes, and similar equipment replaced promptly?
• Are worn or bent wrenches replaced regularly?
• Are appropriate handles used on files and similar tools?
• Are employees made aware of the hazards caused by faulty or improperly used hand tools?
• Are appropriate safety glasses face shields, etc. used while using hand tools or equipment, which might
produce flying materials or be subject to breakage?
• Are jacks checked periodically to ensure they are in good operating condition?
• Are tool handles wedged tightly in the head of all tools?
• Are tool cutting edges kept sharp so the tool will move smoothly without binding or skipping?
• Are tools stored in dry, secure locations where they won’t be tampered with?
• Is eye and face protection used when driving hardened or tempered spuds or nails?
Portable (Power Operated) Tools and Equipment
• Are grinders, saws, and similar equipment provided with appropriate safety guards?
• Are power tools used with the correct shield, guard, or attachment, as recommended by the manufacturer?
• Are portable circular saws equipped with guards above and below the base shoe?
• Our circular saw guards checked to assure they are not wedged up, thus leaving the lower portion of the
blade unguarded.
• Are rotating or moving parts of equipment guarded to prevent physical contact?
• Are all cord-connected, electrically operated tools and equipment effectively grounded or of the approved
double-insulated type?
• Are effective guards in place over belts, pulleys, chains, and sprockets, on equipment such as concrete
mixers, and air compressors?
• Are portable fans provided with full guards or screens having openings ½ inch or less?
• Is hoisting equipment available and used for lifting heavy objects, and are hoist ratings and characteristics
appropriate for the task?
• Are ground-fault circuit interrupters provided on all temporary electrical 15 and 20-ampere circuits, used
during periods of construction?
• Are pneumatic and hydraulic hoses on power-operated tools checked regularly for deterioration or damage?
• Is all machinery or equipment capable of movement, required to be de-energized or disengaged and locked
out during cleaning, servicing, adjusting, or setting up operations, whenever required?
• Where the power disconnecting means for equipment does not also disconnect the electrical control circuit:
• Are the appropriate electrical enclosures identified?
• Are means provided to assure the control circuit can also be disconnected and locked out?
• Is the locking-out of control circuits instead of locking-out main power disconnect prohibited?
• Are all equipment control valve handles provided with a means for locking out?
• Does the lock-out procedure require that stored energy (mechanical, hydraulic, air, etc.) be released or
blocked before equipment is locked-out for repairs?
• Are appropriate employees provided with individually keyed personal safety locks?
• Are employees required to keep personal control of their key(s) while they have safety locks in use?
• Is it required that only the employee exposed to the hazard, place or remove the safety lock?
• Is it required that employees check the safety of the lock-out by attempting a startup after making sure no
one is exposed?
• Are employees instructed to always push the control circuit stop button immediately after checking the safety
of the lock-out?
• Is there a means provided to identify any or all employees who are working on locked-out equipment by
their locks or accompanying tags?
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• Are a sufficient number of accident preventive signs or tags and safety padlocks provided for any reasonably
foreseeable repair emergency?
• When machine operations, configuration, or size requires the operator to leave his or her control station to
install tools or perform other operations, and that part of the machine could move if accidentally activated,
is such element required to be separately locked or blocked out?
• If equipment or lines cannot be shut down, locked out, and tagged, is a safe job procedure established and
rigidly followed?
Powder-Actuated Tools
• Are employees who operate powder-actuated tools trained in their use and carry a valid operator’s card?
• Is each powder-actuated tool stored in its locked container when not being used?
• Is a sign at least 7 inches by 10 inches with boldface type reading "POWDER ACTUATED
• TOOL IN USE" conspicuously posted when the tool is being used?
• Are powder-actuated tools left unloaded until they are ready to be used?
• Are powder-actuated tools inspected for obstructions or defects each day before use?
• Do powder-actuated tool operators have and use appropriate personal protective equipment such as hard
hats, safety goggles, safety shoes, and ear protectors?
LOCKOUT/TAGOUT PROCEDURES
CONFINED SPACES
• Are confined spaces thoroughly emptied of any corrosive or hazardous substances such as acids or
caustics, before entry?
• Are all lines to a confined space, containing inert, toxic, flammable, or corrosive materials valve off and
blanked or disconnected and separated before entry?
• Are all impellers, agitators, or other moving parts and equipment inside confined spaces locked out if they
present a hazard?
• Is either natural or mechanical ventilation provided before confined space entry?
• Are appropriate atmospheric tests performed to check for oxygen deficiency, toxic substances, and
explosive concentrations in the confined space before entry?
• Is adequate illumination provided for the work to be performed in the confined space?
• Is the atmosphere inside the confined space frequently tested or continuously monitored during the conduct
of work? Is there an assigned safety standby employee outside of the confined space? When required,
whose sole responsibility is to watch the work in progress, sound an alarm if necessary, and render
assistance?
• Is the standby employee appropriately trained and equipped to handle an emergency?
• Is the standby employee or other employees prohibited from entering the confined space without lifelines
and respiratory equipment if there is any question as to the cause of an emergency?
• Is approved respiratory equipment required if the atmosphere inside the confined space cannot be made
acceptable
• Is all portable electrical equipment used inside confined spaces either grounded and insulated, or equipped
with ground fault protection?
• Before gas welding or burning is started in a confined space, are hoses checked for leaks, compressed gas
bottles are forbidden inside of the confined space, torches are lit only outside of the confined area and the
confined area is tested for an explosive atmosphere each time before a lighted torch is to be taken into the
confined space?
• If employees will be using oxygen-consuming equipment such as salamanders, torches, and furnaces, in a
confined space-is sufficient air provided to assure combustion without reducing the oxygen concentration
of the atmosphere below 19.5 percent by volume?
• Whenever combustion-type equipment is used in a confined space, are provisions made to ensure the
exhaust gases are vented outside of the enclosure?
• Is each confined space checked for decaying vegetation or animal matter which may produce methane?
• Is the confined space checked for possible industrial waste which could contain toxic properties?
• If the confined space is below the ground and near areas where motor vehicles will be operating, is it
possible for vehicle exhaust or carbon monoxide to enter the space?
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ELECTRICAL
• Do you specify compliance with OSHA for all contract electrical work?
• Are all employees required to report as soon as practicable any obvious hazard to life or property observed
in connection with electrical equipment or lines?
• Are employees instructed to make preliminary inspections and/or appropriate tests to determine what
conditions exist before starting work on electrical equipment or lines?
• When electrical equipment or lines are to be serviced, maintained, or adjusted, are necessary switches
opened, locked out, and tagged whenever possible?
• Are portable electrical tools and equipment grounded or of the double-insulated type?
• Are electrical appliances such as vacuum cleaners, polishers, and vending machines grounded?
• Do extension cords being used have a grounding conductor?
• Are multiple plug adaptors prohibited?
• Are ground-fault circuit interrupters installed on each temporary 15 or 20 amperes, 120-volt AC circuit at
locations where construction, demolition, modifications, alterations, or excavations are being performed?
• Are all temporary circuits protected by suitable disconnecting switches or plug connectors at the junction
with permanent wiring?
• Do you have electrical installations in hazardous dust or vapor areas? If so, do they meet the National
Electrical Code (NEC) for hazardous locations?
• Is exposed wiring and cords with frayed or deteriorated insulation repaired or replaced promptly?
• Are flexible cords and cables free of splices or taps?
• Are clamps or other securing means provided on flexible cords or cables at plugs, receptacles, tools,
equipment, etc., and is the cord jacket securely held in place?
• Are all cord, cable, and raceway connections intact and secure?
• In wet locations, are electrical tools and equipment appropriate for the use or location or otherwise
protected?
• Is the location of electrical power lines and cables (overhead, underground, underfloor, another side of
walls) determined before digging, drilling, or similar work is begun?
• Are metal measuring tapes ropes hand lines or similar devices with metallic thread woven into the fabric
prohibited where they could come in contact with energized parts of equipment or circuit conductors?
• Is the use of metal ladders prohibited in areas where the ladder or the person using the ladder could come
in contact with energized parts of equipment, fixtures, or circuit conductors?
• Are all disconnecting switches and circuit breakers labeled to indicate their use or equipment served?
• Is disconnecting mean always opening before fuses are replaced?
• Do all interior wiring systems include provisions for grounding metal parts of electrical raceways, equipment,
and enclosures?
• Are all electrical raceways and enclosures securely fastened in place?
• Are all energized parts of electrical circuits and equipment guarded against accidental contact by approved
cabinets or enclosures?
• Are sufficient access and working space provided and maintained for all electrical equipment to permit ready
and safe operations and maintenance?
• Are all unused openings (including conduit knockouts) in electrical enclosures and fittings closed with
appropriate covers, plugs, or plates?
• Are disconnecting switches for electrical motors above two horsepower, capable of opening the circuit when
the motor is in a stalled condition, without exploding? (Switches must be horsepower rated equal to or above
the motor hp rating.) Is low voltage protection provided in the control device of motors driving machines or
equipment which could cause probable injury from inadvertent starting?
• Is each motor disconnecting switch or circuit breaker located within sight of the motor control device?
• Is each motor located within sight of its controller or is the controller disconnecting means capable of being
locked in the open position or is a separate disconnecting means installed in the circuit within sight of the
motor?
• Is the controller for each motor over two horsepower, rated in horsepower equal to or over the rating of the
motor it serves?
• Are employees who regularly work on or around energized electrical equipment or lines instructed in the
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) methods?
• Are employees prohibited from working alone on energized lines or equipment over 600 volts?
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WALKING-WORKING SURFACES
General Work Environment
• Is a documented, functioning housekeeping program in place?

• Are all worksites clean, sanitary, and orderly?
• Are works surfaces kept dry or are appropriate means taken to assure the surfaces are slip-resistant?
• Are all spilled hazardous materials or liquids, including blood and other potentially infectious materials,
cleaned up immediately and according to proper procedures?
• Are combustible scrap, debris, and waste stored safely and removed from the worksite properly?
• Is all regulated waste, as defined in the OSHA bloodborne pathogens standard (1910.1030), discarded
according to federal, state, and local regulations?
• Are accumulations of combustible dust routinely removed from elevated surfaces including the overhead
structure of buildings, etc.?
• Is combustible dust cleaned up with a vacuum system to prevent the dust from going into suspension?
• Is metallic or conductive dust prevented from entering or accumulating on or around electrical enclosures
or equipment?
• Are covered metal waste cans used for oily and paint-soaked waste?
Walkways
• Are aisles and passageways kept clear?

• Are aisles and walkways marked as appropriate?
• Are wet surfaces covered with non-slip materials?
• Are holes in the floor, sidewalk, or other walking surfaces repaired properly, covered, or otherwise made
safe?
• Is there safe clearance for walking in aisles where motorized or mechanical handling equipment is
operating?
• Are materials or equipment stored in such a way that sharp projective will not interfere with the walkway?
• Are spilled materials cleaned up immediately?
• Are changes of direction or elevation readily identifiable?
• Are aisles or walkways that pass near moving or operating machinery, welding operations, or similar
operations arranged so employees will not be subjected to potential hazards?
• Is adequate headroom provided for the entire length of any aisle or walkway?
• Are standard guardrails provided wherever aisle or walkway surfaces are elevated more than 30 inches
above any adjacent floor or the ground?
• Are bridges provided over conveyors and similar hazards?
Floor and Wall Openings
• Are floor openings guarded by a cover, a guardrail, or equivalent on all sides (except at the entrance to
stairways or ladders)?
• Are toeboards installed around the edges of permanent floor openings (where persons may pass below the
opening)?
• Are skylight screens of such construction and mounting that they will withstand a load of at least 200
pounds?
• Is the glass in the windows, doors, glass walls, etc., which are subject to human impact, of sufficient
thickness and type for the condition of use?
• Are grates or similar type covers over floor openings such as floor drains of such design that foot traffic or
rolling equipment will not be affected by the grating spacing?
• Are unused portions of service pits and pits not actually in use either covered or protected by guardrails or
equivalent?
• Are manhole covers, trench covers, and similar covers, plus their supports designed to carry a truck rear
axle load of at least 20,000 pounds when located in roadways and subject to vehicle traffic?
• Are floor or wall openings in fire-resistive construction provided with doors or covers compatible with the fire
rating of the structure and provided with a self-closing feature when appropriate?
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Stairs and Stairways
• Are our standard stair rails or handrails on all stairways having four or more risers?
• Are all stairways at least 22 inches wide?
• Do stairs have landing platforms not less than 30 inches in the direction of travel and extend 22 inches in
width at every 12 feet or less of vertical rise?
• Do stairs angle no more than 50 and no less than 30 degrees?
• Are step risers on stairs uniform from top to bottom?
• Are steps on stairs and stairways designed or provided with a surface that renders them slip-resistant?
• Are stairway handrails located between 30 and 34 inches above the leading edge of stair treads?
• Do stairway handrails have at least 3 inches of clearance between the handrails and the wall or surface
they are mounted on?
• Where doors or gates open directly on a stairway, is there a platform provided so the swing of the door does
not reduce the width of the platform to less than 21 inches?
• Where stairs or stairways exit directly into any area where vehicles may be operated, are adequate barriers
and warnings provided to prevent employees from stepping into the path of traffic?
• Do stairway landings have a dimension measured in the direction of travel, at least equal to the width of the
stairway?
Elevated Surfaces
• Are signs posted, when appropriate, showing the elevated surface load capacity?
• Are surfaces elevated more than 30 inches above the floor or ground provided with standard guardrails?
• Are all elevated surfaces (beneath which people or machinery could be exposed to falling objects) provided
with standard 4-inch toe boards?
• Are a permanent means of access and egress provided to elevated storage and work surfaces?
• Is required headroom provided where necessary?
• Is the material on elevated surfaces piled, stacked, or racked in a manner to prevent it from tipping, falling,
collapsing, rolling, or spreading?
• Are dock boards or bridge plates used when transferring materials between docks and trucks or rail cars?
HAZARD COMMUNICATION
• Is there a list of hazardous substances used in your workplace?

• Is there a written hazard communication program dealing with Material Safety Data
• Sheets (MSDS), labeling, and employee training?
• Is each container for a hazardous substance (i.e., vats, bottles, storage tanks, etc?) labeled with product
identity and a hazard warning (communication of the specific health hazards and physical hazards)?
• Is there a Material Safety Data Sheet readily available for each hazardous substance used?
• Is there an employee training program for hazardous substances?
• Does this program include:
• An explanation of what an MSDS is and how to use and obtain one.
• MSDS contents for each hazardous substance or class of substances?
• Explanation of "Right to Know?"
• Identification of where an employee can see the employer's written hazard communication program and
where hazardous substances are present in their work areas.
• The physical and health hazards of substances in the work area, and what specific protective measures are
to be used?
• Details of the hazard communication program, including how to use the labeling system and MSDSs?
• Are employees trained in the following:
• How to recognize tasks that might result in occupational exposure?
• How to use work practice and engineering controls and personal protective equipment and know their
limitations?
• How do obtain information on the type, selection, proper use, location, removal handling, decontamination,
and disposal of personal protective equipment?
• Who to contact and what to do in an emergency?
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Appendix (B)
Portable fire extinguishers, and how they work
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Appendix (C)
Safety measures for toxic hazards
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IE 555 Safety Engineering Management Online Manual

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Safety Engineering and Management

Tarek Qasim, PhD

Jordan University of Science and Technology

Industrial Engineering Department

Tel: +962-2-720 1000 Ext: 22318

Part II: Hazards at Work Place

2.1 Acceleration Falls, Falling Objects, and Other Impacts............................... 40

Appendix (A): OSHA Self-Inspection checklist............................................................... i

Industrial Revolution and Accidents

Number of Accidents vs. Cost

Why Care About Safety Costs?

Cost of Occupational Injuries

*Students should know or give an example of the immeasurable cost of accidents.

Numbers of Occupational Illnesses and Injuries

Accident Losses for Personnel vs. Equipment and Facilities

Types of Law Statue

Under common law, the employer should provide employees with…

Employee obligation to the employer:

New Concepts of Accidents Avoidance

The objectives of the OSHA act are to reduce the:

Purpose of the OSHA act:

Who is covered? By OSHA act

General Duty Clause of OSHA Act

What is a Recognized Hazard?

Figure 1-2 Examples of potentially hazardous conditions

Reading OSHA Standards

29 CFR 1910.123 (A) (4) (ii)

Regulation (Title) Part # and subpart Sections and subsections

What can OSHA do for you?

OSHA record-keeping forms

Record keeping: very expensive but mandatory, impact of OSHA:

Violations and Penalties

New Plants and Equipment

Figure 1-4 Qualitative methods for indicating plant hazards.

[Severity Rate = (total days charged X 1,000,000*)/ employees hours of exposure]

FR = 18 X 1,000,000 / 1,200,000 = 15.0 (accident per million man-hours)

FR = 6 X 1,000,000 / 1,200,000 = 5.0 (injuries per million man-hours)

FR = 6 X 200,000 / 1,200,000 = 1.0 (injuries per 200,000 man-hour)

Safety Engineers use FR and SR to compare*:

• Risk: can be physical or legal (accepted).

Two methods of risk indication:

Types of Workplace Hazards: (Details in part two of this manual)

Example: the rupture of a high-pressure tank made from carbon steel.

Determining Existing Hazards

Eliminating and Controlling Hazards*

Warning Means and Devices

Table 1-1 Qualitative discretion of hazard consequences

Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)

Rectangle: Output event represented by a gate

Circle: Basic event with sufficient data (component failure)

Diamond: Undeveloped event (lack of information)

Triangle: Transfer symbol

Figure 1-8 Events symbols used in FTA

AND Both A and B C=AB

Figure 1-9 Gate symbols used in FTA and their relation

Solution: FTA for the roadside accident.

Table 1-2 Qualitative expression of quantitative numbers obtained from FTA

Draw FTA using symbols and gates (self-answer exercise)

2.1 Acceleration Falls, Falling Objects, and other Impacts.

Preventive Measures against fall

Figure 2-1 Personal protective equipment

What Does 1910 Subpart O Require?

Basic Goal of Machine Safety

Cutting and Tearing