Space Robotics and

Control Systems
1. Applications and historical perspective
Minor in Space Sciences and Technologies (Min-CTE)
Instituto Superior Técnico

Rodrigo Ventura (DEEC / ISR-Lisboa)

rodrigo.ventura@isr.tecnico.ulisboa.pt
Exploration
Human civilization has explored its surroundings since
ancient times, looking by knowledge and exploitation
• (1550 BC – 300 BC) Phoenician exploration of the
Mediterranean
• (800 AD – 1040 AD) Viking explorations of the northern
hemisphere
• (XVI – XVIII) European age of discoveries through the sea
• (XIX – ) Deep sea exploration
• (XX – ) Space exploration

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Space as exploration frontier
• (1957) Sputnik 1, the first satellite in orbit
• (1961) Yuri Gagarin, the first human in orbit
• (1969) Neil Armstrong, the first human on the Moon
• (1971) Salyut 1, the first space station in orbit
• (1977) launch of Voyager 1, the first probe leaving
the Solar system into interstellar space (in 2012)
• (mid 1990’s) construction of the International Space
Station (ISS)

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Space as exploration frontier
• Earth orbit
• Cislunar space
• Solar system
• planets
• icy moons
• asteroids
• Interstellar space
• nearby systems
• exoplanets

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Earth orbit
• LEO – Low Earth Orbit
e.g., ISS, Iridium, Starlink
• MEO – Medium Earth Orbit
e.g., GNSS constellations
• GSO – Geosynchronous orbits
e.g., SATCOM, Weather
• Graveyard orbits
e.g., decommissioned satellites

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Space Shuttle program
• NASA program 1972-2011
• 135 human crewed missions
• Main accomplishments
• Various scientific experiments
• Construction of the ISS
• Deployment and servicing of Hubble
space telescope
• Deployment of various satellites
• Crew and servicing of MIR
• USA took about 10 years to regain
capability of human spaceflight

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Cislunar space

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Apollo program
• NASA program 1961-1972
• Main goal: landing humans on
the Moon
• 6 crewed Moon landings
• Main accomplishments
• First human on the Moon
• Technological development
• Various scientific advances
• Return of samples

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Solar system
Planets Icy moons Asteroids

Mars’ Jezero crater Enceladus plumes 101955 Bennu

(by NASA Preseverance) (by NASA Cassini) (NASA OSIRIS-Rex)

Venus
(by URSS Venera) Europa 162173 Ryugu
(by NASA Galileo) (JAXA Hayabusa2)
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Planets
Mercury

Venus

(Pluto)
Earth

Mars

Uranus Neptune
Jupiter Saturn

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 Icy moons
• Some harbour
oceans beneath
the surface
• It is known that
life exists near
hydrothermal
vents on Earth

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Asteroids
• Mostly small rocky
bodies, some of them
remains from early solar
system
• Scientific value for
understanding solar
system formation
• Potential commercial
value for asteroid mining

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Interstellar space

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Interstellar space

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Exoplanets
• Planets orbiting planetary system other than the Solar system
• Too faint to be directly detectable (with rare exceptions)
• Indirect methods capable of both detection and characterization

Kepler mission
(2009-2018)

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Drake equation
• Proposed in 1961 by Frank Drake

N = R ⇤ f p ne f l f i f c L
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R* rate of star formation

fp fraction of stars with orbiting planets
ne fraction of habitable planets in planetary systems
fl fraction of them with life
fi fraction of them with intelligent life
fc fraction of them that developed interstellar communication
L length of time when they send detectable signals
• Original estimates indicated N > 20 but has been frequently revised

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The observable universe
in log scale

Big Bang Cosmic

Microwave
Background
(CMB)

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Global Space Exploration Roadmap
• International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG)

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ISECG mission scenario

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The challenges of space
Space environment is extremelly harsh (by human standards)
• Vacuum
• total – e.g., unbreathable; possible degradation of materials
• partial – e.g., drag in LEO; easily ionized
• Microgravity
• e.g., long-term effects in humans, lower mass structures; sloshing in liquids
• Radiation
• Micrometeorites and space debris
• Thermal environment
• wide range of temperatures – e.g., -73C to 80C in thermally isolated satellites
in orbit; -183C to 106C on Moon surface; about 465C on Venus surface
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 spectrum, radio waves, some ultraviolet wavelengths, and some
high-energy ionizing radiation. As we rise through the
atmosphere, climb a high mountain, take a plane flight, or go to

The challenges of space

the ISS or to the Moon, we rapidly lose the protection of the
atmosphere.

Where Does Radiation Come From?

Chapter 1 In our daily lives we are exposed to electromagnetic radiation

through the use of microwaves, cell phones, and diagnostic

Radiation
• Radiation – “sun is a cosmic shotgun" medical applications such as x-rays. In addition to human-
created technologies that emit electromagnetic radiation such as

• ionizing (harmful) vs non-ionizing (harmless

radio transmitters, light bulbs, heaters, and gamma ray sterilizers
(tools that kill microbes in fresh or packaged food), there are

otherWhat
than heating)
Is Radiation?
many naturally occurring sources of electromagnetic and ionizing
radiation. These include radioactive elements in the Earth’s crust,

• electromagnetic: ultraviolet,
Radiation is a form of energy thatastrophysical
X-rays,
is emittedobjects
or transmitted
𝛄 in galactic
radiation trapped in the Earth’s magnetic field, stars, and other
like quasars or the centers.
Figure 4: Erupting CME from the surface of the Sun.
form of rays, electromagnetic waves, and/or particles. In some
Earth’s biggest source of radiation is the Sun. The Sun emits all Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) captured an erupting CME from
cases, radiation can be seen (visible light) or
wavelengths feltelectromagnetic
in the (infrared spectrum. The majority is in the surface of the Sun in the image in figure 4.6 Note the Earth
the form and
radiation), while other forms like x-rays of visible,
gamma infrared, andare
rays ultraviolet
not radiation (UV). inset at the approximate scale of the image. These CME can have

• particles:
visible and𝛂 (He
can nuclei),
only be 𝛃 (electrons/positrons),
observedmass
directly
Occasionally, giant explosions called solar flares and coronal
or indirectly with
ejections (CME) occur on the surface of the Sun and release
serious consequences on astronauts and their equipment, even
at locations that are far from the Sun.
neutrons, protons
special equipment. Although radiation
massivecan
gamma
haveof negative
amounts
rays, and
effects
energy out into
streams of protons
space in the form of x-rays,

both on biological and mechanical systems, it can also be and electrons called solar
• the role ofused
carefully theto learn
VanmoreAllen
aboutbelts
particle events
each of thoseprotecting
systems. Earth
(SPE) . A robotic spacecraft
5 called the Solar and
5 http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/CMEs.shtml
6 http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/perfect_space_storm.html

11

The motion of electrically charged particles produces

electromagnetic waves. These waves are also called
“electromagnetic radiation” because they radiate from the Figure 3: The Electromagnetic Spectrum
electrically charged particles. They travel through empty space
Instituto Superior Técnico wavelength, the more energetic the radiation and the greater
21 the
as well as through air and other substances. Scientists have
potential for biological harm.
The challenges of space
• Space debris

Effect of a 12mm diameter and 1.7g Al sphere

at 6.8km/s on an Al block 18cm thick (ESA).

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 The challenges of space
• Launch
• the “rocket” equation
v
mwet = mdry e
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vout

mwet = initial mass

mdry = final mass
Δv = change in speed
vout = exhaust speed

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 The challenges of space
• Transportation
• all fuel must be onboard (at least before in-orbit refueling)
• large distances involved in deep space enlarge typical
mission times to years
e.g., Voyager 1 launched in 1977, Cassini mission 6 years
enroute
• gravity assist technique allows spacecraft to be slingshot Cassini (artist concept)
when passing nearby orbiting planets
e.g., Cassini flybies to Venus (twice), Earth-Moon, and
Jupiter
• yet, new concepts are continuously being explored
e.g., solar sails
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The challenges of space
• Communication
• large distances / low signal-to-noise ratio / low bitrate
• Shannon equation ✓ ◆
S
C = B log2 1 +
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N
C = channel capacity (bits/sec)
B = bandwidth (Hz)
S = signal power (W)
N = noise power (W)
• large latency
Earth - Moon - Earth 2.4 to 2.7 secs
Earth - Mars 5 to 20 mins
Earth - Voyager 1 over 20 hours

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Robots and humans
in factories in home
(robot arms) (vacuum cleaner)

in hospitals in search&rescue
(MOnarCH) (RAPOSA-NG)

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What is a robot?
• (1920) the word “robot” coined by
Karel Čapek in the Rossum's Universal
Robots science-fiction play
• (1948) Grey Walter’s Machina
speculatrix, first robots using analog
electronics
• (1970’s) Stanford’s Shakey the robot,
first general purpose mobile robot
using digital computer

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What is a robot?
• It is a machine – e.g., robot arms, mobile robots, humanoids
• It is computational – e.g., can be programmed for various tasks
• It has sensors – e.g., cameras, laser range finders, inertial sensors

• It has actuators – e.g., motors, propellers, gas trusters, reaction wheels

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Space robotics
• Robots that operate in space, distinguishable from other spacecraft,
such as satellites and flyby probes, by their locomotion and
autonomous capabilities.
• Enables operation in space beyond human capabilities
• Deployment of scientific instruments beyond human reach
• Manipulation of large objects in orbit (e.g., assembly, satellite servicing, space
debris deorbiting)
• Environments:
• Microgravity – including both orbital and interplanetary
• Planetary – including both planets and small bodies

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Historical perspective
• (1970) URSS Lunokhod 1, first robot landing and operating on the
Moon, remotely operated, last signal received in 1971

Panoramic image generated from raw camera images.

Rover captured by the
Lunar Reconnaissance
Orbiter in 2010

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Historical perspective
• (1997) NASA Sojourner, first robot landing and operating on Mars

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Historical perspective

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Historical perspective
• Mars rovers (all NASA)

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Historical perspective
• (1981) CSA Canadarm robotic arm, first test in orbit on a Space Shuttle

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Historical perspective
• Canadarm family of space robot arms

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Historical perspective
• (1997) NASA AERCam Sprint, first free-flyer deployed on a Space
Shuttle, remotely operated

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Historical perspective
• Major space agencies have deployed free-flyer robots aboard the ISS

NASA/MIT SPHERES (2006-2019) NASA Astrobee (since 2019)

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Historical perspective
• Major space agencies have deployed free-flyer robots aboard the ISS

JAXA Int-Ball (2017) DLR/Airbus CIMON (2018-2019)

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Historical perspective
• (2018) MINERVA-II, first hopping robot operating on an asteroid,
carried by Hayabusa2 mission to Ryugu

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Historical perspective
• (2021) NASA Ingenuity, the first flight of an helicopter on Mars

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 for extended mobility. For the planetary case, most existing missions magnetic properties of Martian dust, and current Mars climate) rewrote
have used either wheeled rovers or stationary landers but equipped our understanding of Mars (9). The two identical MERs were much
with a robotic arm, a drill, or a sampler to achieve mobility. Many larger and hence could carry a much more capable science payload, in-
of the existing missions, particularly for planetary exploration, have cluding enhanced remote sensing, and a more advanced robotic arm

Historical perspective
achieved remarkable science; for example, much of what we know carrying Yang Gao for
instruments and Steve Chien.
close-in/surface Review including
measurement on space the
robotics: Toward top-level science through
space exploration. Science Robotics, 2(7), 2017.

Downloaded from http://robotics.sciencemag.org/ by guest on January 18, 2021

Table 1. Successfully flown robots on Earth’s orbit, the Moon, Mars, and small bodies as of 2016.
Launch year Mission name Country Target Rover Arm Sampler Drill
1967 Surveyor 3 United States Moon x
1970/1972/1976 Luna 16/20/24 Soviet Union Moon x x x
1970/1973 Luna 17/21 Soviet Union Moon x
1975 Viking United States Mars x x
1981/2001/2008 Canadarm1/2/Dextre Canada ISS x
1993 Rotex Germany Earth’s orbit x
1996 MPF United States Mars x
1997 ETS-VII Japan Earth’s orbit x
2003 Hayabusa Japan Asteroid x
2003 MERs United States Mars x x x
2004 ROKVISS Germany ISS x
2007 Orbital Express United States Earth’s orbit x
2008 JEMRMS Japan ISS x
2008 Phoenix United States Mars x x
2012 Robonaut United States ISS x
2011 MSL United States Mars x x x
2013 Chang’E 3 China Moon x
2004 (arrived in 2014) Rosetta Europe Comet x x x
2016 Aolong-1 ChinaInstituto Superior
Earth’s orbit
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 have their focus on Mars and small bod-

g.org/ by guest on January 18, 2021

ies and are also advancing space robotics
to tackle sample return missions.
Orbital robotic missions

State of the art

Fig. 1. Artistic depiction of Philae lander at landing (courtesy of ESA).
A number of on-orbit applications en-
visaged for the 2025 to 2035 time frame
require advanced robotics capabilities.

Philae (ESA) OSIRIS-REx (NASA) Perseverance (NASA)

Table 3. Medium-term space robotic missions in the pipeline.

Launch year Mission Country Target Rover Arm Sampler Drill
2017 Chang’E 5 China Moon x x x x
2018 Chandrayaan 2 India Moon x
2018 (to arrive) OSIRIS-REx United States NEA x x
Sample Return
2018 InSight United States Mars x x x
2018 Chang’E 4 China Moon (farside) x
2019 SLIM Japan Moon x x x x
2020 Mars 2020 United States Mars
2020 ExoMars 2020 Europe Mars x x x
2020+ Chinese Space China Earth’s orbit x
Station
2025 Phobos sample Europe and Phobos x x
return Russia

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Gao and Chien, Sci. Robot. 2, eaan5074 (2017) 28 June 2017 3 of 11
 Table 4. Long-term space robotic mission concepts (4). ISRU, in situ
resource utilization.

State of the art Destination

Earth’s orbit
Proposed mission
concepts
Space debris removal,
Proposed robotic
locomotion
Arm, hand/gripper,
on-orbit servicing, and harpoon
assembly
Moon Sample return, ISRU, Rover, arm, sampler, drill
exploration of
permanently shaded
craters, prepare for
manned base
Mars Sample return, ISRU, Aeroshell, airplane,
crewed base helicopter, balloon,
hopper, swarms
Phobos sample return Mars helicopter
Venus Exploration Balloon
Mercury Exploration Rover
Asteroid Sample return, ISRU Rover, hopper, arm,
harpoon
Titan Exploration Aeroshell, aerobot,
balloon, lake lander,
submarine, ship,
cooperative robots
Europa/Enceladus Exploration Subsurface, submarine,
hopper
Mars airplane Titan aerobot
Gas giants Exploration Balloon
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Summary of space robotics evolution

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