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PICTURESQUE
MEXICO

SfcS^^
*B/.

*A*
ORB! S T E R R A R U M SERIES
Wished:

Volume I. PICTURESQUE ITALY

Volume II PICTURESQUE NORTH AFRICA

iv. PICTURESQUE PALESTINE

AM) ARABIA
PICTURESQUE
MEXICO
THE COUNTRY THE PEOPLE •

AND THE ARCHITECTURE

JARROLDS Publishers LONDON

Limited, 10 tiinl 11 Warwick Lane
 >>h 'SJ, '5 s , l(">> '7°, >7>>
:-' 24], 245-24- and 2/2
.'! SeUr-Sc pis. 2// and 2\j by Teobert
Museum, Berlin. All the others by Hugo Brehme, Mexiko

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2011

http://www.archive.org/details/picturesquemexicOOstau
Mexico is one of the richest countries in the world. Nowhere else do we find
over such an extensive area equallv favourable conditions for the formation
and enrichment of ores. Nowhere else is there such fertility of soil coupled with
such possibilities of crop cultivation as in the wedge-shaped southern end of the
North American continent. The United States of Mexico do not represent a
phvsical unitv with their two million square kilometres. The Isthmus of Tehuan-
tepec separates the States of Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche and Yucatan from
the northern part of the countrv. In their geological structure, climate, vege-
tation and fauna thev belong to Central America.
The countrv to the north of the Isthmus is chiefly a high plateau. Along
the Rio Grande del Norte it is merelv the continuation of the stone and waste-
deserts of Arizona and New Mexico with their wide table-mountains. To the
south of the 28 ° latitude the grouping of the mountain ranges becomes clearlv
evident. The high plateau or Mesa Central is limited in the west bv the Sierra
Madre Occidental with its wealth of recent volcanic extrusions, and in the east
bv the folded chains of the Sierra Madre Oriental, chiefly built up of limestone
and flattening out northward to the "Llanos estacados*' of Texas. Steep slopes
deeprv-incised bv mountain torrents, the beds of which are drv during most of
the vear, give both of the bordering ranges a voting and wild appearance. In
its northern part, the Mesa Central is an enormous broad folded basin-area

consisting of waste-plains, without exterior drainage, showing in the Bolson of

Mapime an altitude lower than a thousand metres above sea-level. This steppe-
like boundary district was once the battle-field of nomadic Indian tribes against
whose attacks European settlers had long to defend themselves.
Between the 25 and 19 latitude the high plateau rises again to 1,800 and
2,000 metres, and is divided up into several broad and fertile valleys, separated
bv ridges or timbered mountain ranges, running as a rule parallel to the edge
of the plateau, but in places with a somewhat oblique trend.
Further to the south the countrv rises to the zone of high volcanos where
lava-streams have blocked the vallevs in which, as in the valley of Mexico and
further west in the states of Michoacan and Jalisco, great lakes were formed,
most of which were salty. These parts of the countrv have long been densely
populated. The strata of the soil show the remains of at least three pre-
Spanish cultures superimposed one on the other: here on the surface we set
foot on historic ground full of memories of recent Aztec or Spanish times.
The highest volcanoes are the Pic of Orizaba (Citlaltepetl, Star Mountain).
5,594 metres; Popocatepetl (the Smoking Mountain), 5,452 metres (which after

V
a loi od of repose suddenly became active again in 1920), and Iztaceihuatl
(the White Woman ^.2<S6 metres. Only these volcanoes are clad in everlasting
.

snow. The present snow-line lies at about 4,500 metres Other well -known
inoes are the Nevada de Toluca (XinantecatI) 4. ^ 78 metres, and in the
if Jalisco, the Nevada deColima(4,378 metres), with its side cone thrown

up in 1869. All these volcanoes are formed of andesitic lava and ashes. A
volcano built up in historic times is the 1,700 feet high basaltic cone of Mt.Jorullo
in the state of Michoacan) rising to a height of 1,820 metres above sea level.

The Mesa Central ceases abruptly south of the volcanic zone and splits up
into a rugged low mountainous district deeply carved by the Rio Balsas and
its tributaries. The greatest range in this mountainous district is the Sierra
Ire del Sur, a steep costal range sloping abruptly into the Pacific. Here in the
surroundings ofOaxaca and in the Mixteca alta, rocks of archaean age and crvsta-
crop out over an extensive area. Boulders of archaean green stone may
line shists
have supplied the material for the numerous little stone idols in the Mixteco-
Tzapotec style The highland and the Sierra Madre extend South of the Isthmus
from Chiapas to Guatemala. The whole of the Chiapas mountain region was
formerly the natural fortress of the Chiapanecs, a warlike and very ancient Indian
tribe, who maintained their independence against the victorious advance of
the Mexican rule. I Hiring the Spanish rule Chiapas belonged to Guatemala as
the Provincia de San Vicente de Chiapas. The descendants of kindred people
dwell to the south on both sides of the present state border. Here are also the
inants of an old superior Indian culture common to both countries.
Both the shores of the Pacific and the Gulf of Mexico are bordered by
narrow or broad coastal pi lins. The broadest of these belts is the still uninhabited
s steppe .it the lower part of the Rio Grande del Norte. This steppe is the
southern extension of the P ostal plain. The peninsula of Lower Cali-
fornia on the Pa< Ik mountains of which rise to i.oo^^ metres, and
. the eastern
tin peninsula ofYucatan, on the Gulf of Mexico, are mainly reached by sea from
tin- lest ot the country. In their somewhat loose connection with the Mexican

the) retain much th.it is peculiar to their historical and economic

iment
xtends south of the Tropic of Cancer,
part ol Mi
offers the
it most varied conditions tor vegetation
It is the elevation above sea-level, and not
onl) latitude th.it determines climate. There is also contrast between it

and arid Pacific 0.1st where artificial irrigation is even

1

m Onl) the Atlantic winds bring rain. One

tie is the ( < intral p. in ot ower
I < w here
California
ttlements th< oases in the places where
und n dammed and collected behind artificial walls.
i; in important j
ol the oil district, flows into the
iii« Rio Blanco mu\ Rio Papaloapam (along the

VI
banks of which are vast sugar-cane fields), the Rio Coatzacoalcos and the
mighty streams Tabascos, Grijalva and Usumasinta. All these rivers may be
navigated to the foot of the mountains by ships of shallow draught. It is chiefly
during the rainy season in summer that their turbid waters carry the mud of
the wild mountain torrents to the ocean. At their mouths they deposit broad
"barras", the material of which is redistributed along the coast by the Gulf
Stream, and accumulated in the form of dunes and sandy spits. The district
around the mouths of the great streams to the east of the Isthmus is an alluvial
plain of recent formation covered with savannas and swamps with natural
channels which afford the only connection with the interior. But on the Pacific
side the rivers break through the mountains at the bottom of deep oak and
pine-clad gorges. Such rivers are for instance the Rio Sonora, Rio Yaqui and
the powerful Rio Grande de Santiago or Lerma which flows through the Lago
Chapala. Onlv the mouths of these rivers are navigable.
When we approach Mexico from Europe we only perceive the hot and damp
coastal strip of Campeche, Tabasco and Vera Cruz covered with a rank tropical
forest and sparse -growing mangroves along the lagoons. This is the fever-
haunted "tierracaliente", the home of numerous valuable timber trees,dye-woods
and tropical forest animals. The country towards the interior, Edward Seler
tells us, consists of vast wooded plains with an impenetrable tangle of the most

varied deciduous trees. Their foliage is shed irregularly, and their trunks are
very large with horizontally spreading branches. In the shade of these forest
giants the tree fern and small palms thrive, and different sorts of bamboo grow-
along the rivers and brooks. Cocoa and rubber-trees grow wild here, and the
vanilla plant is found climbing the trunks of various trees. The great trunks are
cumbered with innumerable epiphvtes or parasitical plants such as orchids,araceae,
ferns and bromeliaceae which usually cling to the branches and forks of the
branches and collect rain-drops, humus and all sorts of detritus in their funnel-
shaped leaves or rosettes. The cultivation of tobacco in the higher regions of
this zone dates from ancient Indian days. It is now chiefly grown in the State
of Oaxaca and in the surroundings of San Andres Tuxtla in southern Vera Cruz
on the west foot of the basaltic group of the San Martin volcano. Towards the
steppe, on the outer fringe of the virgin forest, one often meets with outposts
of scattered groups of single deep-rooted tropical trees such as the tall-stemmed
silk-cotton tree (Bombax Ceiba L.J and the shady fig-tree (Higo, Ficus Am ate L.J.
Great dryness is a peculiarity of the northern Yucatan soil. Here the rain-
water disappears in the crevices of a young limestone mass forming a cover over
a part of northern Yucatan. The water collects on an impermeable marl bed
at the base of the limestone mass into subterranean rivers and ponds. It is drawn
up through shafts ("cenotes"), and is sometimes bitter. Now-a-days it is often
raised by means of wind-driven motors. The dry soil is particularly adapted for
raising sisal hemp {Agave sisaleana or rigida) which gives this landscape its parti-
cular character. Mcrida is the centre of the sisal hemp industry.

VII
 At a height of between 600 and 1,800 metres, on the slopes of the high
plateau, extends the "tierra templada", the "temperate land"", along the Gult
coast near Orizaba and Jalapa. covered with evergreen woods. Rain falls
It is

here practically throughout the year. Heavv dew refreshes the plants every night,
hut the climate, away from the fever-laden swamps of the lowland, is mild and
isant. Sugar-cane and rice thrive there without artificial irrigation. Beside
,i large number of indigenous tropical fruits such as mammees, aguacates,
zapotes, anonas and papaws, mangos, oranges and bananas, introduced from
the Mediterranean and India, thrive here as though thev were at home. The
lower levels of this zone, as for instance round Cordoba, are often characterized
by red lateritious soil which glimmers through the green foliage. Here are the
c hief regions of the cotfee-plant. In these zones, on the southern slope of the
h plateau in the State of Morelos, are situated the health-resorts Cuauthla
and uernavaca. The latter town was presented bv Charles V. to the conqueror
(

' ui us \\li<> was the tirst to cultivate the sugar-cane in its surroundings. Then
there is Oaxaca, the capital of the state of the same name, and finally, on
south west slopes of the plateau, not far from Guadalajara (the second
st city in Mexico), all the villa colonies along the shores of Lago de

Chapala (the largest lake in the country). The mountain region that extends
from the elevated valley of Puebla to the coast of the Pacific was called
"mixtlan" (cloud land) bv the ancient Mexican Indians, and is known to-day
a.

The the arid plateau, the "tierra fria" (cold land) is situated on the
tart that

>ide ol the eastern coast range, and does not thus receive the rain laden
trade winds, explains its dry climate. Inly about one fifth of the precipitation (A
(

the tierra templada of < trizaba tails here. The year is divided, as further north
.mil along the muth eastern shore, into a dry and rainy season.
According to
Seler's observations the months of February to April cover the period
I

ol 1
aridity. The rain) season usually commences towards the
i

end "i May. The maximum precipitation and frequency o\ thunderstorms is

from June till July, and there is a second lesser maximum in Septemb
1

whereas 1st. in the dog-days, there is usually a minimum.

ii The thundei
mostly in the afternoon, whilst the mornings and forenoons are cl<
time on the high plateau is when the rain) season ends
'
1

in l 1

lutumn follows with ary, fresh, clear days ajid continuall)

ultivated plant of the plateau is the maguey

pi. nit from which pulque made, and which is
An^l ixtle are
Ids planted with agaves aic met with far in tl e
On thi f the plateau thick-leaved opuntias and cacti are frequently

ilmsbelon rder liliaceae, and thorn-acai

1 1

y plants and ab ithstand long periods of drought. The

odium trees) betray the preseno
•

Mil
running or ground-water. The Aztecs call them ahuehuetl, which means "Old
man of the water".
Sudden changes in the landscape are only encountered in places where, at
the edge of the high plateau overgrown with grass and sparse trees, the rivers
and brooks plunge down deep gorges clad with thick green foliage. Sometimes
the waterfalls are a hundred metres high. Many of them are used to-day for
waterpower.
At the time of the diluvial glaciation of northern America the climate ot the
Mesa Central must have been cooler and at the same time have had a greater
precipitation. Glacial striae, cirques, rochcs moutonne'es,snow and glacier deposits
are still to be found on the high volcanoes about a thousand metres below the
present snow-line. Moraines are found as low as 3,800 metres on the Nevado
de Toluca.
"Canal del Desagiie" about 50 species of mammals belonging
In cutting the
were found: the lowest stratum contained fossilized
to the different diluvial strata
bones of a large primitive horse, the upper ones hyena-like canidae, several felidae,
the mammoth -like elephas colombi (spread all over Mexico in diluvial times),
stags and antelopes. All these belonged mainly to a fauna of the Sonoran region,
that is to say to the fauna of the northern steppes.
Lateritic soil under the recent s.md-blown deposits, found for instance in
San Luis Potosi, suggests greater precipitation
in these times. So too does diluvial
calcareous tufa, as well as the frequent occurrence of lacustre deposits in old
lake basins that are now
Probably most of the large caves in the limestone
dry.
mountains date from this period. The remains on the slopes of the mountains
of the once extensive forests of the high plateau prove that the climate was
formerlv much moister.

The Chihuahua, Coahuila, together with

large northern border states Sonora,
Durango and Lower California, cover nearly the whole of present-day Mexico.
But this bare northern district has only a small population. Settlements are
chiefly in the mountains in connection with mines, along railways, and some-
times on the rivers along the banks of which cotton is grown and which flow
into the salt-lakes ("lagunas") without exterior drainage of the bolsones.
But to the south of Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi the broken surface of the
country favoured the development of smaller states at a very early date. The damp
climate, which was much more propitious to settlement, together with the great
fertility favoured a greater density of population. Besides this
of a volcanic soil,

the states of Hidalgo and Mexico are the richest in gold. Hidalgo is the state
that produces the most silver. The majority of the great towns and cultivated
areas are situated at a height of about 1,900 to 2,000 metres. The highest and

IX
most important valleys are those ofToluca (2,680 metres). Mexico (2. 280 metres)
and Puebla (2,360 metres). But agriculture is carried on as high as 3,2 50 metres.
The soil is very fertile where it does not consist of limestone or basalt but
of volcanic tuffs Maize and beans, the two original food-stuifs of the people, as
well as wheat and barley (introduced from Europe) grow annuallv without
manuring and rotation. Besides native edible plants and fruits such as sweet
potatoes, tomatoes and capsicums (the favourite spice), pears, apples, peaches,
apricots and tigs (introduced from Europe) all thrive here.
)n the high plateau, the native houses are built of adobe (sun-dried bricks
( .

in contradistinction to the wooded Gulf coast where the walls are made of

bamboo stems, whilst the steep roofs are covered with palm -leaves or grass.
The ground plan of these bamboo-huts is mostlv oval in the northern part of
the Gulf coast, or rectangular in the southern part. In the villages the walls are
sometimes plastered with clay and whitewashed. The ''ranchos*' often have
bakehouses constructed of adobe or clay, sometimes also clay urn-shaped barns
for maize, standing on stone socles and thatched with straw. The lower classes,
especially the Indians, still live in the same sort of dwellings as in pre-
(Columbian time
The ancient cultures of Mexico are concentrated on the high plateau in the
on south of the Tropic of Cancer on the border towards the steppe, just as
the pre Incan culture attained to its highest development and Incan culture
lied its greatest power of expansion on the highland of Peru and Bolivia in
the southern border district of the tropical zone towards the Puna. The cultures
<>| ancient Mexico attained to the highest development in the northern bordering
climates Probably man has long lived in this part as a hunter and made use
of tire and neolithic weapons and implements.
Following a most ancient culture with earthenware figures oi a very
primitive style productions of the )tomi Indians and kindred tribes), we
(

find to the north of the present capital the development of a first archaic art
of ven original culture (perhaps never superseded in later times) and whose
.1

founders were the Toltecs, a Nahua tribe surrounded with mythical legends And
« oming from the north. The existence of the flourishing empire of Tollan, erected
>iK t/.iL ouatl,w ho was both priest and king, isproved bythe ruins in Tula,
1

reotihuacan and other places Earthenware vessels and figures

i

oft': tihuacan typ< found neai Azcapotzalco, San Miguel Amanda and
oth( illey of Mexico; further at Puebla, Tlaxcala, Pdnuco,etc.
Thus \\( m.i\ presume that the ulture of this ancient empire (Mice included the
(

in .in
•

of the high plateau ami a large part of the neighbouring

.1

influence in these parts According

to Fray B rLehmann tells us, the ancient Toltec
ml of th( nlui\ A y The
;

>lm<
1 I (

the downfall. But ancient Toltec culture

with Cholula as the centre and trading city. Teotihuacan
and Tollan, however, and probablv Cholula, were already ruins when the Spa-
th century A. D. the Young -Toltecs emigrated under
niards arrived. In the i i

the leadership of Quetzalcouatl ee Acatl to the countries of the Atlantic and

-

Pacific coasts, to Tabasco and Soconusco. Mention is made in documents that

the voung Toltec dispersal had been hastened by famine; a phenomenon that
is not unusual in climatic border-lands.
According to Walter Lehmann the calendar of the old Toltecs was based
on a lunar "Weltanschauung", whereas Cholula became the intellectual centre
of a reform of the old religious system, and the sun was the centre of their
•Weltanschauung". This found its expression in the reform of the calendar.
Mexican culture had spread in successive waves from the high plateau districts
to the lowlands. Thus we find names of villages and ranchos in an ancient
Nahua dialect in the district of the Rio Panuco. For instance, the Pipils of
Guatemala and Salvador and the now extinct Nicarao of Nicaragua, who spoke
ancient Nahua dialects, are descendants of the Toltecs. It becomes evident that
during these migrations older pre-Mexican tribes were partly scattered and partly
squeezed into enclaves. This explains the patchwork appearance of the peoples
and fractions of peoples which strikes us when looking at a map of languages still
spoken in Mexico.
It is possible that, contemporaneously with the flourishing period of older

cultures on the Mexican plateau, the old Maya peoples, who had long been living
round the border-district of Chiapas and Guatemala, developed at the same time.
Palenque, Ococingo, Piedres Negras, Menche, Tikal, Quirigua and Copan were
ancient cities here, and with the exception of the first two, were all situated in
Guatemala and Honduras. Of these cities Palenque is said to be the first to have
been abandoned. On the arrival of the Spaniards all these once so nourishing
settlements belonged already to the past.
The Mava culture also had its renaissance, as for instance, within the
confines of the Yucatan peninsula where there is one set of ruins next to the
other, and where ancient American architecture reached the zenith of its
development. Known places here are Uxmal, Kabah, Labna, Sayi, Tulum and
Akanceh. There is a report that in the pre-Spanish epoch Nahuas (Itza) had
penetrated into Yucatan under a leader named Kukulcan (Quetzalcouatl).
Cities like Chicffen Itza and Mayapan may be considered as mainly Toltecan
settlements both according to tradition and archaeological discoveries. The
Quetzalcouatl facades of the Yucatan edifices, the Chich'en Itza feather-snake
columns and the strange semi-recumbent Chaac-Mol figures (libation vessels)
point emphatically to Toltecan influence. History tells us further that Mayapan
was destroyed (circa 1450 A. D.) by a Maya rising. After the destruction of
Mayapan the old Indian culture of Yucatan decayed, and where once numerous
large cities and mutually united principalities flourished, the Spanish conquerors
only found small communities at war with each other.
All these ancient cultures cannot be conceived without agriculture, the basis

XI
of which throughout the whole of Mexi o was the cultivation of maize. The
wild original maize- plant (Euchlaena luxurians), known as teosinte, is native to
the Pacific coast of Guatemala. Whereas a group of plants such as manioc are
characteristic of the damp Atlantic virgin-forest districts of America, maize, in
spite <>f its adaptability, is chiefly confined to the dry and higher parts of Mexico.
Nowadays two states of Jalisco and Zacatecas supply half the annual maize
the
crops. In Mexico and Central America the growth of the ancient state and its
development to a really high culture is limited to the arid districts where maize
is ( ultivated
In the old times it was chiefly the temples that were built of stone. An
elevated position was preferred for sacred spots and the buildings belonging to
them. Thus one found on the Gulf coast in the Huaxteca country roughlv hewn
stone sculptures of which some may have stood in the wooden sanctuaries as
well as in important parts of the settlements on artificial earth mounds which
were only surrounded by walls where suitable stone slabs were ready at hand.
But on the Mexican high plateau, as well as in Chiapas, Guatemala and Yucatan
the stone eella like sanctuaries or other temple buildings rose from the platforms
of step pyramids. Other edifices were on terrace-like substructures of which many
were orientated so as to coincide with the cardinal points. These step-pyramids
erected over stone heaps and earth mounds stood in roomy courtyards with
numerous out buildings and were often of huge dimensions. In front of the main
temple in Mexico City there was King Tizoc's ("Tlacktemalacatl") great sacri-
ficial stone. The sacrificial receptacle ("quauhxicalli") to catch the blood of the

sacrifice also belonged to the ceremonial vessels. Within the Mexican temple
grounds is also the sacred ball-court ("tlachtl") dedicated to the gods How-
:. such a court is lacking in Teotihuacan, but there is one. for instance, in
Chich'en lt/.i The ball game, in which a rubber ball ("olli'^was used. was much
in vogue in the sphere ol Mexican culture and was played by the people.

Vmong the gigantic ruins ol Teotihuacan. the two stone cased mounds known
•is tin "P.!< m" and ••Sun" pyramids are particularly conspicuous, whilst quite
Quetzalcouatl temple with rich sculptures was freed from its v<
debris in thi
:
llled "Ciudadela" situated (Mi the southern side o\
the Rio San Juan
The pyramid ol Cholula covers the greatest area. To-day a church dating
on its crest An ancient trade route led
olonial period stands
Cholula, the celebrated centre ol the Quetzalcouatl cult, and also that o\
trade, and famous ellent ceramics and other products of flourishing arts
'

and rhis route extende to anahu on the Boca de TeYminos

!

ol the Maya district) and to anahu yotlan the coastal snip

hi< h is i
foi its co( oa tree plantations. The
neai <
uernavaca differs from those on the high plateau
•in A.w symbols and the employment ol a line
'I ol i
as was especiall) the custom on Maya monuments

Ml
of a certain period). The pyramids in theTzapotec country, as for instance those
crowning a 300 metres high at the foot of Monte Alban, and the edifices of
hill

Mitla near Oaxaca, famous for their mosaics, frescos and columns belong to the
pre-Aztec period. The pyramid of ElTajin nearPapantla in theTotanac region in
the State of Vera Cruz, the steps of which are interrupted by numerous niches,
is also pre-Aztec. The pyramid of Huexotla (Hidalgo), Castillo de Teavo (Vera

Cruz) and the pyramid ofTepozlan (D. F.) which stands high on a hill over the
present town may be mentioned as examples of Aztec temple pyramids in small
provincial towns.
The edifices of the Maya in Yucatan were technically the most perfect. It
was here that the sacrarium was further developed. It contained two long corridor-
like spaces which were covered with a sort of vaulting constructed of layers of
steep stone slabs each projecting over the other. "The front corridor opens onto
a columned towards the steps, the back corridor contains a special small
gallery
cella with the The upper vertical facade is decorated with rich "Baroque"
idols.
ornaments cut in limestone blocks with fantastic masks of gods " (W. Krickeberg.)
The Aztecs or, in the narrower sense of the word, the Mexicans (the Mexica)
were the heirs of Toltec culture on the Mexican high plateau. Thev traced their
origin, especially the inhabitants of Tetzcoco, from the Chichimecs. The Aztecs
traced their name back to a legendary home ("aztlan"). Like the Toltccs thev
had migrated from the north. From a philological point of view the Nahuatl-
speaking Aztecs (belonging to the group of the Nahuatlacan-speaking tribes), as
well as the Nahuat-speaking Toltecs belong to the Sonoran linguistic stock who
spread far to the north-west and across the frontier of Mexico. According to
traditions the foundation of Mexico-Tenochtitlan dates back to the vear 3 2 5 A. D.1

But in ancient times Colhuacan was the metropolis of Mexico-Tenochtitlan.

The view of this city must have been beautiful bevond description, situated
as it was in the salt-lake of Tetzcoco. Like Venice it was intersected bv numerous
canals and built on dams and sand-islands surrounded bv wooden piles. Where
the cathedral now stands the step-pvramid rose in five steep terraces. Its base
was square; its sides are said to have had a length of 375 feet. It was only built
in 1487. It contained a cella for each of the two gods Uitzilopochtli (the real
Aztec national or war-god) and for the rain-god Tlaloc. The king and princes
lived in extensive palaces. The life of the people was chiefly concentrated in the
market near the main temple. It is said that when Cortes entered the citv en
the 8 th of November 15 19 A. D. the inhabitants numbered 300,000. That is
about one-third of the present population.
In some respects the Aztec state was a military monarchy with extensive
organizations of political and religious bodies. But even the high valley of Mexico
was not There were three leading principalities: Tenochtitlan,
a unified state.
Tetzcoco and Tlacopan which were held together bv an offensive and defensive
alliance, in which, however, Tenochtitlan predominated. The neighbouring
Tlaxcala was a free state. The important nation of the Tarascans, an ancient

XIII
tribe with a distinct language and inhabiting Michoacan far to the west, had
remained independent of Aztec rule. The advance of Cortes, only successful
because of the help of the Totonacs and Tlaxcaltecs, shows us how the different
tribes quarrelled. But in contradistinction to the conditions in Yucatan, the
Aztec empire, which was hardly two centuries old, was at the time of the Spanish
conquest still power, although governed by Montezuma II,
in full possession of its

(Motecuzoma) an irresolute and melancholv monarch. Under the powerful rulers

of ancient times, especially of Motecuzoma and his successors, many cities
I.

and districts belonging to numerous neighbouring tribes were successfully sub-

ted bv the Aztecs.
i Of this we have information, especially from trie im-
portant hieroglyphics in the Codex Mendoza, both as to the conquests and impor-
tant cultural tributes. About 50 years before the arrival of Cortes, the Aztec
empire had extended to the Gulf of Mexico. The subjugated countries were not
incorporated, but fortresses and garrisons were established to levy tribute. The
destruction of so many antiquities and cultural monuments in the Totonac
district of Vera Cruz, as well as the replacing of ancient place-names bv Aztec
designations bear eloquent witness to the methods employed bv these conquerors.
According to Walter Lehmann the Aztec language was equal to all the
requirements of a powerful empire in contradistinction to the manv other pho-
netic -ally and grammatically complicated Indian languages. For manv years Aztec
also served as the official language during the Spanish colonial period.
To the south of the capital, on the fresh-water lake of Xochimileo. Aztec
gardens are still extant which arc called bv the misnomer "swimming gardens".
The very fertile black soil was drained by canals of various width and the \c
table plots enclosed by stakes and trellis work. Such enclosed plots were called
"chinampas".
If we enquire what was the chief difference between ancient American and

European culture we shall find that iron, domestic animals (with the exception
<>t the turkey), vehicles, wheels, the potter's wheel and firearms were unknown.

In architecture the vaulted arch was also unknown. Cold and silver were
employed, .is well as copper; the latter partly for bronze. The land was cleared
and stone was hew 11 with stone or metal implements. The Huaxtecans and
I "ton. s on the Gull ol Mexico cultivated cotton and wove fine shawls and
i,

garments ol it Particularly in Tabasco, but also on the Mexican high plateau.

fine work was executed in birds leathers. The Olmecs on the Atlantic
1to the south ol Vera juz derived their name from caoutchouc (ollij w hich
<

the\ employed foi various purposes. Milk, butter and cheese wire unknown
I
instead ol sugar, and bee keeping is still extensively
i

carried on in untry. The use and development oi hieroglyphics and the

1

lopmeni ol the alendar system raised the Mexican Central American sphere
1
(

ultUH the Other advanced Amerinds.

•
•

onl) sun c the Spanish colonization that European domestic animals

ntrodu .11 the horse, horned cattle, sheep and goats, The

XIV
 9 6

Spaniards were the first to mine silver, mostly by surface-mining. The hammock,
which is now so largely used in Yucatan and the Isthmus, is said to have been

introduced by the Spaniards into Mexico from South America via the Antilles.
History in America as written in Europe is only met with since the beginning
th century.
of the 1

i 5
-

The Roman Catholic Church set foot in Mexico with the Spanish conquerors.
Franciscan monks were the first teachers, the first historians and the first pro-
tectors of the ill-treated unfortunate natives. The number of Spanish Baroque
churches, chapels, monasteries, schools, noblemen's seats and buildings on
Spanish haciendas was very great. The aqueducts with their towers and bridges
are striking. Handicrafts tlourished in the cities where each had its own quarters.
According to historical records a German, a pupil of Gutenberg, is said to have
introduced the art of printing into Spanish Mexico and also to have published
a newspaper.
The oldest church is in Tlaxcala. It dates from the year 1
521. The church
of Titzatlan near Tlaxcala is also very old, and unique in its restrained Renais-
sance style. The atrium of the cathedral in the capital dates from the year 1525.
The main facade was only completed in 1667. The greatest of the Mexican
churches visited by pilgrims was erected in 1532 in Guadeloupe Hidalgo near
the steep rock of "Tepeyacac". The city of Puebla, which for many centuries
was to be the trading centre between Spain and Mexico, was founded in the
same year. It is the town with the most churches, and where the art of making
glazed tiles ("azulejos"), introduced from Spain, developed. The ecclesiastical
and secular subjugation of the north from Mexico to California and of the coastal
strip on the Gulf of Mexico proceeded from the capital and the high plateau.
One of the oldest churches in the Mexican Gulf region, built in 1749, is in
Altamira, north of Tampico, a place from which a long-established salt trade
was carried on up the Rio Panuco, and southwards to the Huaxteca by the
Huaxtec Indians.
Five governors and sixty-two vicerovs have ruled Mexico. It is characteristic
of these times that about a third of the silver circulating in Europe in the 18 th
and th centuries came from Mexican mines. Spanish rule lasted three centuries.
1

During the last years of its decline, Alexander von Humboldt visited Mexico
(1803/4). This was an epoch-making journey, and it is remarkable that no diaries of
the great German explorer are known of this journey. Dissension in connection
with the Spanish succession and the example of the secession of the United
States from England led in 8 o to the outbreak of the struggle for indepen-
1 1

dence. The idea was favoured bv the Vicerov himself, but it had its roots
in the people. Miguel Hidalgo v Costilla, who was 57 at the time, and curate of
the village Dolores in Guanajuato, became the leader of the movement and rang

XV
the bells as a signal of revolt on the night of s ,h September and placed himself i

at the head of the movement. The idea of freedom, which was also enthusiastic-
allvgreeted by the Indians, was never given up. Hidalgo himself, however, had to
retreat before the superior forces of Spanish troops and was captured and shot
in i <S i i , after numerous battles, together with the priest Morelos. In 1820
General Iturbide put himself at the head of the revolutionarv movement. He first
Jit on the side of Spain and then on that of the revolutionaries and pro-
claimed the independence of Mexico in 1821.
Violent political struggles kept the country in a turmoil, and in addition to
the internal troubles war broke out with the United States which ended with
Texas (1845) and California and New Mexico (1846). In 1848 the
the loss of
Rio Grande del Norte was established as the northern frontier of Mexico. The
gifted Benito Juarez, a man of indomitable energy, born as a poor Indian in a
little Oaxaca, stepped to the front. He was victorious in the armed
village in
stnu _ainst the church 1855 (
—
61), reformed the laws and finallv survived
as president of the Republic the disastrous intervention of Napoleon III. who,
ther with Maximilian of Austria, wanted to erect a Mexican empire in 1867.
Numerous urban gardens and decorations in the castle of Chapultepec, the roval
seat of Mexico, date from this French period.
Benito Juarez died in 1872. New troubles arose. Thev were put an end
to by Genera] Porfirio Diaz, Mexico's greatest statesman, who had alreadv re-
taken the capital from the French in 1867, and who became president in 1877.
He is the real originator of the social and economic reforms and public education.
Hiring the thirty-three years of peace under this both intellectuallv and morally
I

eminent man economic conditions reached their highest development. The invest
ment of European capital, especially Fnglish and, later on, American gradually
iik reased. The extension of the railway svstem took place during the years
to [910, as well as the completion of several harbour works, namely
1

those ..I the town of Vera Cruz which was formerly protected from attacks by
by the fortress of San Juan de Ulua.
Numerous modern public and private buildings in the capital, .is well as in
.ill the cities o| Mexico, were erected in this period, and further the new quarters

such .is Colonia Roma and Juarez in the capital and the garden cities. The
sanitary works ami draining of the capital were finally completed
•
i

in 1900 undei Porfirio Diaz by the construction of the "Canal del Desague",
which is thirty miles long, .is well ;is the "Tunel tic Tequixquiac". In \<)oo
M( •

it) I). id 51 inhabitants. To-day with over \.oooamh) souls, it is

1

the "I .ill highland towns <>t the new world, being situated at an altitude
!

m< to s abo> level

I he grand tens in celebration of Mexican independence in 1910 marked
the ni' .1 in Porfirio Diaz' term of office. The same year saw
the sudden end ol tins . real period of development. With the Madero and later
'
irranza revolutions in the north began a period of 1^ years of intense

Ml
unrest and social upheavals which were onlv possible in times of violent
dissension and war between the European peoples themselves. During these
vears of heavy losses of foreign capital and of the growing influence of the
United States onlv the oil districts on the Gulf coast, the centre of which is
Tampico, were economically prosperous. This period of prosperity started at
the end of 1910 with the bringing up of the two gushers Potrero del Llano
No. 4 (belonging to W. D. Pearson the constructor of the harbour-works on
the Gulf coast) and Juan Gasiano Nos. 6 and 7 (belonging to the American
E. L. Dohenv) which suddenly established Mexico's reputation as an oil coun-
try. To-day petroleum is by far the most important item in the revenues of
the state.
In 19 1
7 the new
constitution came into force under President Carranza,
whose merit to
it was
have kept Mexico politically neutral during the GreatWar.
Mexico's favour is much sought after as a supplier of raw material. This
country with, it is said, a population to-dav of 5 /. million inhabitants holds
1

the first place in the production of silver, the second in oil and lead, the fourth
in gold and the fifth in copper. Other metals exported are: zinc, mercury,
arsenic, antimony, molybdenum and tin. Other exports, besides petroleum, are
graphite and semi- precious stones. Mexico has no coal. But there is enough
lignite, iron and waterpower for home consumption. The chief agricultural
exports are cotton, hemp, tobacco, sugar, coffee, cocoa, vanilla, precious
sisal

woods and dve-woods and tropical fruits. As home industry is not much deve-
loped, finished goods are chiefly imported.
Mexico's great wealth is intimately connected with the geological structure
of the country. Most of the mountain ranges are built up of a thick series of
folded limestone banks intruded in the period of mountain-building bv mag-
matic rocks which brought up the ores from the bowels o\ the earth. Laccolithes
(of diorites and svenites) and dome-shaped masses (of porphvriesi. in the contact
zones of which the most copper ores are found, form the nuclei of the anticlines
and folds. On the southern and western part of the Mexican High Plateau,
the older eruptive rocks, the andesites, are especially met with as pipe-fillings and
lavas. The gold and silver ores are connected with these older effusive rocks.
The greatest ore-vein, near Pachuca. is 16 kilometres long, and the most exten-
sive silver-lode, the Beta Madre of Guanajuato, often 50 metres wide, is many
1

kilometres long. Under the silver-bearing rocks, in deeper zones, veins of galena
and zincblend occur. Thev are also spread over the limestone mass even some
distance from the intrusive body. In the tertiary period, on the western side
of the high plateau, especially in the Sierra Madre Occidental, streams of fresh
volcanic lava poured out again and again along the fractures and faults over the
already eroded and buried folded limestone ranges. The obsidian, of which the
Indians made their skilfully shaped sacrificial knives, spears and arrow-heads, is
a glassv species of this most acid of lavas. Where in the most recent geological
epoch effusive activity was limited to single areas, such as on the southern edge

XVII
of the high plateau, great crater volcanoes were thrown up. Hot mineral
springs are the last traces of this volcanism on the high plateau.
Both on the
Atlantic and Pacific coast effussive rocks are basalts. The famous oil-pools of
the oil-fields north and south of the Panuco River vallev are secondarv accu-
mulations of the precious liquid in cavities of the limestone banks which are
closelv shut off from the surface bv a gentlv folded series of impermeable marls.
The limestone masses are also excellent water reservoirs. Numerous fresh-water
springs How from the rock at the foot of the Sierra Madre Oriental. Where
there is gypsum in deeper parts of the limestone series, the water comes up as
a sulphur spring.
On Mexican soil the folded North American mountain-ranges, which origi-
nated somewhat earlier towards the end of the cretaceous period, are replaced
I\ the Central American arcs thrown up in the tertiary period. The shape and
(

contour of the Mexican land mass resulted from the interaction of these different
mountain-building movements. The uplift of the Mesa Central is a consequence
of this crucial folding, and is the cause of the tempering of the tropical climate.

Dr. Walther Staub

W III
 INDEX OF NAMES AND PLACES
Acambaro 186 La Caldera 96, 97 Santiago D. F. 76
Acatepec 134 La Canada D F. 72, 73 Sierra Mad reOriental 230
Ajusco 99 Laguna del Carmen 2 Sierra Negra (Puebla) 16
Amecameca 101, 104—113, 120 Lake Chapala 190-195
Antigua (Vera Cruz) 6, 7 Las Canoas 231 Tacuba 58
Archeological photographs 22, Los Remedios 54, 55 Tamasopo Canon 231,233—237
42—53, 138, 154-157, 172, Lower California 209 Taxco 174,175
173, 242, 243, 248—253 Tehuantepec 158, 160
Atlixco 137 Magdalena (Sonora) 208 Teocelo 15
Atoyac 8—11 Manzanillo 207 Tepeapa 136
Mazatlan 204—206 Tepepam 80 — 83
Cacahuamilpa (Guerrero) 168, Mexico City 27-29,32 — 38, Tepozotlan 56, 57
169 40—45 Tepoztlan (Morelos) 167,170,
Campeche 254—256 Mirador 232 171
CastillodeTeayo(VeraCruz)242 Mitla 154-157 Tetzcoco 24
Chalchicomula 20, 21 Mixteca alta 145 Tetzcotzirgo 22
Chapultepec 38, 40, 41 Morelia 187, 189 Tlacopan 63
Chich'enitza (Yucatan) 248 250
Tlahuac 90
Chihuahua 228, 229 National Park 69—71 TIalpam D. F 39
Cholula 138, 139 Necaxa (Puebla) 244 Tlaxcala 23
Churubusco 64, 65 Nonoalco 66 212-215
Toluca
Cihuapam (Vera Cruz) 247 Tonilita 180
Colima 178, 179 Oaxaca 144, 146—153
Cuernavaca 162 — 166 Ocotlan 183
Uruapam 202, 203
Cuicatlan 143 Ometusco 100 Lxmal 252
Orizaba 14
Desierto de los Leones 69 — 71 Ozumba 102
Photographs of Vegetation 6, 7,

Guadalajara 188 10 40,41,69,76,

12, 17, 25,
Panuco River 239
Guadelupe Hidalgo 26, 30, 31 77,84,93, 100,145,160,184,
Patzcuaro 196—201
Guanajuato 218, 219 190, 208—211 215,231-237,
Orizaba 1, 16-19
.

Peak of
Guayamas (Scmora) 210 240, 241, 247
Popocatepetl 98, 104, 107, 112,
Guerrero 177 Vera Cruz 3-5, 12
115, 116, 118, 125-129
Guiaroo near Mitla 156 Viga Canal 86
Puebla 130-135
Photographs of Volcanoes 18,
Huaxteca Indian (Vera Cruz) 238 96—99, 116, 118, 125-129,
Querretaro 216
Huixquilucan 103 178, 179, 181, 212,213

Jalapa 13 Salina Cruz 159

San Andres de Tuxtla 246 Xicotepec 245
Isla de las Mugereb (Yucatan) 251
San Angel 62, 67, 68 Xochicalco 172, 173
Juanacatlan 182
San Bartolito 74, 75 Xochimilco 87—89
Ixtacalco 78
Iztaccihuatl 98, 105, 109, 113, San Lsteban 59 — 61
114,
., 117,
- - , 119,
»"•-') 121-127 San Juan Teotihuacan 46—53 Zacatecas 223, 224
San Luis Potosi 225 Zapotitlan 142
Kivic (Yucatan) 253 Santa Catarina D. F. 96 Zapotlan 181

XIX
Pico de Orizaba. Estado Puebla Peak of Or.zaba. State of Puebla

Pic von Orizaba. Staat Puebla

Piccod'Orizaba. Stato di Puebla Le Pic d Orizaba, fltat de Puebla

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Chalchicomula mit Pic von Orizaba

Chalchicomula col Picco d Orizaba Chalchicomula et le Pic dOrizaba

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30
Guadalupe Hidalgo. Capilla del pozo Guadalupe Hidalgo Founta.n Chapel

Guadalupe Hidalgo. Brunnenkapelle

della fonte Guadalupe Hidalgo. La chapelle de la fontame

Guadalupe Hidalgo. La capella

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Casa caractenstica en la parte antigua de la cap.ta 1
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Typisches Haus im aiten Teii der Hauptstadi

Edifizio caratteristico nella citta vecchia Ma.son typ.que dans la cite de la capitale

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Xochipilli con mascara. Museo naooral Xochipilh with mask. National Museum
Xocnipilli mit Maske. Nationalmuseum

Xochipilli con mascnera. Museo Nazionale Xochipilli avec masque. Musee national

45
San Jun

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 luan To iM,;n< n<, I •« .ilium* da piedra «n Sun Juan TeotihuacAn Stone scuHurss on tho
In '•«• lm«1n .K < ..Inntnl <)«• In [niAmid* da Quat/nl w««t front of the Pyramid of QuaUalcouatl In
.nil i»rtmidc m | or.ir.. 1^ in < .1 irin<1»«in tn~ centre? of tne "Oudadela

San Juan TeotiHuacnn Steirnkulpturen an dar Westfront d~r Ou»t7nlr >uatl Pyramide
.

im /unlfiim dar 'Oudadela"

S«n Juan T nntitiiiar an S< ultil-o i" |.'»l'l >t San Juan TeotihuacAn bculpturea ornant la
n ptl n" 'nil unl . om|i .
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face outtl de la pyramids da Quetialcount
del - "In nu nntra da la "Oudadela
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San Juan Teotihuacan. Esculturas de piedra en San Juan Teotihuacan. Stone scultures on the
la fachada occidental de la piramide de Quetzal- west front of the Pyramid of Quetzolcuatl in the
couatl, piramide al centro de la Ciudadela centre of the ..Ciudadela"

San Juan Teotihuacan. Steinskulpturen an der Westfront der Quetzalcouatl-Pyramide

im Zentrum der "Ciudadela"

San Juan Teotihuacan. Sculture m pietra sul lato San Juan Teotihuacan. Sculptures ornant la face
ovest della piramide d>Quetzalcouatl nel centro ouest dela pyram.de de Quetzalcouatl au centre
delta "Ciudadela" de la "Ciudadela"

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glesia de Tepozotlan Church of Tepozotlan

Kirche von Tepozotlan

Chiesa di Tepozotlan ttghse de Tepozotlan

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Mexikaner n Nationaltracht

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Coc.endo tortillas de maiz. Bak.ng maize pancakes (Spanish "Tortillas")

Beim Backen von Mais-Fladen Cspanisch ..Tortillas")

La cottura delle focacce Oi formentone La preparation des "tortillas' (galettes de

(in ispagnolo Tortillas) mais)

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Xochlmilco. Uno do los canales prlnclpales Xochimilco. One of the main canals

Xochimllco. Einer der Hauptkanale

XochlmilcQ. Uno del canali prlnclpall Xochimilco. Un des canaux prlnclpaux

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Call* Ml Amnr B m«c8 con vitttn por Popocalppnii Street m AmecsmKa w.th v.ew of PopocatppnH

StrnOe >n Amecamecn m.t Au-ii'iM nut Popocatepetl

Una via d. Amecamaca con la veduta aul Popocatepetl Rue d Amecameca et vue du Popocatepetl

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Am»c«m«" n < n pitlfl Guadalupe" en el Amocameca. '•Guadalupe" Chapal on the
Sac.ro Moot* Sacro Monte

A'"« ''"I ' lr << 'nctalupe' auf dem Sacro Monte

Amernmni n Cnppnlln <t. iuadeli ipe" *ul
( Amecameca. Chapelle da "Guadalupe" sur lo
Sa< re Mimir J>aco Monte

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Popocatepetl, visto desde el Sacro Monte Popocatepetl seen from Sacro Monte

Popocatepetl vom Sacro Monte aus

II Popocatepetl visto dal Sacro Mome Le Popocatepetl vu du haut du Sacro Monte

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 Monta An.n,;(mKa Chapel on the Sacro Monte Amecameca

Kapelle au f • 'O Monte Amecnmeca

La Cappeno '• Arrip.nmr.ca Chapelle sur la Sacro Monte Amecameca

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Amecameca con Iztaccihuatl Amecameca with Iztaccihuatl

Amecameca mit der Iztaccihuatl

Amecameca coll
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Iztaccihuatl Amecameca et llztaccihuatl

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Am«cam«ca f ntrada a In .
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Popocatepetl, vinln dmnr)m Amernmern Popocatepetl M«n fr^rti Hm»c«mpcn

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 t*f del Popocatepetl The crater of Popocatepetl

D»r Krater dee Popocatepetl

. rattrt >ir.i Popcx ntnpeti La cratere du Popocatepetl

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ngo Puebla. Ch«P"l of tn«» Cnurch of Santo Domingo

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jo Puebia Chapelie d« i *gi>«« Santo Dommgo

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 ^IH^SSHII^H^Hbmmmbb

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M« wTAvinldl I Ort«nM MO I Pu«-blo Manon dan* lAvemdn 3 Or.ent- No 1
Puebla. Fuente de San Miguel Puebla. Well of St Michael

Puebla. Brunnen des heiligen Michael

Puebla. La fontana di San Michele Puebla. Fontaine de saint Michel

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Iglesia de San Francisco Vista anterior Church of San Francisco Front view

Kirche von San Francisco Vorderansicht

La chiesa di San Francisco Veduta frontale Facade de I'dghse de San Francisco

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Oaxaca V.ejo pato en una casa espanoif Oaxaca Old court in a Spanish nous

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Oaxaca Antco cortiie in una casa spaa- Oaxaca Cou' d une v.eihe m<

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 1
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Cuernavaca K' I

Cue' sco Cuernavaca Un com pttoresqup

Cuernavaca. Vista parcial de la Catearai Cuern<jvaca Part view of the Cathedral

Cuernavaca. Teilansicht der Kathedrale

Cuernavaca. Veduta parziale della cattedrale Cuernavaca. Partie de la cathedraie

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de etitalactitas de Cacahuamilpa — ofCacahuamilpa
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Grotte Grottes de stalactites de Cacahuamilpa.
Cacahuamilpa. Stato di Guerrero Etat de Guerrero

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