TEX2601 - Lesson 2 - Eng

LESSON 2: ALTERNATIVE STRUCTURES
OVERVIEW
In this lesson, we focus on three more frameworks used to write articles for publication: the Y structure,
the hourglass structure and the use of the nut graph. These three frameworks are used for both hard
and soft news articles. However, unlike the inverted pyramid framework (IPF), these structures use
transitions in their reporting and include different types of leads (summary and soft) as well as valuable
conclusions. This lesson includes an overview of text types such as the human-interest story, the
profile, the obituary, the colour story (also called the atmosphere story), the popular scientific article
and the editorial.
OUTCOMES
After having worked through this lesson, you should be able to
• name the different components of the Y and hourglass structures

• explain how each component is meant to function
• explain when and how the nut graph is used
• contrast these structures to the IPF
• explain when the application of these structures is better suited than the IPF
• write different kinds of leads
• write any one of the text types highlighted in this lesson using one of the two structures
You will need to master the following key concepts in order to achieve the learning outcomes for this
lesson:
• Y structure
• hourglass structure
• nut graph
• different kinds of soft leads (anecdote, quotation, question, descriptive lead, motto, slogan,
shocker, postponement)
• different kinds of articles (human-interest, profile, obituary, interview-discussion, popular
science, editorial, colour story)
TIME REQUIRED FOR LESSON 2

The notional hours for this course are 120 hours. This leaves you with eight hours per week. You need
to spend at least two hours per week on the study material, which translates to 30 hours in total. For
this lesson, you need to allocate approximately six hours.
See figure 2.1 below for a visual summary of the lesson.

Figure 2.1: Visual overview of the lesson
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In lesson 1, we said that writing an article has less to do with the writing and more to do with the
assembling of information according to set frameworks. As you would have noticed in the course of
lesson 1, there is still a lot of writing that takes place. However, from an author’s perspective, the
frameworks make it easier to organise and present the information and from a reader/listener’s
perspective, frameworks make it easier to consume and digest it. There are many different frameworks,
(e.g. the diamond, the Christmas tree, the five boxes, the Kabob, the circle story), each communicating
information from a different angle and using unique techniques to highlight certain aspects or to create
a certain mood. Many of the frameworks are very similar and share characteristics. Case in point, the
Y and hourglass structures. Like the IPF, they summarise the important facts first, followed by the rest
of the information. But, the documenting paragraphs are different.
Let us start by looking at the Y structure.
2.2 THE Y STRUCTURE
In reports with an inverted pyramid framework (IPF), there is no reason for readers to stick around.
Once they have read the most important information, they will move on to a different story. The Y
structure (also known as the champagne or martini glass method) rewards the reader by ending the
article with something important or surprising. Since the end of the article is equally important, it is
much harder to edit (the editor cannot simply cut the bottom of the text as with the IPF). In addition,
articles that use the Y structure tend to be somewhat longer in length (Fry, 2009:np), because they recap
the events in detail (The Virtual Communication Guy, 2020:np). The framework consists of the
following components:
• The IPF summary lead: A logical summary of the most important events based on the most
common wh-questions – what, why, when, where and who.
• The transition: A brief statement that indicates to the readers that the article is moving away
from the summary and now focusing on a detailed recounting of what happened.
• The chronological explanation of events: The event is retold, blow-by-blow in chronological
order and in detail.
• The kicker: The final statement that leaves readers in awe, shock, surprise or thinking. This
can take the form of a quote, a joke, an interesting fact or a shocking twist.
Using the Y structure is not about summarising what happened. The major difference between the IPF
and the Y structure is that the chronological explanation helps the reader to understand the reported
event much better and the ending is meant to pack a punch (Fry, 2009:np). The Y structure works well
for articles about complicated sequences, crime stories or sports reporting (Fry 2009:np; The Virtual
Communication Guy, 2020:np; Cub Reporters, 2010:np).
Figure 2.2: Y structure or martini glass method
Let us look at the following example.
EXAMPLE OF Y STRUCTURE
Pretoria drug dealer found dead
PRETORIA – Much to his surprise, a nightclub’s day manager found the

body of a dead man in one of the restrooms when he opened the club for summary lead –
cleaning yesterday morning. Though the reason for the death is still under wh-questions
investigation, clear signs of a struggle suggest murder.
Police spokesperson, Sergeant Jessica Moloi, has indicated that the

incident took place in the early hours of the morning, shortly before the transition
club was opened for its daily administration. “By the time we arrived on
the scene, rigor mortis hadn’t yet occurred,” said Sergeant Moloi.
Because it was a Saturday night, the club called last rounds at 02:30 and
closed its doors by 03:00. The night manager and bar staff cashed up and detailed
left the premises 45 minutes later. Management of Goldstar Club chronological
confirmed that the club applied a no drug policy. They had their bar staff, recapping of events
bouncers, go-go dancers and visiting artists tested regularly. “Despite our
efforts, drug dealers still manage to enter the club and sell their stuff. Our
bouncers chuck the ones they recognise, but it remains a struggle,” said
Alex Motho, one of the night managers.
There were no signs of breaking and entering, suggesting that the victim
and his assailant either hid in the club or had access to the security system.
Footage from security cameras did not reveal anyone entering or leaving
the club after it was locked.
Police found a lot of broken glass scattered over the lower bar and a trail
of blood leading from there to the door and back to the first restroom.
Sergeant Moloi says that the blood trail and splatter on the door handle
indicate the victim tried to escape through the club’s front door but then
abandoned this plan for the restroom. Blood marks near a window in the
restroom further suggest the victim tried to exit through the window but
was stopped short.
Evidence reveals that the victim was not robbed of money or the rest of
his merchandise. The police did find a clump of red hair in the victim’s
left hand. “It looks like the victim grabbed hold of the assailant’s head
during the struggle. The colour and texture of the hair indicate the
assailant was wearing a wig, but no wig was found on the scene,” said
Sergeant Moloi. The club’s management has offered to assist the police
in their investigation, screening video footage and social media images to
narrow down potential suspects who might have worn a red wig on the
night.
Easier said than done, it would seem. “Oh honey,” said Michael Moodley, kicker
a Goldstar patron, “it was the annual Red Party! Most of us were wearing
wigs, all of them red!”
As you can see, the article still starts with a summary lead. It answers the typical wh-questions: What
happened? A dead body was found, suggesting a murder. Where did it happen? The body was found at
a night club in Pretoria. When did it happen? The body was found in the early morning hours and it
seems the death occurred shortly before discovery. Who was involved? A local drug dealer and an
attacker, both are still unidentified. Why did it happen? The reason for the incident remains unclear and
is still under investigation.
The transition from the summary to the chronological record of events is achieved by the second
paragraph, linking what was said in the summarising first paragraph to the information that follows.
The author then provides an overview of the information that is available, starting with last rounds at
02:30 in the morning and ending with evidence found on the body.
The second last paragraph creates the impression that police have valuable evidence (the red wig) that
will aid in arresting the attacker soon. However, the information about the evidence is undone by the
kicker. The kicker takes the form of a quote and reveals that looking for the potential murderer will
actually be much harder.
ACTIVITY 2.1
The time for this activity is ten minutes.
Quickly read this article. Can you identify the four elements of the Y structure? That is, the summary
lead, the transition, the chronological report and the kicker.
Let us now have a closer look at the hourglass structure.
2.3 THE HOURGLASS STRUCTURE
Sometimes, a main event creates many related stories that are equally interesting and worth retelling.
Or, as Scanlan (2003:np) puts it, when you have news to report and a story to tell. The IPF and Y
structure are not the most ideal for this kind of reporting, because the main event takes centre stage. To
focus on the related stories, you need a framework that summarises the main event followed by a shift
in the focus of the article; the hourglass structure does exactly that. This structure suits two types of
readers: the impatient kind who only wants to know what happened, and the curious kind who is
invested in the story. Articles using the hourglass structure tend to be longer and are mostly used for
feature-type contributions (Universal Class, 2020:np). For instance, when an article recaps a bank
robbery but focuses on the eyewitness account of what happened.
The hourglass structure combines the IPF and the narrative style of reporting. It consists of the following
components:
• The summary lead: Identical to the IPF, the lead is used to summarise the most important facts
by answering the wh-questions readers typically ask: what, when, where, why and who. The
paragraphs following the lead are used to flesh out the main facts in the order that the event
took place. This forms the first bowl of the hourglass.
• The turn: A brief statement or short paragraph notifies the reader that the article is shifting its
focus from the main event to a second (but related) story. The turn indicates a transition. For
instance: “Eyewitnesses described the event this way”, “For Khama Billiat, the Chiefs game
was a bust”, “the Chou kidnapping in Cyrildene unfolded this way” (Scanlan, 2003:np).
• The narrative: Where the first bowl covers the news, the second bowl of the hourglass tells a
story. The story is told in chronological order and can be divided into three sections: a
beginning, a middle and an end, containing detail, dialogue and background information
(Scanlan, 2003:np; Universal Class, 2020:np).
Figure 2.3: The hourglass structure
The hourglass structure is not ideal for reporting hard news only. The author needs a greater command
in writing the narrative part. Unfortunately, not everyone is a storyteller. You need to provide more
detail and you need to understand the topic at a deeper level to aid in documenting the mood and
psychology involved (The Virtual Communication Guy, 2020:np).
Imagine you have to write an article about a very important (and difficult) cricket match where South
Africa needs one run to win, but only has five seconds left to achieve it. The experienced batsman gets
a very easy ball guaranteeing the win for South Africa, only to miss the ball entirely. Time is up and
South Africa loses. An hourglass article would not only report the facts of what happened, but it would
tell the story of the batsman. How did he experience the day? How did he feel about his overall
experience? What was he going through in that very moment when he carried the hopes of a country on
his shoulders? How did he feel afterward, when he realised what had happened? What happened when
the team retreated to the restroom? What were the reactions of his teammates? What was the atmosphere
like?
EXAMPLE OF HOURGLASS STRUCTURE
Pretoria drug dealer stabbed by drag queen
PRETORIA – Much to his surprise, the day manager of a nightclub found

the body of a man in one of the club’s restroom after he opened the club summary lead
for the day’s preparations this morning. The victim suffered numerous stab
wounds to his arms, chest and abdomen. No arrest has been made.
Goldstar Club’s manager, Thabiso Mphuku, discovered the victim when

he did his morning rounds at 09:00 before starting with the evening’s expanding paragraphs
deliveries and cleaning the club. Police spokesperson, Sergeant Moloi, has
confirmed the identity of the victim as Alexander van der Berg (22), known
in the clubbing scene as Alex B. Rigor mortis had not yet occurred,
indicating that the incident took place a few hours before the club was
opened.
Police found a clump of red hair clutched in Van der Berg’s left hand. “The
investigation is obviously ongoing, but forensic investigators were able to
determine that the hair is artificial,” said Sergeant Moloi. Management of
the club is assisting the police by screening video footage from security
cameras and photos posted on the club’s social media platforms to see if
they can spot anyone with a wig.
Mphuku recounted his shock at the discovery. turn
“Even though I am the day manager, Saturday evenings can get really
hectic. When that happens, all managers have to help out during the course narrative in
of the night. This Saturday was our annual Red Party, so I had to help out chronological order
between 22:00 and 02:00,” he said. After big club nights, day managers are
allowed to come in at 11:00, but Mphuku decided to get an early start.
Sundays are less frenzied, but still draw a large crowd.
Shaken by the discovery, Mphuku continues: “I knew I had a lot to take

care of before we could open the club for Sunday Drag, so I wanted to get
in as soon as I could.” He entered the premises before 09:00. Once settled,
he swept each room for potential damage that needs quick fixing. Just after
nine o’clock, Mphuku opened the backdoor for the cleaning staff and his
assistant bar manager. He finally moved onto the restrooms when he
discovered Van der Berg’s body in the men’s toilet on the lower level. “I
recognised him,” said Mphuku, “but I didn’t know his name. I’ve seen him
at the club many times.”
At first, it all seemed unreal to Goldstar’s day manager. “You don’t ever
expect to find a dead body and not someone that looks familiar,” he said.
Van der Berg’s body had many lacerations and there was a lot of blood
spatter.
Once Mphuku realised what he discovered, he told the assistant bar

manager to make a call to the police immediately. Realising that he was
standing in a crime scene, he backed out slowly, trying not to touch
anything. It is only then that he realised there was a blood trail running
towards the restroom.
Mphuku followed the blood trail and saw that it led to the club’s front door
and from there to the lower level’s middle bar. “I told the cleaning staff to
leave everything alone and to wait outside. Franky and I then waited for
the police in front of the club. When they arrived, I showed them to the
body as well as the blood trail.”
He is not sure how quickly the police would be able to solve the murder.
Mphuku also confirmed that he noticed a clump of hair in the victim’s one
hand. But during the Red Party, most people were wearing wigs. He says
it would be like searching for a needle in a haystack.
The club remains closed to the public while the investigation continues.
This leaves Mphuku somewhat worried. “I think the news of a murder will
keep some people away, but if the club remains closed for an unspecified
period, patrons will move onto a different club. This could affect our
livelihood.”
By now, you are familiar with the summary lead. This article starts by summarising the facts through
answering the common wh-questions. The lead is followed by two paragraphs that expand on the facts
presented in the opening paragraph.
The transition from news report to the day manager’s story is made by means of one statement:
“Mphuku recounted his shock at the discovery”. This statement gives a clear sign to readers that the
article is shifting from the basic facts to what the day manager did and experienced.
After the turn, seven paragraphs recount the discovery of the dead body in more detail and chronological
order.
ACTIVITY 2.2
The time for this activity is 15 minutes.
The following excerpt was taken from an article written by Conie Piloto and Molly Hennessy-Fiske
And published in The Miami Herald in 1998 (see Scanlan, 2003). The chronological order of the
narrative section has been shuffled. Can you reorganise it into a logical chronology?
We also hid the turn somewhere in the excerpt. Can you identify and isolate it from the rest of the
narrative?
Police ordered him to drop the weapon, said Davie Capt. John George.
A terrified Joyce Leach dashed next door to the adjoining home of Leach’s parents.
“He’s got a knife, and he’s gonna kill me!” Leach’s mother, Reba Leach, said her daughter-in-law
screamed.
At the same time, 15-year-old April Leach, one of their six children, called from a convenience
store blocks away.
“Your father is going to kill me!” Joyce Leach yelled.
An officer fired at Dennis Leach, striking him around a knee, but he wouldn’t stop plunging the
knife into his ex-wife, neighbors said.
April Leach hung up and dialed 911.
Neighbors say they heard at least five shots.
Dennis Leach became angry with his 37-year-old ex-wife after he went to a neighborhood bar
Friday night. He stormed into her duplex Saturday afternoon and threatened her with a butcher
knife.
When officers arrived at the duplex, Dennis Leach was chasing his ex-wife with a knife.
Instead, Leach started stabbing her.

An officer or officers fired again, this time hitting Leach in the chest. He collapsed and died on the
side of the road. His parents were watching from inside their home.
Davie police would not say whether more than one officer fired at Dennis Leach, nor would they
identify the officer or officers.
As police carried Joyce Leach to an ambulance, the knife still stuck in her right shoulder, she
turned to police and said: “Is he dead, is he dead. … Why did you shoot him?” said next-door
neighbor Shannon Schmitzer.
As Joyce was hoisted into the ambulance and police placed a yellow tarp over Dennis Leach’s
body, April Leach and a brother arrived.
Police and neighbors gave this account of the latest domestic violence:
The two siblings cried and tried to run to their mother and father but were escorted away.
Police later drove them to Memorial Regional Hospital to be with their mother.
“They’ve had a lot of trouble in the past,” Schmitzer said.
As the couple’s problems escalated, the Department of Children and Family Services stepped in.
The state took custody of the children for a while, placing them in foster homes, neighbors said.
Joyce Leach got a job at Dunkin’ Donuts, just blocks away, but Dennis Leach couldn’t stay out of
trouble.
In May, Davie police charged him with domestic violence and aggravated assault after the incident
with the hammer. He was convicted and jailed for 90 days.
He got out Tuesday night and returned to his family’s house, his mother said.
Dennis and Joyce Leach lived for years in the duplex owned by Leach’s parents.
“We weren’t supposed to let him stay here,” his mother said. “But he just showed up.”
Let us now explore the use of a nut graph.
2.4 THE NUT GRAPH
Some articles written for newspapers and magazines (both hard copy and online) follow “the form of
explanation over information and understanding over knowledge” (Scanlan, 2003: np). Put differently,
not all articles aim to summarise the most important facts of an event. Instead, they engage with
information to make sense of it. At least, they try to.
There are different frameworks that you can apply to bring this kind of article to life, but one thing most
of them should have in common is the nut graph (also spelt nutgraph and nutgraf). The nut graph
originated with the Wall Street Journal in the 1940s and has become widely used since then. The nut
graph is meant to provide context and explain what direction the article is taking. However, before we
explore the nut graph in more detail, let us have a closer look at the soft lead. The soft lead precedes
and complements the nut graph.
2.4.1 The soft lead
Where many hard news reporting starts with a summarising lead, soft news articles tend to start with a
soft lead. Soft leads (also known as delayed leads) do not summarise the main facts by answering
common wh-questions. Instead, they function as appetisers; gimmicks to get the reader interested
through atmosphere, mood, curiosity and by setting a scene. Soft leads will ask questions, highlight
interesting perspectives, describe something in detail or capture a moment. Fedler (1989:115–126) lists
the following types of soft leads:
• The anecdote or example (“delayed/buried lead”): Made popular by the Wall Street Journal,
the introductory paragraph sketches an interesting example (or anecdote) and thereby
establishes the theme of the report. The story returns to the actual event only afterwards.
• The quotation: In a report or article in which a person is usually the focal point, it is often
appropriate to begin the report with a quotation of a statement the person made. In other cases,
the report can begin with a statement that is especially newsworthy, and the best place to put it
is in the introductory paragraph. A quotation is especially suitable for introducing an interview
with someone. The main goal is, once again, to capture the attention of the readers with a
provocative statement that whets their appetites for what will follow in more detail in the report.
Quotations are used sparingly. They usually appear only if they meet the following
requirements:
• if a source states something so effectively that the journalist cannot put it in a better
way
• if the quotation sums up the whole event/theme and is also short and succinct
• if the quotation is self-explanatory
• if the statement is particularly sensational
• The question: A question is a good lead – especially if it is short, simple and specific, and of
such a nature that readers will feel compelled to answer it. The latter succeeds especially when
the question deals with a controversial matter the readers are already familiar with.
• The descriptive lead: The lead begins with a colourful description of the interesting details of
an incident and then proceeds to a description of the event itself. In other cases, a sketch is
given in the introduction of the circumstances or atmosphere that prevailed at the time of a
particular incident (the actual story). Such an introduction can be used effectively to give more
impact to the incident, which is the actual theme of the report.
• The motto or slogan: If a topic is less interesting, the reporter can make the report more
interesting by using a slogan as a beginning. With such a provocative introduction, the writer
usually succeeds in gripping the reader’s attention. Sometimes a twist is given to a well-known
slogan.
• The suspenseful lead: The reader’s curiosity is stimulated or suspense is created by sketching
a strange development in the lead and only giving the explanation or denouement later.
• The shocker (“shocking leads with a twist”; “ironic leads”): Such a lead contains a shocking
or ironic statement.
• The direct address form: The reader is addressed directly and therefore becomes directly
involved in or drawn into the event. This is often done in question format (see the question form
above).
• The chronological sequence: The event is narrated in the sequence in which it happened.
• The postponement (“suspended interest form”): In contrast with the standard report in which
all the important facts are provided in the first paragraph, this form works the opposite way: the
most important point (the denouement or solution) is moved further towards the end of the
report. The curiosity of the readers is stimulated right through, but they are compelled to read
the story to its end in order to reach the most important fact.
Please see Point Park University (2017:np), Bloch (2016:np), Aram (nd) and Hufford (2018:np) for
more examples.
ACTIVITY 2.3
Look for examples of each type of lead. Share these examples and articles by providing the hyperlink
to these articles on the discussion forums/created platform.
Now that you know what a soft leads looks like, let us move onto the nut graph.
2.4.2 The nut graph
The word “nut graph” is journalistic slang that refers to a paragraph (graph) that provides the essence
(the kernel or nutshell) of an article.
Articles using a nut graph will start with a soft lead to attract potential readers. Yet, an attractive opening
paragraph or two will not be enough to keep readers interested for long. At some point, the author has
to inform the reader what the article is about. This is done through the nut graph, a paragraph that briefly
explains the purpose of the story (Nut Graph, 2020:np; Rogers, 2019:np; Wylie Communications,
2019:np). The nut graph also tells readers why they should continue reading (Scanlan, 2003:np).
Scanlan (2003:np) says a nut graph has a number of functions:
• It validates the story by providing readers with a good reason to be invested in the story.
• It acts as a transition from the lead to the rest of the story.
• It explains the connection between the lead and the rest of the story.
• It often tells readers why the story is suitable.
• It often contains clues that help readers see why the story is important.
Wylie Communications (2019:np) provides the following four guidelines to help you write a nut graph:
1. What is your story’s angle? Figure out what the crux of your story is.
2. Summarise your story in one sentence by answering the following two readers’ questions:
• What is your point?
• Why should I care?
3. Tell readers what’s in it for them. Make a promise; tell them what they will learn if they stick
around.
4. Keep it short. A nut graph can consist of more than one paragraph, but it is much better to limit
your summary to a few sentences and one paragraph.
Many journalists find it hard to write a nut graph. It is not easy to follow a successful soft lead with a
paragraph that tells readers what the rest of the article is about without giving away too much and
spoiling the effect of the soft lead in the process. The nut graph should anticipate readers’ questions and
give enough reasons to continue reading without giving away the ending (Scanlan, 2003:np).
EXAMPLE OF NUT GRAPH 1
The sun rises over Nkandla, chasing shadows from the village. Children prepare for school; adults
ready themselves for work on the lands. Another day. Another challenge. Try as they may to stay
positive, dark clouds gather on the horizon.
Initial upgrades to former president Jacob Zuma’s homestead just outside Nkandla has benefitted the
municipality with improved infrastructure. Yet since the former statesman’s return, no upkeep has
been done and claims of Mr Zuma’s struggle to repay his home loan of more than R7 million has
caused villagers to despair – what will happen to them if he is forced to leave?
In this example, the article starts with a descriptive lead that tries to create an atmosphere of
hopelessness. The second paragraph links directly with the soft lead by referring to Nkandla and its
inhabitants. It provides a reason for the bleakness: the village is dependent on the former president for
their own well-being, and it has not been going well since his return. The nut graph also gives readers
a clue to what the rest of the article is about: Mr Zuma’s financial difficulties and the impact that will
have on the village in general. The story ties in with ongoing reports of adverse poverty in the region,
growing numbers of orphans and the long-term impact of corruption.
EXAMPLE OF NUT GRAPH 2
What’s the big deal? Everyone speaks English, right?
Dineo Thembu is arrested for possession of cocaine, even though she has nothing on her and evidence
is lacking. She’s taken to the police station. No one speaks to her. She’s given a form to sign.
Everything is written in legal English. She doesn’t understand what the form says; she doesn’t know
where to sign. Her English is limited to conversational phrases. Dineo has rights. Accepting that
every South African commands English at mother tongue level is ignorant and even devastating.
This example employs the question as the soft lead. It aids in creating expectation, but also forces the
reader to think what the questions imply – does everyone really speak English? And, what exactly does
it mean to “speak” a language? The lead forces readers to think of the role language plays.
The nut graph links to the soft lead by sketching a scenario (which may be based on true events) where
English blocks someone’s access to justice. The nut graph also contributes to the atmosphere of the
piece. It is clear from the second paragraph that the article is about language, especially English, and its
impact on access to human rights and miscarriages of justice. The paragraph implies that the rest of the
article will continue to highlight the spaces where people seldom think language plays an important
role. It will also debunk the reader’s ideas of English in South Africa.
ACTIVITY 2.4
Use the following scenario to write a soft lead followed by a relevant nut graph:
The article will cover the activities of ISIS in northern Mozambique and the effects of these activities
on not only Mozambicans themselves but also the SADC region as a whole. ISIS holds a serious
threat to financial and political stability.
Now that we have explored both the soft lead and the nut graph, let us briefly look at the different kinds
of articles (that are not news reports).
2.5 DIFFERENT KINDS OF ARTICLES
In this section, we will focus on a number of different kinds of articles that can be distinguished from
each other according to characteristics such as the topic they deal with, the “depth” of reporting, and
the relationship between one kind of report and others that appear in the newspaper.
We will look at the content, structure and style characteristics of the following text types:
• the human-interest story

• the profile, particularly the personality profile
• the in-depth discussion interview
• the obituary
• the explanatory article/interpretative article
• the colour story (also called the atmosphere story)
• investigative reporting
• the popular scientific article
• the editorial
Before we look at each text type separately, it is important to distinguish clearly between what we call
a “report” and an “article” (or “feature”).
2.5.1 Report versus article/feature
You will remember that we made a distinction between reports and features in lesson 1. There is
considerable confusion about the use of the terms “report” and “article/feature” when describing the
text types that occur in a newspaper. The term “news report” is typically used to refer to texts that report
on actuality or newsworthy events (hard news), particularly those reports with a summary lead and an
inverted pyramid structure. However, actuality news events can also feature in reports with a soft lead
and an hourglass structure, although we cannot classify such reports as “hard news” (e.g. murders,
burglaries or disasters). If reporters report on an important court case, or the important resolutions
adopted at a political meeting, and use a soft lead in their articles, they are still reporting on an actuality
or newsworthy event.
There are, however, text types in the main section of a newspaper that do not mainly deal with actuality
events or topics, but are published for other reasons. Most of them fall into the category of soft news
and they are presented not as reports, but as articles.
Fedler (1989:619) mentions that articles often “describe a person, a place or idea rather than an
event”. So long as the stories are interesting, their topics may be older, less important and less relevant
than the topics of news stories. Similarly, some article stories concern distant rather than local topics,
and many appeal to their readers’ emotions rather than to their intellect. Features generally explore their
topics in greater depth than news stories and place greater emphasis upon colourful details, anecdotes,
quotations and descriptions.
What makes the difference between a report and an article confusing is the fact that articles often reach
the paper precisely because they relate to some kind of actuality news event, so that the distinction
between the actuality of a story and the general interest or other interesting aspect of a story can often
not be separated.
Articles are generally associated with in-depth reporting. Anderson and Itule (1991:499) describe an
in-depth article as one “which through extensive research and interviews provides an account that goes
further than a basic news story”. The in-depth article therefore goes further in content than the who-
what-where-when-why type of report, precisely because the real or meaningful aspect of an event or
topic is not always visible on the surface. Kobre (1981:2) sums up the aims of in-depth reporting as
follows:
• It reveals new aspects or the roots of the news below the surface.
• It puts the news into perspective.
• It places spot news in context.
• It presents the causes of news or the problem signalled by breaking news.
• It shows recommended methods for preventing the problem in future.
• It indicates techniques for treating or handling the problem today.
• It forecasts the probable future, based on a study of past events and trends.
Examples of in-depth reporting are reports/articles in which causes are probed (e.g. the high crime
figures in South Africa or the crash of the markets). This includes reporting from multiple perspectives
as when a newspaper reports on a single event (e.g. a natural disaster or an aircraft accident) with
different reports, each covering a specific aspect of the event.
With respect to content structure, articles take on a variety of forms. For instance, the lead can be any
of the leads we have already discussed: the summary lead, using a quotation, an anecdote, examples,
questions, description of an action, a shocker, a descriptive part, and the like. Articles also display
considerable variation in their content structure: the pyramid structure, chronological narration, the
multiple perspective, logical conclusion of a topic, the hourglass structure, Y structure, the circle
structure, the Kabob, and the like.
2.5.2 The human-interest story
Human-interest stories offer the reader a glimpse of humanity in all its facets. Walt Harrington
(1997:xiv) refers to this as intimate journalism about
the stories of everyday life – about the behaviour, motives, feelings, faiths, attitudes, grievances, hopes,
fears and accomplishments of people as they seek meaning and purpose in their lives; stories that are
windows on our universal human struggle.
Charnley (1966:242) offers the following reason for their publication:
They get into the news because of their oddity, their pathos, their entertainment value, rather than because
they contribute significantly to knowledge of ongoing community life.
Typical examples of human-interest stories include:
• a little girl’s brave struggle against cancer

• the determined efforts of the fire brigade to save a kitten that got stuck in a pipe
• a woman who forgot to attend her own wedding because she was watching cricket
• a paramedic who discovered that the victim in an accident was his son
Charnley (1966:244) describes stories like these as follows:
A story strong in human-interest is one that gives the reader or listener a sense of personal relationship as
he responds to the event it describes. There are often human-interest elements in hard news, elements that
provide the sense of personal involvement to the news consumer. But, the true human-interest story
establishes emotional contact quickly with its audience, and remains primarily an emotional rather than an
informative or intellectual experience. When a story horrifies or amuses a reader, excites or depresses him,
stimulates his sympathy or his sexual appetites, saddens or angers him, or appeals to his self-interest in any
way, he becomes a vicarious participant instead of an outside observer. Since such a story allows the
consumer to respond emotionally rather than intellectually, it requires less concentration and effort than
are demanded by hard news.
Another genre in this category, especially when it is about the antics of people, is humoristic reports,
also referred to as “brights”. A bright can deal with any funny topic. Even if it is sometimes presented
in a pyramid structure, most humoristic stories have some kind of surprising or bizarre twist, despite
the fact that such reports are sometimes only two paragraphs long.
For writing human-interest stories, a journalist can use any of the structure types we discussed: the IPF,
the Y structure and the hourglass structure (including all their variants). However, human-interest
stories are mostly presented in the hourglass structure.
ACTIVITY 2.5
You are a journalist for an online newspaper. You have the responsibility to write short human-
interest stories used to fill gaps. Write a short article of 200 words about an 86-year-old Swazi woman
in Eswatini who has decided to use her nursing skills to care for the elderly during the COVID-19
pandemic. She does house calls on foot and starts at 05:00 in the morning to cover a large part of the
outskirts of Manzini. Her work has led to a following on social media, as well as in the printed media.
2.5.3 The profile
A profile is an article that covers personalities, places (cities) or a fashion craze.
The personality profile (or personality article) is a well-known subgenre of the profile. The main aim
of the personality profile is to give the reader a character sketch of someone who is well known (e.g.
politicians, sports stars, economists.). Articles such as the following are examples of the personality
profile:
• The making of a monster: a profile of Foday Sankoh, the rebel leader of Sierra Leone (Saturday
Argus, 2000-05-27/28)
• The paradox of Comrade Bob: a profile of Robert Mugabe, president of Zimbabwe (The Star,
2000-05-03)
• The Cape’s mother of education: a profile of Helen Zille, Western Cape MEC for Education
(Mail & Guardian, 2000-05/6-26/5-1/6)
• Life is an endless high note (Saturday Argus, 2000-05-27/28)
• Another first for soccer’s “Iron Lady” (Pretoria News, 2000-05-3)
The most explicit form of the personality profile is an article that is structured like an interview (i.e. as
a series of questions and answers). In this form, the journalist each time asks a question, and the
interviewee answers. This form is commonly used and is especially useful when it is necessary to give
more structure to the presentation of an interview. As far as form is concerned, journalists have a choice
between various frameworks (see Van der Spek, 1996:187). Two of these are:
• The interview is presented as a monologue (the “full-quote interview”). In this form, the
journalist disappears into the background. The interview starts and ends with quotation marks,
and only the interviewee “speaks”. This form is especially suitable when a portrait has to be
drawn of a person that sketches their entire life in terms of what they say.
• An article with quotations. In this form, direct quotations of what the interviewee had to say
are alternated with summaries of what the person said. This form is structurally quite similar to
reports on speeches and annual reports. It is a particularly useful form when a long interview
has to be shortened and summarised.
In the selection of a structure, the readers’ interest is an important factor. What would they like to know
about the person; their views, achievements, likes and dislikes, love life, family life, and the like?
However, in an interview the questions can also be determined by, for example, specific events or views
that the person is involved in. Then the focus will fall on, for example, the events and views, and on the
person.
In the chronological structure, the questions are aimed at providing the reader with a bird’s-eye view of
a historic course of events. The article can be about a person’s career or a development taking place in
a specific field that the person was involved in. For example: a veteran actor has announced her
retirement from the stage and a journalist interviews her about her career. Typical questions that the
journalist could put to her are:
• Where and when did your career as an actor begin?

• What and who had the most important influence on your career in those years?
• What were the circumstances like when you were acting in those times?
• When did you get your first leading role?
• When and how did a change occur in your career?
• What were the highlights of your career the following ten years?
• What are your future plans?
Questions such as these act as an aid for the journalist, but any good journalist will also be led by new
angles or interesting aspects that may arise during the interview and give a different direction to it. The
final structure of an interview is therefore only determined after the interview has been completed. It is
then often necessary to take the most interesting sections of the interview and move them to the
beginning. Here, too, the rule holds that the reader’s attention and interest should be caught with the
first paragraph(s).
A profile of a person can be presented not as an interview, but as a sketch in which the journalist selects
and presents the available information about the person in such a way that the whole “picture” reveals
the many facets of the person’s character to the reader.
ACTIVITY 2.6
The time for this activity is 10 to 15 minutes.
Prepare for your profile by writing down five key questions to be answered. Use this to formulate at
least two possible headings.
Briefly motivate why you chose this specific person to base your profile on.
2.5.4 The theme-oriented interview
The personality profile should be distinguished from interview articles, that is, an interview with
someone who is an expert in a particular field, or who has been approached by the reporter to share
their views on a specific matter with the readers (e.g. the writer Nadine Gordimer on the future of
Afrikaans). Such an article focuses on the theme or question concerned and is thematically structured.
Through thematic ordering, a number of questions (which are aimed at unfolding the theme in all its
facets for the reader) are put to the interviewee. The questions are planned in such a way that the person
will reveal as much as possible in their answers about their views on the subject.
Interviews of this nature can be about any topic. Let us look at some examples:
A heart surgeon has developed a new procedure for heart transplants. In the interview, the reporter will
put his questions in such a way that the reader’s questions about the subject will be answered. Typical
questions could be:
• What does the procedure entail?

• How does it differ from existing procedures?
• Is it better/safer/more advantageous than existing procedures?
• Who can benefit from this?
• Where are the operations performed?
• What is the cost of the operation?
The same thematic approach can be used in interviews with politicians on new or intended legislation;
or with leaders of industry on matters such as new measures, contracts or mergers and the
demutualisation of companies. In choosing the questions, smart journalists will select and formulate
their questions in such a way that the readers will get to know what they should know on the subject.
Any interview requires preparation: reporters should know at least what kind of information they are
looking for and what questions they will ask in order to obtain that information.
ACTIVITY 2.7
You are interviewing the head of Treasury about the Department of Finance’s decision to expand its
existing sugar tax from fizzy drinks to include all products that contain added cane sugar. This will
have a huge effect on consumers’ spending habits, seeing as many products contain cane sugar.
Formulate at least five key questions in order for readers to understand the reasons behind the tax
increase and as well as Treasury’s envisioned gains. One of the questions should also identify
potential pitfalls in Treasury’s plan.
2.5.5 The obituary
Newspapers regularly report on the death of well-known persons in normal news reports. In addition to
details about the person’s age and a brief mention of precisely what the person was known for, such
reports provide information on the time and place of death, the cause of death and details about the
funeral. In the obituary, however, the focus does not fall on the death of the person, but on their life –
particularly on what made them an important person in society.
The lead usually points to the fact that the person is dead and to one or several important or unique
characteristics or achievement(s) of the person. In some instances, the focus in the lead will immediately
be on the individual’s interests, goals, hobbies or personality.
In the subsequent paragraphs, a chronological summary of the individual’s life is given. Fedler
(1989:419) highlights the following aspects to include in an obituary:
1. full identification of the person (full names, date of birth, address)

2. place of death, cause of death
3. occupation and career history
4. other interests and achievements
5. awards received and important posts held
6. educational history (school/university attended, qualifications obtained)
7. membership of church or community organisations
8. information about the person’s marriage
9. details about the person’s next of kin
10. anecdotes about the person’s life, friends’ memories of the person, other interesting events in
which the person was involved
11. details of the funeral (often vague if the person was very famous and the service is restricted to
family and friends)
An obituary is not written about everyone who dies, even if they were good or interesting people. The
person must hold some public or community interest and the loss must be felt further than family and
friendship circles. Sometimes obituaries are published in local or regional papers, or internal company
magazines, websites or newsletters.
ACTIVITY 2.8
Read the following obituaries of Brenda Fassie. Which of Fedler’s components can you identify in
each? What are the major differences between the three?
Obituary 1
Obituary 2
Obituary 3
2.5.6 The background story
Articles in this category give a more extensive description or explanation of subjects or events that are
in the news. To illustrate: after a news report on acts of terrorism that have been committed, an article
with an in-depth story on terrorists’ personality traits, tactics and goals may appear.
An example of this is the famous kidnapping of a South African couple in the Philippines in 2000. The
hostage situation captivated people’s imaginations and for weeks features were published that gave
background expositions to the struggle of independence of the Philippines and rebel activity on the
islands. Another example is that of the Afrikaans author, Mark Behr, who became famous for his books’
subtle criticism of the apartheid system. He later confessed to being a spy for the apartheid government.
Background stories appeared on what it meant to be a spy for oppressive regimes.
Background stories often appear with a main report in the form of a satellite report/sidebar, which is
set in a separate box near the report. The sidebar is related to the (main) report on an important event,
but is separated from it because it is less important. It is used for the sake of clarity because it prevents
the main report from becoming too long and too complicated.
In the sidebar, the reader is given additional information about the main event, usually from a different
perspective or source. Charnley (1966:242) mentions the following in this regard:
Stories like these combine a sense of timeliness with their function of adding something to the
understanding of an event reported elsewhere. Usually they are strong in human-interest; but they may
serve only to illuminate or supplement the major facts of current news events.
An example of this is a lead that deals with a visit of a prominent person to a country and in a separate
report, details are given about the person’s previous visit.
ACTIVITY 2.9
Study the following two background stories about human trafficking in Africa. Pay close attention
to the way they intertwine the stories of the figures the reports are about and the information about
human trafficking in general.
Would you say that the reader gets a good sense of who the victims are and what they went through,
as well as what human trafficking entails and what the challenges are? Why do you say that?
Human trafficking 1
Human trafficking 2
2.5.7 The colour story
The background story about the trauma hostages experience has a lot in common with the colour story
as far as content and style are concerned. The main aim of the colour story is to give the reader a feeling
of the circumstances (e.g. physically, emotionally) surrounding a specific event. In order to do this, the
journalist has to provide accurate descriptions to make the readers experience what they would have
observed and experienced had they been there. Charnley (1966:243) describes the goal of this subgenre
as follows:
The colour story is one that attempts to put the reader or listener squarely into the setting it is describing.
It is essentially a descriptive story, but one descriptive of a scene or the surrounding circumstances of an
activity of some current interest. It tries to make the scene audible, visible, even smellable.
The journalist obviously chooses a certain angle on the event – the joy, terror, anger, and the like of the
circumstances – and then attempts to view it from the reader’s frame of reference. With a careful choice
of facts, detailed description and interpretation, the journalist tries to conjure up an image of the
circumstances so that the reader can experience the event as it was.
Other examples of this category are reports/articles on
• the reaction of the spectators at the time of a fatal crash on a racetrack

• life inside a refugee camp in Rwanda
• the atmosphere at an election venue
The “colouring-in” of the circumstances usually takes place against the background of a specific news
event, but the colour story can also be used on its own to rouse the readers’ awareness of, and interest
and involvement in, a specific matter. For example, a feature/report on the peacefulness of the
Richtersveld can be used to make people aware of the threat of proposed mining activities in the region.
Ordinary news reports often fall into this category.
Look at the following example cited by Clark (2004:np) and published by the Minneapolis Tribune. It
describes the passing of American president, Warren Harding’s, funeral train:
Honey Creek, Iowa — Hurling itself in the dawn at 50 miles an hour, the President’s funeral train roared
past Honey Creek at 4 a.m. today. A blurred, agonizing glimpse into the dimly lighted observation car
heaped to the ceiling with wreaths and flowers was all that Honey Creek got — and for this her 76
inhabitants had shivered on the dreary station platform for hours.
ACTIVITY 2.10
Look at the description of the funeral train – describe the atmosphere. Temperature? Mood? Do you
think it was worth the people’s wait? Compare the results of the visual with the expectation and the
price they paid.
2.5.8 Investigative reporting
One of the most important functions of the press in a democratic dispensation is that it does not only
reflect what happens; but also analyses, evaluates and (where necessary) condemns current events.
Investigative journalism is one of the most important instruments the press uses to do this.
In-depth reporting and investigative journalism are closely related, and usually overlap in terms of the
modus operandi journalists follow to “get to the truth”. According to some authors, investigative
journalism emphasises the exposing of corruption, inefficiency or other forms of maladministration that
are deliberately covered up or of which the public (to their detriment) is unaware (see Kobre, 1981:2;
Northmore, 1996:9–10).
UNESCO (2019:np) defines “investigative journalism” aptly as
the unveiling of matters that are concealed either deliberately by someone in a position of power, or
accidentally, behind a chaotic mass of facts and circumstances – and the analysis and exposure of all
relevant facts to the public.
The task of the newspaper is to uncover corruption or to foster a certain attitude with regard to a
viewpoint, cause, and the like, in the interest of the public. Corruption comes in many guises and in
many areas. Northmore (1996) delimits it to corruption of individuals, companies and commercial
enterprises, local governments, health services and in the political arena.
Where hard news events (based on actuality and newsworthiness) are published shortly after the
incident took place (or shortly before it will take place), investigative pieces can involve more than one
journalist at a time. It can take months and even years to dig deep, driven by the story and “public
interest” – the need to keep the affected community informed (Investigative Journalism Manual,
2020:np). It goes without saying that investigative journalism can be dangerous.
Reports on this kind of corruption appear daily on the front pages of newspapers. This kind of article
demonstrates the investigative power of reporters to expose matters which others (e.g. politicians,
economists, sports administrators) desperately want to keep out of the public eye (and, of course, out
of reach of the long arm of the law). Given the interest of any story on (possible) corruption, this kind
of story usually reaches the front page – and then in the form of the lead. In other cases, investigative
journalism is the norm in newspapers (e.g. South Africa’s Mail & Guardian). Sometimes the story is
too big for the newspaper and ends up being published as a monograph. Investigations into the illegal
cigarette trade in South Africa is a very good example.
ACTIVITY 2.11
Have a look at the following three examples. One is about boys who were apparently kidnapped and
raped by high-ranking officials in government. The remaining two are about the illegal cigarette trade
in South Africa.
1. Realising what this kind of journalism entails, what topics do you think would make good
reports? What do you think the citizenry in your country needs to know?
2. How would you go about investigating this issue?
Share these thoughts on the discussion forum.
Bird Island.
Illegal trade 1
Illegal trade 2
2.5.9 Newsworthy events in the field of science and technology
In order to be able to report on new and newsworthy developments in the field of science and
technology, journalists have a choice between different text types: news reports, background sketches,
opinion articles, reports on published research and interviews, and the popular scientific article. In
choosing a specific genre, the journalist should be guided by the subject, the newsworthiness and the
information needs of the readers of a newspaper. It often happens, when there is a sensational and
potentially controversial event in the field of science and technology, that a newspaper employs several
text types in the same edition or in follow-up editions to report on the story.
Writing a popular scientific article requires that the writer or journalist has some knowledge on the
subject. Sometimes experts in a field are approached to produce such an article for the newspaper, but
often it is written by journalists who specialise in reporting for the lay public on newsworthy items in
certain fields of science and technology.
Publication of such articles in newspapers and magazines is not targeted at experts in the field, but at
the lay reader (i.e. the person who is not an expert in the field concerned). The choice of subject is
usually determined by developments in science and technology, for instance the possibility to induce a
state of hibernation in the human body (cryogenic sleep) that will allow a person to live in another time
and space. This type of topic fascinates readers because the science is already developed to certain
extent, but not far enough to be realised.
One of the main tasks of the writer/journalist is to make these discoveries or developments intelligible
for the lay reader. To accomplish this, journalists employ many techniques, for example:
• relating the discovery to the reader’s existing knowledge or experience

• providing examples
• making comparisons to things that are familiar to the reader
• avoiding excessive use of scientific terms and definitions
• constructing the exposition systematically and arguing in a logical way
In such articles, the main focus is on the importance of the results of the investigation or the new
developments. How does it affect progress in science and technology? How does it affect the average
person? These are some of the questions that the reader would like to have answered.
The content and the structure (sequence, coherence) should be made clear by the introductory paragraph
(lead), subheads and conjunctions/conjoining sentences between the different parts of the report/article.
In the first couple of paragraphs, an exposition of the content of the article as a whole is usually given.
The function of this is to indicate immediately to the reader what can be expected in the rest of the
article.
If readers do start to read an article, it is important that they have clear structural markers so that they
know exactly where they are in the exposition. In an article, this is usually achieved by linking phrases
between paragraphs, which indicate what new subtheme will be discussed in each case. Sometimes such
connecting sentences/linking phrases first sum up the content of the preceding paragraph and then give
a preview of the (sub) theme that will be dealt with in the subsequent paragraph.
Another form of ordering/structuring is the question-answer pattern in which the whole is built up of a
collection of questions and answers to these questions. It is similar to the drawing up of a construction
plan for a text by means of the question-answer method.
In order to stimulate the reader’s curiosity, eye-catchers/attention-grabbers are used, namely:
• a head that immediately grips the reader

• a second head, relating to the first but offering a bit more information to the reader
• a striking intro/lead
• using a deck and quotations between the columns of the copy streamers
• using subheads
• interesting illustrations
Elling (1983:117–118) points out that one of the biggest problems in writing popular scientific texts is
that the norms and conventions of the specialist subject text (scientific article, report or
thesis/dissertation) are transferred to the popular article – a practice that can immediately estrange the
lay reader from the article.
Writers of popular scientific articles therefore try to avoid the descriptive, objective and abstract kind
of style that you would find in formal scientific texts. What they do aim for is a style in which the focus
is on the “human element”, so that the reader is able to “enter into the event”. The style is also not
strictly formal. It is rather a light-hearted kind of easy style, which allows for anecdotes, humour and
figurative language.
ACTIVITY 2.12
Study the two examples provided below, then write your own short popular science article meant for
publication in a well-known men’s/women’s/children’ magazine. Try to keep it under 300 words.
Explain what Elon Musk’s SpaceX company is trying to do with its space travel programme.
Cryosleep 1
Crispr gene editing 2
2.5.10 The Wall Street Journal form
You would have noticed when we discussed the soft lead and nut graph that the Wall Street Journal
(WSJ) had a great influence on the way that journalists approached writing. Different editors and
journalists working for the WSJ created new styles, which were soon adopted by other newspapers and
magazines across the world.
The formula consist of the following steps (Charnay916, 2009:np; Gallaher, 2009:np):
1. Start with a soft lead in the form of an anecdote, description or narrative.

2. Follow with a nut graph that contextualises the lead and the story to come.
3. Develop the story. Use quotes, facts, descriptions, and the like.
4. End the story with another anecdote or description that ties up loose ends and brings the reader
back to the beginning.
What is characteristic of an article with this form, is that any story is approached from the angle of how
an individual, as a representative of a larger group, may be affected by an event. In the lead/introductory
paragraph, the focus is therefore on an individual and how they are affected by a particular matter before
the journalist proceeds to discuss the matter in general. For this reason, the author may tell the story in
the first person (Gallaher, 2009:np).
To illustrate: If a report contains only a statistical exposition of malnutrition among South African
children, the statistical material as such will have very little impact on the reader. However, the article
will have an impact if it first sketches for the reader how malnutrition affects one specific child in
specific circumstances. For example, how little Andries arrives at school hungry, the physical effect
that malnutrition has on him, the projections about the effect it will have later in his life, the particular
social circumstances he finds himself in (e.g. unemployed father, insufficient income of mother).
Instead of immediately confronting the reader with the most important statistics or findings of the report,
the story focuses instead on the ways in which these facts affect the individual.
Only after giving a “dramatisation” of the theme of malnutrition, does the report proceed to explain all
the facets of the problem of malnutrition in South Africa, as contained in the report. Between the lead
and this exposition, the transition is stated with a transitional paragraph (the “nut graph”), for example:
“This problem does not affect Andries alone. X percent of South African children are suffering from
malnutrition.”
In structuring the paragraphs in which the more comprehensive theme is dealt with, the statistical
information is then ordered according to the inverted pyramid structure (i.e. from the most important to
the least important). However, this form requires a conclusion with a punch. Usually this is achieved
by returning to the fate of the individual who was the focus in the introductory paragraph(s), for
example: “What hope is there for Andries for a better spiritual and physical future?” Or, the journalist
can give a brief summary of the most important aspects of the wider subject/phenomenon.
ACTIVITY 2.13
Imagine the following: Before 1994, South Africa acknowledged Taiwan as an independent state and
as an important trading partner. For more than 30 years, the flux of people between the two countries
have also led to intercultural marriages taking place. Marriages contracted in Taiwan were
acknowledged by the South African government and vice versa.
However, after 1994, the democratic government decided to collaborate with the People’s Republic
of China. As a result, Taiwan’s independence is no longer acknowledged, placing intercultural
marriages contracted in Taiwan in a precarious situation. Those who got married in Taiwan but who
continued to live in South Africa are now considered unmarried and all benefits are considered nil.
Plan an article according to the Wall Street Journal structure in which you highlight the challenges
faced by this group of more than 2000 families. They are trying to get their marriages certified by
the South African government, who insist they simply get re-married. However, investments,
pensions, taxes, divorces and their subsequent maintenance payments, citizenship, and the like are
all affected by this in one way or another.
Give a brief outline of what you will include in your article. Use the four steps indicated by Charnay
and Gallaher to structure your outline.
2.5.11 The editorial
The editorial is an opinion piece about an important issue of the day, supported by the editorial board
of a publication and very often associated with the executive editor of that publication. It offers a well-
written argument to persuade readers to think along the same lines as the newspaper. Sometimes, the
editorial is written by a guest editor or known senior journalist. A strong editorial can lead to
controversy and almost always divides opinions.
The editorial is one of the few opportunities that a journalist has to express their opinion. However, it
is not simply a case of writing what you want. The central argument is still based on facts and a topic
that is current and timely, with a local angle (University of the Pacific, 2020:np). More importantly, the
chosen topic must be relevant and well researched (Edusson, 2020:np).
The fact that the editorial is a combination of facts and views determines its content structure: a short
presentation of the factual event or topic, the viewpoint of the newspaper on the event/topic concerned
and an argumentation of the point of view taken. The standard form of the editorial with these three
components can be summarised as follows (see Wagner, 1979:46):
1. Factual situation
a. A short description of the facts or situation which preceded the viewpoint and which gave rise to the
editorial comment.
b. The question/viewpoint that the editor states on account of (a).
2. Argumentation
Support the viewpoint with (usually) three arguments or give three reasons for taking this view.
3. Conclusion
a. State again the editorial viewpoint.
b. If appropriate, appeal to the readers to respond in a particular way.
This schema represents an ideal structure for the editorial. Of course, in practice not all editorials have
this structure (see Indeed, 2020; WikiHow, 2020), but the ideal structure offers critical readers a
measure for analysing and evaluating an editorial.
Let us now look at the parts of this structure in more detail before we discuss some variations.
The factual situation
In the first part, the reader is informed about the specific event or topic on which the editor is taking a
stand or commenting. The editorial usually provides comment on an event/topic that is (factually)
reported on in the rest of the newspaper. However, for context, it is necessary to repeat the essential
facts – objectively – so that the reader will be able to follow the subsequent argument. For this, the
writer should decide beforehand exactly what information they can presuppose the reader has and what
information they must provide (in any case) for the sake of the argument.
Through the presentation of facts, the author stresses the importance of the topic for the reader,
especially if it is about a matter that the reader may not be familiar with or if it is not already a
contentious matter in the community. Readers are therefore not confronted with the editorial viewpoint
or arguments straight away. They are introduced to the subject and specific aspects are highlighted for
the purpose of comment/criticism.
The editor’s question is intended to formulate the editorial stand very clearly for the reader. At the same
time, it is an opportunity to involve the reader directly in the event. Ideally, it should be the kind of
question about the matter that will compel readers to give an answer. This should guide the readers to
take a stand themselves. Typical questions could include:
• Should Africa trade with China?

• Should a complete lockdown be implemented during a health pandemic like COVID-19?
• Should soft drugs like cannabis be legalised?
Questions like these can be answered with a simple “yes”, “no” or “perhaps”. It invites readers to take
a stand, either for or against the editorial viewpoint. Any of the answers should represent a valid or
defensible point of view.
It is, however, also possible that the editorial can deal with a matter on which it is not so easy to take a
stand. In this instance, the question can be such that it provides various viewpoints, and arguments for
or against the matter. In the standard editorial, the editor chooses only one point of view from different
possibilities and this point of view is stated in one clearly formulated sentence.
Because the editor/writer should be mindful of possible counter-arguments against the point of view
the newspaper takes, the choice of a specific viewpoint usually takes place after a meaningful
consideration of all the alternatives. It is common practice to spell out alternative viewpoints, especially
to indicate that all possibilities have been considered. Sometimes the author reviews alternative points
of view to highlight their shortcomings and to support their chosen perspective.
The argumentation phase
In the next phase, the editor should demonstrate to the reader with clearly formulated and tenable
arguments why the newspaper is taking this particular point of view. Without supporting arguments,
they have no chance of persuading the readers to adopt their view. However, it is also common practice
for an editor not to follow the way of reasonable, supporting argumentation. They may try to play on
the emotions of the reader, or try to entice them to take a view based merely on their own authority or
that of others.
In the choice of arguments, two aspects are taken into account: quantity and quality.
As far as quantity is concerned, three arguments are the ideal (according to Wagner 1979:55–56) and
this is based on the following reasons:
• If only a single argument is offered, it can create the impression that the argumentation is
without substance.
• Several independent arguments will prevent the possibility of a reader automatically rejecting
the entire viewpoint because of rejecting one of the arguments.
• Psychologically, three arguments create the impression that the argumentation has depth. Three
arguments are on average as many as readers are able to remember with ease. Three good
arguments also have more impact than a string of numerous trivial arguments.
The quality of the arguments relates to the depth to which an argument is developed (e.g. the way in
which each argument is built up logically) and supplemented in each step of the development with
supporting material.
The depth of content and scope are determined by the subject, the target audience and the aim of the
argumentation. To illustrate: in order to persuade tobacco companies to stop sales of cigarettes,
arguments about the health risk of smoking and its negative economic and social consequences should
be developed in depth according to scientifically acceptable data on the negative consequences of
smoking. On the other hand, an attempt to persuade voters to register for an election will rely on
arguments of a more general and even emotional nature (such as readers’ responsibility and privileges
in a democratic dispensation).
According to Wagner (1979:57), it is important that the writer of an editorial does not belabour the
argumentation, because of the danger that the reader may get bored.
In presenting the arguments, as in the case of all reasonable argumentation, the rule applies that the
writer should clearly show the reader how the data is relevant to the argument.
Where necessary, the status of the evidence/supporting material should be spelt out, that is, what its
source is (person, book, report) and how recent it is (date of publication). Where a person is named as
a source, the editor/writer should indicate why the person can be regarded as an expert in the field.
The argumentation phase is concluded with a summary (even if it is only a single sentence) of the main
arguments. Such a summary is especially important if the argumentation section is quite long, and there
is a danger that the reader can lose their grasp or general overview of the viewpoint and the separate
arguments.
The conclusion
In the conclusion of the editorial, the reader is briefly reminded of the viewpoint the editor is taking
with respect to the event(s) or topic(s) concerned. At the same time, it serves as a reminder of the
viewpoint that the editor would like the reader to adopt. If applicable, the reader can be roused to a
particular action.
One of the main characteristics of an editorial is the fact that it is short (approximately 500 words). Each
of the main parts occupies not more than one or two paragraphs; a paragraph often consists of only one
sentence. Its brevity requires from the writer that the article be well planned and that each point be
clearly and well formulated.
The above exposition provides only an outline of the standard structure. In some editorials, both the
main components and the subsections are presented in different sequences, and there is considerable
variation in the way the point of view and the arguments are ultimately put into words.
The limitation with regard to length means that the arguments for the viewpoint in the editorial are often
not fully developed and mostly only stated in one sentence. Readers are expected to figure the
argumentation out for themselves and, where necessary, to supplement it by making the tacit
presuppositions explicit.
The editorial viewpoint is still only a viewpoint and any reader can hold a counter-viewpoint. For the
evaluation of the argumentation, the reader should test the arguments (i.e. determine whether the
arguments that were advanced are acceptable). This evaluation can be approached systematically by
testing each of the separate arguments for acceptability and then evaluating the whole accordingly.
ACTIVITY 2.14
Watch the following video of Andrew Rosenthal, an editor of The New York Times.
1. What are the seven steps to write an editorial?

2. What kinds of editorials are there?
3. What will undermine your editorial fast?
Read this editorial piece.
1. What are the facts?

2. What argument is the editor putting forward?
3. Is this argument placed against a clear backdrop?
4. Does the editor identify any counter-arguments?
Let us now look at variations on the standard structure.
Anticipation of counter-arguments
In many editorials, the editor, after presenting supporting arguments for the point of view taken, also
deals with possible counter-arguments. This is often referred to as “the 3 and 1 model”: three arguments
for, one against. In this way, the editor attempts to prevent the informed and critical reader from
rejecting the editor’s viewpoint out of hand, even after the supporting arguments, a step which sceptical
readers often take straight away.
The presentation and evaluation of counter-arguments is, of course, also a persuasive technique.
According to Wagner (1979:70), it creates the impression with the reader that the editor has thoroughly
considered alternative viewpoints and arguments before deciding on this particular viewpoint. Usually
the counter-argument is the most obvious one or one that can be refuted most easily, and not necessarily
the most important or the strongest one.
Another step that can be followed in the argumentation is that an existing counter-argument is pointed
out and its validity granted. An experienced writer will employ the existence of such counter-arguments
to their own advantage if they show that the counter-arguments cannot hold their own against the
writer’s supporting arguments. If this strategy is followed, it becomes even more important for the
writer to highlight their own arguments and their weight in the summary in the third component of the
editorial (the conclusion).
Double viewpoint format
In this variant, two sides of an issue are put as objectively as possible so that the readers can decide for
themselves which viewpoint they wish to take. In the argumentation phase, the alternative viewpoint
and arguments are each weighed up against the others. In the introduction, the way is paved for several
viewpoints to be put and it is left to the readers to make their choice.
In order to establish a balance, each viewpoint should preferably be supported by three arguments that
are more or less of equal weight or importance. If this is not the case (e.g. if one viewpoint is supported
by a number of insubstantial arguments), the balance is disturbed in favour of the other viewpoint.
There are various ways of ordering the viewpoints with their supportive arguments. One viewpoint can
be presented first with its supporting arguments, and then the counter-arguments for that point of view
can be presented. An alternative is to advance an argument and its counter-argument in pairs. However,
it should always be clear for which viewpoint an argument serves as support or as a counter-argument,
so that the reader does not become confused in the process.
Some topics are of such a complex nature that more than one point of view can be valid. In such an
instance, it is necessary to offer various viewpoints, arguments and solutions in the argumentation
phase. Each viewpoint that is advanced should then be supported with arguments of equal weight.
2.5.12 Other subgenres
The different text types discussed in this lesson do not exhaust all the different types that appear as
articles in newspapers and magazines, both in print and online. There are also types like the following:
• Articles about historical events/historical articles. An example of this is an article that deals
with a historic event or the commemoration of the death of a person who is of historical interest.
• Adventure articles. Articles on unusual and interesting experiences (e.g. someone who has
survived an aeroplane crash or who has climbed a mountain, sailed around the world), would
fall into this category.
• Seasonal articles. Such articles deal with seasonal events or special holidays/periods (e.g.
Christmas and Easter; the summer holidays at the coast).
• How-to-do-it articles. Articles in this category show readers how to go about performing certain
tasks (e.g. buying a house, creating a vegetable garden or investing on the stock exchange).
• Travel pieces. These generally focus on the author’s recent trip to a country or region and
highlight typical tourist interests. They are sometimes sponsored by a company in the tourism
industry, like an airline or resort.
• Reviews. Products of varying kinds are reviewed in terms of their pros and cons. This can
include products of the arts (books, music, films), technology (cellphones and computers),
personal hygiene (shavers, creams), fitness (exercise equipment or techniques), to name just a
few.
If you read newspapers regularly, you will come across more of these types. Collect some good
examples of each type and try to classify them according to text type. Note especially the following
characteristics of articles: subject, text function, content, structure (how the different parts of the story
are connected to each other), method of narration (e.g. summaries, quotations) and style (e.g. light-
hearted, formal, descriptive).
2.6 SUMMARY
In this lesson you were introduced to two alternative frameworks for writing articles, that is the Y and
the hourglass structures. Both these structures generally use the summary lead, similar to the IPF. You
were also introduced to the nut graph and its co-component, the soft lead. Once the formulas and
characteristics were discussed for each of these, the focus shifted to different text types often found in
newspapers and magazines. Text types like colour stories, Wall Street Journal features, background
stories, editorials, investigative pieces and obituaries were presented, highlighting each text type’s
characteristics.
SELF-REFLECTION
When you read articles, either in newspapers, magazines or on another online platform, what type of
text do you prefer? Why? Would you necessarily want to write the kind of text that you enjoy
reading?
Now that you have learned how to write for print and broadcasting, we will move onto writing skills
for corporate communication. Let us start with the business e-mail.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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August 2020).
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Charnley, MV. 1966. Reporting. 2nd edition. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Clark, RP. 2004. Colorful news writing? Try 1923. Available online:
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education.cubreporters.org/2010/08/journalism-story-structure.html (accessed 25 August 2020).
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editorial (accessed 25 August 2020).
Elling, M. 1983. Van vakjargon tot voorlighting: handleiding voor populariserend schrijven.
Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff.
Fedler, F. 1989. Reporting for the print media. 4th edition. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
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https://donfry.wordpress.com/2009/06/24/champagne-
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25 August 2020).
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CA: Sage.
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https://writingcooperative.com/a-quick-guide-to-writing-a-better-lede-ff86eb8ed0e (accessed 25
August 2020).
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advice/career-development/how-to-write-an-editorial (accessed 25 August 2020).
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define-investigative-journalism/ (accessed 25 August 2020).
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TEX2601 - Lesson 2 - Eng

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LESSON 2: ALTERNATIVE STRUCTURES

• name the different components of the Y and hourglass structures

TIME REQUIRED FOR LESSON 2

See figure 2.1 below for a visual summary of the lesson.

Let us start by looking at the Y structure.

2.2 THE Y STRUCTURE

Figure 2.2: Y structure or martini glass method

Let us look at the following example.

Pretoria drug dealer found dead

PRETORIA – Much to his surprise, a nightclub’s day manager found the

Police spokesperson, Sergeant Jessica Moloi, has indicated that the

Let us now have a closer look at the hourglass structure.

2.3 THE HOURGLASS STRUCTURE

Let us look at the following example.

EXAMPLE OF HOURGLASS STRUCTURE

Pretoria drug dealer stabbed by drag queen

PRETORIA – Much to his surprise, the day manager of a nightclub found

Goldstar Club’s manager, Thabiso Mphuku, discovered the victim when

Mphuku recounted his shock at the discovery. turn

Shaken by the discovery, Mphuku continues: “I knew I had a lot to take

Once Mphuku realised what he discovered, he told the assistant bar

“Your father is going to kill me!” Joyce Leach yelled.

April Leach hung up and dialed 911.

Neighbors say they heard at least five shots.

Instead, Leach started stabbing her.

“They’ve had a lot of trouble in the past,” Schmitzer said.

Let us now explore the use of a nut graph.

2.4 THE NUT GRAPH

2.4.2 The nut graph

Scanlan (2003:np) says a nut graph has a number of functions:

Let us look at the following example.

EXAMPLE OF NUT GRAPH 1

EXAMPLE OF NUT GRAPH 2

What’s the big deal? Everyone speaks English, right?

2.5 DIFFERENT KINDS OF ARTICLES

• the human-interest story

2.5.1 Report versus article/feature

2.5.2 The human-interest story

Charnley (1966:242) offers the following reason for their publication:

Typical examples of human-interest stories include:

• a little girl’s brave struggle against cancer

Charnley (1966:244) describes stories like these as follows:

2.5.3 The profile

A profile is an article that covers personalities, places (cities) or a fashion craze.

• Where and when did your career as an actor begin?

2.5.4 The theme-oriented interview

• What does the procedure entail?

2.5.5 The obituary

1. full identification of the person (full names, date of birth, address)

2.5.6 The background story

2.5.7 The colour story

Other examples of this category are reports/articles on

• the reaction of the spectators at the time of a fatal crash on a racetrack

Ordinary news reports often fall into this category.

2.5.8 Investigative reporting

UNESCO (2019:np) defines “investigative journalism” aptly as

2.5.9 Newsworthy events in the field of science and technology

• relating the discovery to the reader’s existing knowledge or experience

In order to stimulate the reader’s curiosity, eye-catchers/attention-grabbers are used, namely:

• a head that immediately grips the reader

2.5.10 The Wall Street Journal form

1. Start with a soft lead in the form of an anecdote, description or narrative.

2.5.11 The editorial