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    LAGOS STATE UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COURSE TITLE: LOGIC, PHILOSOPHY & HUMAN EXISTENCE COURSE CODE: GST 112 21/04/24, 2010 t COLIN ALBERT F16/1310" pum osor ny & ELEMENTS OF sophia meaning vat 18 once! on. Logie ~is a branch of Pilosonhy actually ¥°88 glove a humans should reason; not ho anit ilein ids phi Phitosophy comes from.two Greek W°" wisdom. for wisdo™ itl e ve nm Therefore Philosophy can be sai tobe te 1° sy tat aeots operethe general well. edge of reali romoti Wisdom isthe wide and a sao inowed ge for the P willingness/eommitment to being. s «fe. Dr Oriare ity of human life. Dr 1e dignit *QUOTI “There is nothing as sovereign as th Nyarwath (21/03/2011)” ned with the i nce an activity is con imaginations). ple do things to evade fear, wut being detected. 25/03/2011 Philosophy as an academic discipline ot humat examination of fundamental principles of reality (oF Plato, using the concept of the Gyges Ring said that most peo Suppose one has it (the Gyges Ring) he can do anything witho' Philosophers do not read rules; therefore they are autonomous* beings. *autonomous-free from control in action and judgment You should do what is right and stand to defend it. *QUOTE: “The age difference between you and your mother is constant! So to y will always remain a child.” her entals of Philosophy 1. Nature conditions of existence than the Prevailing ones) 2. Society(search for better 3. Human being(being human) 4. Ultimate lity(God) COLIN ALBERT F16/1316/2010 adstional B heen orknowledee) id a th realities beyond the physical) T. Logie (deals 2, Epistemology (Theo! © 3 Metaphysics (Beyond Physics: dealing wit 4. Bthics 1. LOGIC i Logic is a branch of Philosophy that deals with reasoning. from certain given -Reasoning is making a claim and giving justifications for the claim. "it ie a mental process by which the mind makes an inference deductions. List of recommended books: . 1. Ndowa J. B. & Kennedy Miencha; CPP 101: Introduction to ilosophy 2. Nyarwth O., Traditional Logic: An Introduetion(2010 ‘Meaning of Logic and its Importance iis pracess of reasoning, the claims that given in the process of. justification of the other claims are called premise(s). ‘And the claim whose justification depends on other premises is called conclusion. Claims are prepositions (statements) or a sentence that is either true or false. ‘Truth value is the quality of a claim to be either true or false. ‘A sentence is a group of words that make sense. Sentences: 1. prepositions 2. questions 3. imperatives/commands 4, exclamations 5. suggestions into consideration 2 things (aspects of reasoning); — in correct reasoning individual claims should be _ In studying reasoning we need to take i, _ aspect of: matter/content true ii. aspect of form — refers to a certain type of relationship between a given premise(s) used to justify conclusion In conclusion, logic studies principles & structures of reasoning but with the distinguishing between correct and incorrect reasoning. COLIN ALBERT F16/1316/2010 Loj art. ience and an th a science therefore, can also be defined as bot Logic, therefore, *Science — is a sytemized enquiry patt of our life Logic is an art because Quo; iare Nyarwath ” Oriare ? is bliss. human curiosity; ignorance is Truth satisfies human cu ‘ortance of Studying Logic/ Reasoning Well 1) Re animals. i anal i otier anime, ‘casoning makes us more rational tobe more humane, ese eis et be muerte a ee Tkely to arrive at ju i c. 9) By getting to truth, we ee one B pihew dee PReasoning well helps us in the pea Tessoning helps us to avoid vagueness and sions aod onnnacnicoriote aaa teak gic enables us to be precise in our expressio saves time, f ae Reasoning well helps us to avoid unnecessary con! 7) Reasoning helps us to communicate logically. Reasoning as Mental Process eas oS 8 Process taking place in the with thinking and Teasoning) involves certa 1) Simple apprehension, “Stasping the mind (ie. an activity of the brain which deale in activities: 2) Judgments: x 1e nature of Teality we can judge it. Judgment is €xPressed in form of Prepositions. 3) Inference or re nin, Basic Concepts of Logi A. A ent -Reasoning is technically Teferred to as an argument, ~An argument isaset of Prepositions in which it is claimea that Prepositions is established or inferred f; ther necessarily (dedy the truth of one of ‘the me png itt Of the other is tively) or by some Probability(nductively), ~The preposition Whose truth is claimed to be inferred is called i “hIe he othr preposition oe Co Called premises eg. 4 7 j COLIN ALBERT F16/1316/2010 1. Most Kenyans are corrupt. (premise) 2. Oriare is a Kenyan. (premise) 3. Therefore, Oriare is corrupt. (conclusion) *QUOTE: : . = “Corruption is the degeneration of human consciousness.— Oriare Nyarwath’ ~The truth of the conclusion is only probable, not certain. For example; Africans are evil. All students in this class are Africans. Therefore, all students in this class are evil ~In an argument there are 2 forms of reasoning; ° Claims * Conclusion The argument in which the truth of the conclusion is claimed to be inferred necessarily from the premises is called a deductive argument. “The other type of argument in which itis claimed thatthe truth of the premises only offers a probable support to the truth of the conclusion is called an inductive argument. *QUOTE: “Those humans who are well built are not endowed with good reasoning capacity; all women are naturally devoid of the capacity to reason. - Aristotle” An argument therefore must have at least 2 prepositions, one being the premise and the other a conclusion. B. Validity Validity o invalidity refers tothe structure/form (nature of relationship between Premises & conclusion) of a deductive argument, *QUOTE: june measure of your value: Ask yourself -Had you not been born, what would humanity have missed? If your answer is NO, then you are useless!” -Dr Oriare Nyarwath A deductive argument is said to be valid when IF the relationship between its premises were true, then its conclusion must also be true! -In such a case, the truth of the premises implies the truth of the i and therefore, in such an argument itis i ible for one to ises face impossibl ‘sever the truth of the prea 10 COLIN ALBERT F16/131670 ent is said © P ive argum the However a deductive 603 saat a rremises & conclusio a in truth of ts coneUslOm.,gocop i ore jet, eradictiOn- -In such an argument fits conclusion without any ¢ » one that the conclusion assert guyes e.g. Human beings breathe. A C. Soundness ofa ‘Soundness is an exclusive Thani and the content of a deductive ar : i ctually true. A deductive argument is therefor ee ai] id and all its P* is is valid An argument is sound when it truth =proposition/statement 4 said to b An argument being a set of claims can 1 ¢ true or false. on that ean be true: Itis only a statement or proposition that ¢ i it. Validity is an attribute of deductive statemen! he conclusion in a sound The meaning of the premises must imply the meaning of # argument, ie. the premises must be true. valid or if it has a premise which. However, an argument is unsound when it is either invalid or b actually false. i i i all its A good deductive argument is one that is sound, i.e. which is valid & premi true. But a deductive argument which is unsound is a bad argument. D. Strength Strength is an exclusive attribute of an inductive argument. Strength describes a form of an inductive argument. An inductive argument is strong when the Conclusion is such that, relationship between the Premises and tf conclusion being true. IF the premises were tue, then there is greater Probabilit But an inductive argument is said to be weak when the relationship between its and conclusion is such that, IF the premises were true, ¢ 2 ower pro its conclusion being true, a theres ‘Tower, P But it is uncogent when it is weak or some of is premises are actually false. ‘There are two types of errors/mistakes that can be committed in an argument but which should be avoided: 1. Logical mistake(fallacy); -conclusion is inconsistently inferred from the premises a ~it is a defect of an argument, i.e. when the given premises either do not justify the conclusion (deductive argument) or least supports the conclusion (inductive argument) -Therefore, an invalid or a weak argument commits a logical mistake. Tl. Factual mistake; -This is a mistake of fact. -It occurs whenever there is an actually false premise in an argument. es ‘These 2 mistakes should be avoided in an argument because any argument that commits either of them fails to establish/justify the truth of its conclusion yet the main aim of an argument is to justify the truth of its conclusion & consequently to have it accepted. E. Fallacies A fallacy is a logical error in reasoning. -A fallacy is an argument whose premises fail to offer justification conclusion either necessarily (with the case of a deductive arg probability (in the case of inductive argument) There are 3 types of fallacies: a) Fallacies of Relevance b) Fallacies of Ambiguity c) Fallacies of Ptesumption vi. vii. 6/1316/201° COLIN ALBERT F oases HE = yecause 1 most © They are called so bi pws Ina proper sense of reference thi -Types jes of irrelevance !! yo) i. ipa ad Bacula . then YOU jnappropriate authorig, * Lag, Ifyou come late to class tappeal ee because MeDonait jam (Fallacy omic , i. sundiam (Fd eco! Be 8 3 Betis tay erey/pity ‘Mariga says so eal to 1 ig ium (Palla of sPP' at hand but ee i Mere, iii, Argumentum aad Misericordiur ‘address the 158) sed sentenced to dei for “This occurs when one doe condition. 28 A Me jg an orphan. is is/her situation/con' because oe Peres seeking for pardon pe f appeal to ignor: of appe®' °o evidence; therefore the jam (Fallacy ae by the fact that there © the conclusion. Argumentum ad Ignorant 0 believe the trud iv This fallacy is committed conclusion comes as a reason t i flan) Argumentum ad Hominem (Fallacy against M ‘ the person rather than v. a, Ad hominem circumstancial t) attack: -committed when victim (respondent) ceed addressing the argument presented by b. Ad hominem abusive © using abusive language against a person, ¢.8 NYAROMBO: I ay believe that abortion should be legalized, NAITORE: No! That cannot be. i NYAROMBO: Because you are a thief, a murderer and a rapist! Ad hominem Tu Quo Que isa “you too” fallacy Fallacies of Slippery Slope ~This fallacy is occurs where there is no clear connection oints/facts/prepositions allows a certain thing/policy to og (0 occur until it hits a dead end. It is committed when one allow another thing/policy Fatacy efNon Causa Pro Causa (Fallacy of False Cay ~This fallacy is committed when a Wrong cause is attriby a event may/should have a different cause eg. ce 9 COLIN ALBERT F1L6/1916/2010 vill xi, xii. On 25" Deoember, 2010, Ationo Odipo died in a road accident, Why? Because he did not believe in the existence of God. Fallacy of Accident committed when you move a general principle to an exceptional case. e.g, Someone talking loudly in an operation theatre simply because of freedom of expression, Fallacy of Division -committed when one assumes that what is true of whole must be true of part. Fallacy of Composition -commited when one assumes that what is true of part must be true of whole. E.g., Sodium and chlorine are poisonous substances. It therefore follows that sodium chloride (salt) is a poisonous substance Argumentum ad Populum (Fallacy of Appeal to People) -committed by eliciting/ exciting emotions; seeking to influence peoples minds ~ occurs mostly in public speech-making & advertisements(appeal to snobbery). *QUOTE: “Reasons like back like a weak door when emotions take charge.” — Otieno Adipo -is also called the “bandwagon argument fallacy” -occurs mostly in adverts. e.g., certain products are associated with certain celebrities; certain margarines are associated with certain youthfulness; certain drinks like beer (e.g. Guinness) are associated with power Fallacy of Strauman -This fallacy is committed when the victim/ respondent “creates his own man” (opponent) and also creates an argument for him and reverts and defeats that argument. b) Fallacies of Presumption 010 COLIN ALBERT F16/13167 estion Any answer to that qe i AWY! get) Hi TXwvver: (to the susreet! EAWYER. shes that YOu LAWYER: Then it mean® wore 0 tie 1c meaning. that has more than on ase ©) Eallacies of Ambiguity oe ed changed 1” FF “Such arguments use a term Usually, this term or phrase or pha is shifl word is used in an arg i, Equivocation; -This fallacy is commi different things jtted when a tern” i clusion. €.g., “This occurs in premises and i inferred 1% i concasion, 6 1) Power corrupts. Knowledge is power bee 2) God is love. Love is blind. Therefore, ii, Amphiboly; = In this kind of argument, unlike © phrase/proposition that is vague, an interpretations, is used. ¢¢., ‘last Professor Mwangi will be giving a lecture about heart failure in the b lecture hall. Therefore, it must be the case that there has been a heart failure inthe biology lecture hall recently. quivocation, fallacy is 'd therefore susceptible to 2. ETHICS thics is a branch in the society, of philosophy that is Concerned with actions and Ethics can be defined etymo / personal character, logically as coming from the Greek COLIN ALANUCT 116/1916/2010 ‘Therefore, ethics seeks guidelines for human conduct. -We evaluate human conduct in terms of what is good or bad. “Mortality comes from the Greek word mores that means social habits, customs & manners, Difference between Morality and Ethics: -Whereas morality concerned with habits, manners & social manners, ethics is a Philosophical study of how man behaves, “Therefore, morality is the material object of study. “Hence, we can conclude that ethics is a discipline that studies morality. Kinds of Moral Reasoning -There are 3 kinds of moral reasoning: 1. Descriptive ethics 2. Normative ethics 3, Meta-ethics 1, Descriptive Ethics -This is that kind of ethics that focuses on the existing moral behaviour of a community/ society, -It basically relies on what is perceived as good or bad i.e. moral codes -It does not judge; it only describes. -It asks the question; “How ought we act?” -It does not ask ; “How do we act?” 2. Normative Ethics -In normative ethics we seek to identify and formulate ethical norms and standards, -It involves articulating the character of good habits to be acquired. -It is characterized by/the “ought” -It looks at the consequences/ end results of human actions. COLIN ALBERT F16/1316/2010 mee , aval claims ic Wve ueaiye wad expiin te nor Fr sportio” -e.g, Philosophers inquiring the 1°" aval oe a sing woo 8 ished for hisy being ee led or puni Moral Agents i ®A moral agent is referred to as 0 human or re and is aware of the consequences ce pe blamed £0" -That means that such an individual actions. ible -Therefore, he/ she is seen to be # resPOrr ~An ethical action is an action that is Pert -Itis an action that can attract blame oF pret on. it. ery a moral 86m e if damental suit of fun ; is concerned wit ‘he origin of the Unive, Philosophy is the study of reality. It a principles in reality and therefore asks questions Branches of Philosophy: in general. nysics goes beyond si and fusika —ph 1. Metaphysics -is concemed with the study of being, im £2" -the study of ultimate reality, ie. the obJe4! -Metaphysics comes from two Greek stem meaning “the theory of and Taga ledge) 4 Fa eng ethical actions e.g. good, b 2. Epistemology in evaluating ethi -comes from two Greek words epi meaning knowledge (or discourse 0! -Ethical terms —words that are used evil. 3. Ethical Judgment ” “This is any ethical statement that makes a judgment on an ethical action 4, Virtue -Virtue is a functional excellence in an indivichal that makes the individual morally/ intellectually superior or excellent. -This term is used to mean righteousness or exvellence in moral character or disposition. 5 5. Value ~This term is used to mean “out-of-the-ream” of morality altogether. -Non-moral beings are beings that can never be said to be either moral al are ¢.g. chemistry, biology or mathematics, ~Areas that are non-mor: iat morality is totally out of their concerns. -Therefore, it means th: COLIN ALBERT F16/1316/2010 6. Amoral ~Refers to an individual who has no moral sense and is indifferent to right oF wrong. -Amoral has been used, ¢.g, to refer to criminals who appear to have ne remanue to whatever they have done. thical Theories ___, There are certain theories that have developed over time and act av standards of criteria which can be used in determining the rightness/ or wrongness of an action decision, policy or rule, Therefore, these theories assist us in interpreting that which is morally right or wrong. They attempt to answer the question: “What criteria/ standard do we use in determining a moral action?” There are two theories; a. Teleological Theories (also called universal/ ethical egoiem or utilitarianism) b. Deontological Theories (of Immanuel Kant) a. Teleological Theories -Teleos means “the end result” -Logos — theory/ discourse/ science -Teleology therefore means the science of theory -Teleological theories are theories that assert that the rightness or wrongness of an act, tule or policy depends on the results or consequences. -There are two types of teleological theories: i. Ethical egoism ii. Utilitarianism i. Ethical Egoism 5 ‘i 31672010 COLIN ALBERT F1® th Veiltarinwi© oy This isn philosophy that i, vie According to them, thi a consequences bring #! of people who are affecte’ ms utilitarianism, 2 tHi08% The greatest haphinery fi, The greatest number Ov ine Bentham derived the theory and pleasure are the pain and pleasure -This means that pain determinants (0 PO! respectively. -Itis for these two a principle of uiility recognizes tHe ay -Therefore, according to Bentham, creatures. pleasure in OUF +So we simply avoid pain and seek PICS count al -For utilitarians, itis the consequence — re that seeks to maximize re and iple sequences of the actions act. -Uiilitarianism isa goal-oriented prin for the greatest number of people a Uiilarianism, therefore, is concerned with ( ity ofthe religion of hs time. the actions themselves. -Bentham rejected the absolutist moral -Kinds of utilitarianism; a) Act Utilitarianism b) Rule Utilitarianism spout the Bf id by 1 asure-seoking and are ple lives: il that determines the mor, a) Act Utilitarianism é a -An act is right if when compared to a possible alternative is likely to greatest balance of good over evil. -Every person’s interest must be considered. ~Act utilitarianism emphasizes on actins that promote the greatest b over evil. Example; “A nurse in a hospital receives two patients in critical conditi iv ; ‘ondition; and a g00d-for-nothing drunkard. Any minute wasted results to fh - fee The nurse saves the civic woman. Reason:- The civic woman 1 eason: jociety compared to the good-for-nothing drunkard,” - Rule Utilitarianism ~An act is morally right if it jg j in accord at i with a rule that if generally about the greatest balanc is, of good ‘ _ -This was proposed by LS. Mill, over evil, © COLIN ALBERT F16/1316/2010 ~The difference between these two laws of utilitarianism is: “Whereas act utilitarianism embodies a one-stage pro edure (i.e. actions > Denefid), rule utilitarianism embodies a two-s age procedure (j.c. action > rule & benefit) EXample act utilitarianism; “Doctors follow the Hypocrates oath of confidentiality to patients, but in case a Patient has a disease and is likely to spread it to other people, the doctor then might have to disclose it to others.” Problems with Utilitarianism bY Tean be used to ji fy oppression of individuals and individual rights in a society. ©) When the determination of good over evil id difficult, the theory becomes difficult to apply. 4) Wes very difficult to quantify and compare utilities. b) Deontology ~is an ethics of duty ~Comes from two Greek word deos ~meaning duty and tology meaning theory. -Invented by Immanuel Kant (Konisburg, Pracia, 1724) -Immanuel Kant argues that the morality of an act depends on the act itself because it is an obligation which is intrinsic -His main aim was to seek the fundamental principles of ethics. -He rejects utilitarianism. ~According to him, the rightness/ wrongness of an action should be judged on whether or not it conforms to a certain duty. _ -In utilitarianism, the principle I hypothetical (i.e. conditional, marked by “if) but Kant’s duty ethics is categorical, i.e. universal/ absolute principles that apply to humanity as a whole. =>categorical —it is a dictate of nature; based on intrinsic principles. =>goodwill is the only will that defines itself: it is the only good without conditions/ qualifications. =>goodwill is absolute. -Kant says that duty to self is important; brings about happiness. -The problem is it denies duty to others, ~So, according to him, that which determines the morality of an action is the intention of -An act done from duty is moral. -It cannot be based on anything else. -He therefore comes up with the categorical imperatives; -in his first imperative, he states that; “I must always act in such a way that at tae same time I can also will that my maxi (principle) becomes a universal law.” -Must always: (i) never fail to speak the truth; (ii) keep promises; (ji) There is no freedom, (ep COLIN ALBERT F16/1316 2010 -or ot ; thi jurself ° ye, he S188 het = -in his second re homait? r “You must always ie means to an end.” oe des under the as straight you must always -The implication of this is, ©&_, nome jase, ae wife 15? “If'a married woman CO” mez you Wee 2 Yr g eruth en three armed -pme an jee truth that she is rneae = i.e. 1” . A. Rule deontology B. Act deontology therefore never A. Rule Deontology solute universal and -states that the rule is preset. "© it is @ ea -all actions ought to be based on that ™ le B. Act Deontology -there is no rule; = -one has to look at a situation and therefore act ngs - a By is MPU a genio tHereTOre «mreal because Cant a offer a solution for conflict of duties; ¢-8- ; - s straight and hides under tl home late, run: i u where your wife is, you must always | eak the truth. “If a married woman comes then three armed men come and ask yo! truth that she is under the bed.” -i.e. always SP However, one is most likely to tell a lie. Therefore, Kant does not provide a solution to such a conflict. ical Ethical Theories ps as ends COLIN ALBERT F16/13!° 2010 Al wnat - sates o" we, he abe! 1 iperat ai

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