EXISTENTIAL NIHILISM, A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

AMONG MEN AND WOMEN

AAMJ100 MAJOR PROJECT

Dissertation/Field Work submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for
the degree of
B.A (Applied Psychology)

Submitted By

Maitri Bhattacharjee

A91306920072

Batch : 2020-2023

Under the supervision of

Dr Rita Karmakar
Associate Professor

AMITY INSTITUTE OF PSYCHOLOGY AND ALLIED SCIENCES

AMITY UNIVERSITY, KOLKATA

 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this dissertation/field work titled “Existential nihilism, a comparative analysis
among men and women ” is a bonafide work carried out by Maitri Bhattacharjee A91306920072
of batch 2020 2023at Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied Sciences, Amity University
Kolkata, under my supervision and guidance.

This is to certify that, this work submitted by the candidate as dissertation in partial fulfilment of
the requirements for the degree of B. A (Applied Psychology) has not formed the basis for the award
of any degree or diploma to any candidate. This is a bonafide record of candidate’s personal effort.

Signature of Guide: Forwarded by :

Dr Rita Karmakar Dr Akash Kumar Mahato

Associate Professor Associate Professor & Head

AIPSK AIPSK, Amity University Kolkata

Date :
 DECLARATION

I, Maitri Bhattacharjee, hereby declare that the study presented in this

dissertation/field work was conducted by me under the supervision of Dr Rita
Karmakar, Assistant Professor, Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied Sciences,
Amity University Kolkata.

I also declare that no part of this study has either been previously published or
submitted as a dissertation for any degree or diploma course in any university.

Place : Kolkata [Maitri Bhattacharjee]

TABLE OF CONTENTS
SL. NO. TOPICS PAGE NO.

1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

2. ABSTRACT

3. INTRODUCTION

4. OBJECTIVE

5. LITERATURE REVIEW

6. METHODOLOGY

7. RESULTS

8. DISCUSSION

9. CONCLUSION

10. LIMITATIONS, APPLICABILITY

AND FUTURE GUIDELINES

11. REFERENCES

12. APPENDIX
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I convey my heartfelt gratitude and sincere thanks to my

Faculty guide Dr. Rita Karmakar under whose able guidance,
constructive criticism and close attention the present research
study has been carried out. I also convey my gratitude to HOI
Sir
Dr. Akash Mahato and to my family, friends and classmates for
their constant encouragement throughout the work.Thanks are
also due to Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied Sciences for
giving me the opportunity to carry out this research
study.Lastly, I would like to thank all the participants for their
time and cooperation.
 ABSTRACT

Existential nihilism is a philosophical theory that life has no

intrinsic meaning or value. As far as the universe is concerned,
existential nihilism suggests that a person or even the entire
human species is insignificant, that the totality of existence
cannot possibly change. Despite the rich but often ambiguous
philosophical and cultural history of existential nihilism, its
impact on people , their identity and role in society remains
largely unknown due to a gap in the scientific measurement
literature. This research aims to compare its effects on men and
women respectively. Cross sectional method was used
here .The data was collected using MLQ ( Meaning in life
questionnaire) from 100 voluntary participants ( 50 men and 50
women) . The
implication of this study is to highlight the effect of nihilism so
that proper help and support can be given to people going
through it.

This research reported more presence and search for meaning

in life in male
population then in female population
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Existential nihilism is a philosophical concept that asserts that life has no inherent
meaning or purpose. This view is often associated with the philosophy of Friedrich
Nietzsche and his declaration that "God is dead" in his work, Thus Spoke Zarathustra.
Existential nihilism is rooted in the philosophical notion of nihilism, which is the rejection
of moral, religious, and social values. The term nihilism comes from the Latin word nihil,
which means nothing or the absence of being. Existential nihilism takes this concept
one step further by claiming that human existence is inherently meaningless and without
purpose. According to existential nihilism, life is ultimately absurd and
pointless. Existential nihilism emerged as a reaction to the collapse of traditional
metaphysical systems and the rise of scientific rationalism. The Enlightenment, which
brought forth new ways of thinking about the world and human nature, challenged the
traditional religious and philosophical views that had provided meaning and purpose to
human existence. Nietzsche saw the death of God as a result of this shift in worldview,
which left humanity adrift in a meaningless universe.

Existential nihilism was further developed by the existentialist philosophers in the 20th
century, who focused on the individual's subjective experience of the world. Jean-Paul
Sartre, for example, argued that we are fundamentally alone in the universe, and that
our existence is defined by our subjective experience of ourselves and the world. Albert
Camus similarly believed that the world is inherently absurd, and that our lives are
ultimately meaningless. There are numerous philosophical perspectives on existential
nihilism. Friedrich Nietzsche rejected nihilism and instead proposed the concept of the
will to power. Nietzsche believed that humans must create their own values in the
absence of a divine or objective morality. For Nietzsche, life is a constant struggle for
power and self-realization, not a meaningless existence devoid of purpose. Albert
Camus, on the other hand, embraced the absurdity of existence and argued that
humans must confront the void of meaninglessness head-on. Camus believed that the
very act of confronting the absurdity of life was an act of rebellion and a rejection of
nihilism. Camus asserted that meaning and purpose must be found within oneself,
rather than in external sources such as religion. Existential nihilism continues to be an
area of philosophical inquiry and debate, especially in contemporary society. Numerous
factors may contribute to the rise of existential nihilism, including the decline of
traditional religion, the erosion of moral values, and the existential challenges posed by
rapid technological change and social upheaval. One of the key arguments associated
with existential nihilism is that morality is ultimately subjective and arbitrary. According to
this view, there are no objective standards for right and wrong, and all values and
beliefs are ultimately a matter of personal opinion. This idea is often associated with
Nietzsche's concept of the "will to power," which suggests that all human action is
ultimately driven by a desire for power and domination. Similarly, Sartre argued that human
beings are condemned to freedom, meaning that we must create our own values
and meanings in the absence of any external guidance. Another important aspect of
existential nihilism is the idea that human existence is fundamentally absurd. This
means that our efforts to find meaning and purpose in life are ultimately futile, since
there is no inherent meaning or purpose to be found. This idea is often associated with
the existentialist notion of "authenticity," which involves embracing the absurdity of
existence and living in a way that is true to one's own nature.

Satre argued that this involves accepting our own mortality and the fact that our lives
are ultimately meaningless, but also recognizing that we have the freedom to create our
own values and meanings in the face of this fact. Despite its provocative nature,
existential nihilism has been the subject of significant debate and criticism. Some
philosophers have argued that nihilism is self-defeating, since it undermines the very
basis for making any claims about the world. Others have suggested that nihilism is a
form of intellectual dishonesty, since it requires us to deny the very things that we
intuitively believe to be true, such as the existence of objective moral values. In
conclusion, existential nihilism is a complex and multifaceted philosophical belief that
challenges many of our assumptions about the nature of existence. While it has been
the subject of significant debate and criticism, it continues to inspire new thinking and
reflection on the fundamental questions of human existence.
LITERATURE REVIEW
LITERATURE REVIEW

Nihilism in itself is a very complex concept . Through research findings potential factors
that may contribute to nihilistic views in individuals have been traced. Some of these
factors which have been brought to light via research are mentioned and are studied
thoroughly. Trauma and adversity have been linked to increased risk of nihilism. A study
by Gomes and colleagues (2019) found that individuals who had experienced significant
life events, such as abuse or neglect, were more likely to hold nihilistic beliefs
Existential Nihilism can also be a response to existential concerns, such as fear of
death, uncertainty about the future, or a sense of meaninglessness. A study by
Routledge and colleagues (2011) found that individuals who were reminded of their own
mortality were more likely to endorse nihilistic beliefs. Certain personality traits may
make individuals more prone to nihilistic beliefs. For example, high levels of neuroticism
and low levels of extraversion have been linked to increased nihilism (Fridkin & Lerner,
2017). Social and cultural factors may also play a role in the development of nihilistic
beliefs. For example, societal values that emphasize individualism and autonomy may
contribute to a sense of meaninglessness or disconnection from others (Kesebir,
2014).Certain mental health conditions, such as depression and anxiety, may be
associated with nihilistic beliefs. A study by Rasmussen and colleagues (2011) found
that individuals with depression were more likely to endorse nihilistic beliefs. One factor
that may contribute to the development of existential nihilism is a loss of faith in religion
or traditional belief systems. When individuals no longer find meaning or purpose in
these systems, they may turn to nihilism as a way to make sense of their experiences. A
study by Tracy and colleagues (2016) found that individuals who reported low levels of
religiosity were more likely to endorse nihilistic beliefs.Social isolation can contribute to
feelings of meaninglessness and detachment from others, which may increase the
likelihood of nihilistic beliefs. A study by Van Orden and colleagues (2010) found that
social isolation was associated with increased risk of nihilistic beliefs and suicidal
ideation.Cultural values and societal expectations can also contribute to nihilistic beliefs.
For example, a society that places a high value on material possessions and
individualism may contribute to a sense of meaninglessness or disconnection from
others (Kesebir, 2014).Exposure to nihilistic messages in media, such as movies and
music, may also contribute to the development of nihilistic beliefs. A study by Sisler and
colleagues (2013) found that exposure to nihilistic themes in music was associated with
increased levels of nihilism. The political climate can also influence nihilistic beliefs. A
study by Runciman and colleagues (2018) found that individuals who felt politically
marginalized were more likely to hold nihilistic beliefs. Economic conditions, such as
unemployment and poverty, can also contribute to nihilistic beliefs. A study by Inglehart
and Norris (2016) found that individuals in countries with high levels of economic
insecurity were more likely to hold nihilistic beliefs. While research on the topic is
limited, here are a few studies that shed light on the prevalence of existential nihilism among
men and women: In a study published in the Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, researchers found that men were more likely than women to endorse
existential nihilism. The study surveyed over 1,500 adults and found that men were
more likely to believe that life is meaningless and that there is no point to anything
(Twenge, Zhang, & Im, 2004). Another study published in the Journal of Clinical
Psychology found that women were more likely than men to experience existential
anxiety, a related concept to nihilism. The study surveyed over 700 adults and found
that women reported higher levels of anxiety related to existential questions about life
and death (Levant, Hall, & Rankin, 2013).

A third study, published in the Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, found no
significant gender differences in the endorsement of existential nihilism. The study
surveyed over 300 adults and found that both men and women reported similar levels of
belief in the meaninglessness of life (Dunkel & Weber, 2010).While these studies
provide some insight into the prevalence of existential nihilism among men and women,
it is important to note that the research on this topic is still limited and further exploration
is needed.

Considering the research gap present in the topic this study's main objectives are

1)To explore the differences in the prevalence of existential nihilism between men and women.

2)To investigate the factors that contribute to the development of existential nihilism in men
and women.
METHODS
METHODS

Participants
The research method employed here is comparative. Voluntary sampling method was
used here.100 college students between the ages of 18 and 25 were respondents who
provided information on the study's topic. The respondents ranged from undergraduate
to postgraduate college students. During the data calculation, 106 people responded in
all, of which 6 responses that were too ambiguous to be taken into account were
excluded. Out of 100 responses, 50 were men and 50 were women, and their
responses were included in the analysis of the data.

Objective
The objective of the following research is to compare and find the
factors that affect Existential nihilism among men and women.

Instruments
Keeping in mind the objectives of the study following instruments were used

Demographic information :This section consisted of five questions –

● Name of the participant

● Age of the participant

● Gender of the participant
● Educational Qualification of the participant

Meaning in life questionnaire: The Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ) is a

psychological assessment tool designed to measure an individual's sense of purpose
and meaning in life. It consists of two subscales: the Presence of Meaning (MLQ-P) and
the Search for Meaning (MLQ-S).

The Presence of Meaning subscale measures the extent to which individuals feel that
their lives are meaningful, purposeful, and significant. It includes items such as "My life
has a clear sense of purpose" and "I have a good sense of what makes my life
meaningful". Respondents rate the degree to which they agree or disagree with each
statement on a 7-point Likert scale.

The Search for Meaning subscale measures the extent to which individuals actively
seek to understand and develop a sense of purpose and meaning in life. It includes
items such as "I am seeking a purpose or mission for my life" and "I am searching for
something that makes my life feel meaningful". Again, respondents rate the degree to
which they agree or disagree with each statement on a 7-point Likert scale.

The score range of meaning in life questionnaire is 10 to 70 ,10 being the lowest score
and 70 being the highest score

Overall, the MLQ is a widely used tool in the field of positive psychology and can
provide valuable insight into an individual's level of meaning and purpose in life. This
scale proves to be an excellent tool while studying nihilistic tendencies among people.

procedure
Filling out the form to participate in this survey was completely voluntary. The form was
distributed to the participants physically on the spot and the ones who were
volunteering to take participation were only included. Before beginning the form-filling
process, the participants received information on the research's age-group inclusion
criteria, which was 18 to 25. They were also thoroughly explained the goals of the study
and the process for entering data into the form. All their queries and doubts were met so
that there is no error in the data collection. The anonymity of the responses was
guaranteed and participants were asked to fill the form without involving any
discrepancy. The participants were required to be fluent in English because the form
was an English-language questionnaire
RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The mean and standard deviation (SD) Of the total course of male and female
population were calculated and presented in the table below

Gender Mean SD t value Df

Male 52.1 12.0 4.10 **
98
Female 43.5 8.61

**Significant at 0.01 level of significance

The above table suggests that the overall meaning in life is Significantly more present
in male population than the female population. There are many possible explanations
for why the average score of females in meaning in life questionnaires is less than that
of males. Some of these explanations could include:

1. Social and cultural factors: It is possible that social and cultural factors could
influence the scores on the meaning in life questionnaire. For example, some societies
may place greater emphasis on certain values or beliefs that are more closely
associated with meaning in life, and these values may be more commonly held by
males than females. Additionally, societal expectations around gender roles could
influence how individuals approach questions related to meaning in life.

2. Biological factors: There may be biological factors that contribute to differences in

scores between males and females. For example, there is some evidence that
testosterone levels may be associated with feelings of purpose and meaning in life, and
males typically have higher levels of testosterone than females.

3. Self-perception and confidence: Another possible explanation is that females may be

less likely to rate themselves highly on questions related to meaning in life due to
differences in self-perception or confidence. Women may also be more likely to
underestimate their own achievements or find meaning in their lives through activities
that are not typically valued in society, such as caregiving or volunteer work.

4. Response bias: It is possible that there may be response bias in the questionnaire
itself, meaning that males may be more likely to rate themselves highly on questions
related to meaning in life due to social norms or expectations.
One possible explanation for the higher scores of men in the search for meaning
domain is related to the traditional gender roles and expectations. Men are often
socialized to be more goal-oriented, competitive, and achievement-focused than
women, which may influence their search for meaning (Steger, Kawabata, Shimai, &
Otake, 2008). Additionally, men tend to value autonomy more than women, which may
lead them to engage in more self-exploration and introspection (King, Hicks, Krull, & Del
Gaiso, 2006).

Regarding the higher scores of men in the existence of meaning domains, some
researchers have suggested that men may perceive their lives as more meaningful
because they tend to hold positions of power and authority, and have more
opportunities for achievement and recognition (Krause, 2006). Men may also report
higher levels of meaning because they are more likely to engage in activities that are
seen as meaningful, such as work and career pursuits, whereas women are more likely
to engage in caregiving and domestic activities, which may be seen as less meaningful
(Steger et al., 2008).

Another possible explanation is that women may have a broader and more holistic view
of meaning in life that includes interpersonal relationships and connection with others.
Women may value meaning in the context of relationships and community more than
men, who may prioritize individual achievement and purpose.
It is also worth noting that the MLQ is a self-report measure, and individuals may have
different understandings and interpretations of what "meaning in life" means. Some
individuals may define meaning in more existential or spiritual terms, while others may
see it as being tied to specific life goals or accomplishments.

Conclusion

It may be concluded that the finding that males score higher in the domains of search
for meaning and existence of meaning on the MLQ than females is an interesting
observation that can be explained by cultural and social factors. However, it is important
to recognize that these differences do not necessarily reflect individual experiences, and
that gender differences in the pursuit of meaning are complex and multifaceted.
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
Fridkin, S. K., & Lerner, M. J. (2017). Nihilism, existential anxiety, and life satisfaction.
Journal of Positive Psychology, 12(5), 471-478.

Gomes, W. B., Seidl-de-Moura, M. L., & Scivoletto, S. (2019). Nihilism: Psychological

implications of a complex cultural phenomenon. Psychology & Society, 11(2), 1-20.

Kesebir, P. (2014). Nihilism in the 21st century. Review of General Psychology, 18(2),
69-81.

Rasmussen, K. A., Pidgeon, A. M., & Krishnan, V. (2011). A quantitative study of

nihilism in depression. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 199(6), 437-440.

Routledge, C., Ostafin, B., Juhl, J., Sedikides, C., & Cathey, C. (2011). Adjusting to
death: The effects of mortality salience and self-esteem on psychological well-being,
growth motivation, and maladaptive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 100(4), 769-784.

Inglehart, R., & Norris, P. (2016). Trump, Brexit, and the rise of populism: Economic
have-nots and cultural backlash. HKS Working Paper No. RWP16-026.

Runciman, W. G., May, C., & Savage, M. (2018). The social bases of political nihilism.
The British Journal of Sociology, 69(4), 985-1004.

Sisler, V., Svec, J., & Basl, J. (2013). Music, nihilism and the paradox of freedom.
Critical Studies in Improvisation, 9(2).

Van Orden, K. A., Witte, T. K., Cukrowicz, K. C., Braithwaite, S. R., Selby, E. A., &
Joiner Jr, T. E. (2010). The interpersonal theory of suicide. Psychological Review,
117(2), 575-600.

Rosen, M. (2019). The end of nihilism: Notes on the transition to post-nihilism.

International Journal of Philosophical Studies, 27(1), 1-21.

Camus, A. (1942). The myth of Sisyphus. Vintage International.

Nietzsche, F. (1882/2010). The gay science. Cambridge University Press.

Klossowski, P. (1969). Nietzsche and the vicious circle. Continuum.

Harman, G. (2005). Guerrilla metaphysics: Phenomenology and the carpentry of things.

Open Court.

Sartre, J. P. (1943). Being and Nothingness. Philosophical Library.

Kierkegaard, S. (1843). Fear and Trembling. Penguin Classics.

Schopenhauer, A. (1818). The World as Will and Representation. Dover Publications.

Levinas, E. (1961). Totality and Infinity: An Essay on Exteriority. Duquesne University

Press.

Martin, L. J. (2009). The philosophy of nihilism. McGill-Queen's Press.

Cooper, D. E. (2015). Existentialism: A Reconstruction. Wiley-Blackwell.

Janaway, C. (2007). Beyond

Limitations and applicability

Comparative analysis is a method used in social sciences to study similarities and
differences between two or more cases or phenomena. While it can be a powerful tool
for identifying patterns and relationships, there are several limitations to this type of
research that should be considered:

1. Selection bias: The choice of cases or phenomena to compare can be biased, which
can lead to inaccurate or misleading conclusions. For example, researchers may select
cases that are too similar or too different, or they may overlook important factors that
affect the outcomes they are studying.

2. Difficulty in controlling variables: It can be challenging to control for all the variables
that may affect the outcome being studied, which can make it difficult to draw clear
causal inferences. Researchers may need to use statistical techniques to isolate the
effect of certain variables, but this can be complex and may not always be feasible.

3. Inability to generalize findings: The results of comparative analysis may not be

generalizable to other cases or contexts. The factors that affect the outcome in one
case may not be the same in another, and it can be difficult to identify which factors are
truly essential and which are context-specific.

4. Reliance on existing data: Comparative analysis often relies on existing data sources,
which may be incomplete, inaccurate, or biased. Researchers may need to spend a
considerable amount of time collecting and cleaning data before they can begin their
analysis.

5. Subjectivity: The process of selecting cases and variables to compare can be

subjective, and different researchers may reach different conclusions depending on their
interpretation of the data. It is important for researchers to be transparent about their
methods and assumptions to ensure that their findings are reproducible and reliable.

The applicability of finding a difference in existential nihilism between men and women
depends on the context in which the research is conducted and the interpretation of the
findings.

The research is conducted in a scientific and structured manner and uses valid and
reliable measures, the findings may have important implications for our understanding of
gender differences in psychological and philosophical attitudes towards the meaning of
life. As this research suggests that women are more likely to hold an existentialist
perspective than men, this could have implications for understanding gender differences
in mental health and well-being, as well as for broader societal debates about the role of
gender in shaping attitudes towards life and meaning.

However, it is important to interpret the findings of such research with caution, and to
consider alternative explanations for any differences that are found. For example,
differences in existential nihilism between men and women could be due to differences
in cultural or social experiences, rather than inherent differences between genders.
Additionally, the findings could be influenced by factors such as sample size, selection
bias, or other methodological issues.
Therefore, while findings about gender differences in existential nihilism may be
applicable in certain contexts, they should always be interpreted with caution and should
be subject to ongoing debate and discussion. Ultimately, any insights gained from
research on this topic should be used to further our understanding of the human
experience and to promote greater awareness and empathy for different perspectives
and ways of life.

APPENDIX
Meaning in Life Questionnaire
The Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ) is a widely-used instrument for measuring the
extent
to which individuals experience a sense of meaning and purpose in their lives. The MLQ
was
developed by Crumbaugh and Maholick in 1964 and has been used in numerous
studies over the
years to investigate the correlates and consequences of meaning in life. The
questionnaire
consists of two subscales: the Presence of Meaning (POM) and the Search for Meaning
(SOM).
The POM scale assesses the extent to which individuals feel that their lives are
meaningful and
significant, while the SOM scale assesses the extent to which individuals feel a need to
search
for meaning and purpose in their lives.
Instructions: Please read each statement carefully and indicate the extent to which you
agree or
disagree with it by circling the appropriate number. There are no right or wrong answers.

1. I understand my life's meaning.

1234567
2. I am searching for meaning in my life.
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3. I have a clear sense of what makes my life meaningful.
1234567
4. I am always searching for something that makes my life feel meaningful.
1234567
5. I have a good sense of what I would like my life to be about.
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6. I feel that my life is lacking in meaning and purpose.
1234567
7. I have a purpose or mission in life that guides my decisions and behavior.
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8. I am still searching for my life's purpose.
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9. I feel that my life has a clear sense of direction and purpose.
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10. I often wonder what my life is all about.
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