CCNP Enterprise (ENCOR)

1. What is Routing?
Ans - Routing is the process of finding a path on which data can pass from source to destination. Routing is
done by a device called routers, which are network layer devices.

2. What is the purpose of the Data Link?

Ans - The job of the Data Link layer is to check messages are sent to the right device. Another function of this
layer is framing.

3. What is the key advantage of using switches?

Ans - When a switch receives a signal, it creates a frame out of the bits that were from that signal. With this
process, it gains access and reads the destination address, after which it forwards that frame to the
appropriate port. This is a very efficient means of data transmission, instead of broadcasting it on all ports.

4. When does network congestion occur?

Ans - Network congestion occurs when too many users are trying to use the same bandwidth. This is
especially true in big networks that do not resort to network segmentation.

5. What is the purpose of the Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) in a switched network?
Ans - The Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) prevents loops in Ethernet networks by creating a loop-free logical
topology. It accomplishes this by blocking specific ports to ensure that there's only one active path between
any two network devices.

6. Explain the concept of VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network)?

Ans - A VLAN is a logically segmented broadcast domain within a physical network. It allows you to create
separate network segments on the same physical infrastructure, enhancing security, scalability, and network
management.

7. What is a Broadcast Storm, and how does STP help prevent it?
Ans - A Broadcast Storm is a situation where broadcast frames continuously flood a network, leading to
network congestion and reduced performance. STP prevents this by blocking redundant paths in the
network, thus preventing loops that could cause such storms.

8. Explain the purpose of Private VLANs (PVLANs)?

Ans - PVLANs segment a VLAN into sub-VLANs, allowing isolated communication between devices within the
same PVLAN while preventing communication between them. This is particularly useful in large multi-tenant
environments to improve security and isolation.

9. How do VLANs help in reducing broadcast traffic?

Ans - VLANs restrict the broadcast domain to a smaller group of devices, preventing broadcast traffic from
reaching devices that don't need it. This helps avoid unnecessary network congestion and improves overall
network performance.
10. How does a VLAN tag work?
Ans - A VLAN tag (also known as a VLAN ID or VLAN header) is added to Ethernet frames to identify which
VLAN the frame belongs to. This tagging allows switches to correctly forward frames to the appropriate
VLANs, even when traveling over trunk links.

11. Explain the difference between an Access VLAN and a Trunk VLAN?
Ans - An Access VLAN is assigned to an individual switch port and is used to specify the VLAN that a device
connected to that port belongs to. A Trunk VLAN is configured on a link that carries multiple VLANs and is
used to allow traffic from multiple VLANs to pass between switches.

12. What is a Native VLAN on a trunk link?

Ans - The Native VLAN is the VLAN that is not tagged when frames traverse a trunk link. It's used to carry
untagged frames between switches and should match on both ends of the trunk link to avoid potential
security risks.

13. How can you prevent VLAN hopping attacks?

Ans - VLAN hopping attacks occur when a device gains unauthorized access to a different VLAN. To prevent
these attacks, it's important to disable Dynamic Trunking Protocol (DTP), use VLAN Access Control Lists
(VACLs) to restrict VLAN-to-VLAN communication, and ensure proper switch port security configurations.

14. How can you verify if VLAN traffic is flowing correctly across a network?
Ans - Use tools like the show vlan, show interfaces trunk, and show interfaces status commands on Cisco
switches to verify VLAN configuration, trunking status, and interface assignment.

15. What is the difference between Static VLANs and Dynamic VLANs?
Ans - Static VLANs are manually configured on each switch port, while Dynamic VLANs are assigned
dynamically based on user or device characteristics, often through protocols like IEEE 802.1X. Dynamic
VLANs provide flexibility and automation in larger networks.

16. Can you explain the concept of VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP)?
Ans - VTP is a Cisco proprietary protocol used to manage and distribute VLAN configurations across a
network of interconnected switches. It helps ensure consistent VLAN configurations, reducing the need for
manual configuration changes on each switch.

17. How does VTP version 3 differ from earlier versions?

Ans - VTP version 3 introduces support for enhanced security, support for extended VLANs, and the ability to
create and maintain separate instances of VTP for different domains.

18. Explain the purpose of a VTP password.

Ans - A VTP password is used to prevent unauthorized switches from participating in VTP updates within the
same domain. It helps ensure the integrity of the VLAN configuration.

19. What happens when a VTP server with a higher revision number is introduced to a network?
Ans - If a VTP server with a higher revision number is introduced to a network, it updates all other switches
in the same VTP domain with its VLAN configuration information.
20. How can you reset the VTP configuration on a switch?
Ans - To reset the VTP configuration, change the switch's VTP mode to transparent and then back to the
desired mode. This resets the revision number to zero.

21. How does VTP pruning impact network performance?

Ans - VTP pruning improves network performance by reducing the amount of unnecessary broadcast traffic
being sent over trunk links, thereby conserving available bandwidth.

22. Can you have multiple VTP servers in a domain?

Ans - Yes, you can have multiple VTP servers in a domain. However, they must have the same domain name
and password to share VLAN configuration information.

23. How can you ensure that a switch doesn't participate in VTP updates?
Ans - Set the switch's VTP mode to transparent. In transparent mode, the switch forwards VTP updates but
does not participate in VTP updates itself.

24. What precautions should you take before changing the VTP mode on a switch?
Ans - Before changing the VTP mode on a switch, ensure that you have a backup of the VLAN configuration
and that you understand the impact on the network. It's also a good practice to disable VTP pruning during
changes to avoid accidental data loss.

25. What is the purpose of the MST Region?

Ans - An MST Region is a collection of MST bridges that share the same MST configuration and parameters. It
ensures consistency in the mapping of VLANs to instances within a region.

26. How does MSTP improve scalability in large networks with many VLANs?
Ans - MSTP reduces the number of required spanning tree instances by allowing multiple VLANs to share the
same topology, thus improving scalability and reducing complexity.

27. How does MSTP group VLANs into Multiple Spanning Tree Instances (MSTIs)?
Ans - MSTP uses VLAN-to-Instance mapping to group VLANs into MSTIs. VLANs that share the same MSTI
settings are mapped to the same instance and share a common spanning tree topology.

28. What is the main difference between MSTP and RSTP?

Ans - MSTP is an extension of RSTP that allows multiple VLANs to be mapped to the same spanning tree
instance, reducing the number of required spanning tree instances in the network.

29. How does RSTP achieve faster convergence?

Ans - RSTP achieves faster convergence through mechanisms like Port Roles (Root, Designated, Alternate,
Backup), Proposal and Agreement process, and the Learning and Forwarding state.

30. What is the purpose of the Alternate Port in RSTP?

Ans - An Alternate Port is an alternate path to the root bridge in RSTP. It is put into the blocking state and
can quickly transition to the forwarding state if the designated port fails.
31. How does Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol (RSTP) improve the convergence time compared to STP?
Ans - RSTP improves convergence by reducing the time it takes to transition ports to a forwarding state,
allowing for faster network recovery when topology changes occur.

32. Explain the purpose of the Bridge Protocol Data Units (BPDUs)?
Ans - BPDUs are used by STP to exchange information about the network topology, including bridge IDs, port
states, and path costs. These exchanges help switches determine the best path and prevent loops.

33. How does STP determine the best path for forwarding frames?
Ans - STP determines the best path based on the cost assigned to each link. The path with the lowest
cumulative cost to the root bridge is selected as the designated path.

34. How does STP select the root bridge in a network?

Ans - STP selects the root bridge based on the bridge priority (with the default value of 32,768) and the
bridge MAC address. The bridge with the lowest combination of priority and MAC address becomes the root
bridge.

35. What is EtherChannel, and why is it used?

Ans - EtherChannel is a Cisco technology that allows you to bundle multiple physical Ethernet links into a
single logical link. It enhances bandwidth, improves redundancy, and simplifies network management.

36. What is the advantage of using LACP over PAgP?

Ans - LACP is an open standard protocol supported by multiple vendors, while PAgP is Cisco proprietary.
Using LACP allows for interoperability in multivendor environments.

37. How does EtherChannel improve network performance?

Ans - EtherChannel aggregates the bandwidth of multiple links, increasing the overall bandwidth between
devices. This enhances network performance and allows for more efficient use of available capacity.

38. What is a Load-Balancing Algorithm in EtherChannel?

Ans - A Load-Balancing Algorithm determines how traffic is distributed across the links in an EtherChannel
bundle. Common algorithms include source MAC address, destination MAC address, source and destination
IP address, etc.

39. Can you mix different speeds of links in an EtherChannel?

Ans - Yes, you can mix different speeds of links in an EtherChannel. However, the overall bandwidth of the
EtherChannel will be limited by the speed of the slowest link.

40. What happens if the configuration of an EtherChannel link does not match on both ends?
Ans - If the configuration does not match, the link will not form an EtherChannel bundle. The ports will
remain in a suspended state until the configurations are aligned.

41. What is a Frame Relay?

Ans - Frame Relay is a WAN protocol that provides connection-oriented communication by creating and
maintaining virtual circuits. It has a high-performance rating and operates at the Data Link and Physical
Layers.
42. Why is UDP lease favored when compared to TCP?
Ans - It's because UDP is unreliable and unsequenced. It is not capable of establishing virtual circuits and
acknowledgments.

43. Mention what does data packets consist of?

Ans - A data packet consists of sender’s information, recipient’s information, and the data contained. It also
has the numeric identification number that defines the packet number and order. When data is sent across
the network, that information is segmented into data packets. In short, data packets carry the information
and routing configuration for your transferred message.

44. What is OSPF?

Ans - OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is a link-state routing protocol used to determine the best path for
routing packets in IP networks. It uses the SPF algorithm to calculate routes based on the link-state
database.

45. What does the term "link-state" refer to in OSPF?

Ans - In OSPF, "link-state" refers to the detailed information about the status and attributes of individual
network links, such as IP addresses, subnet masks, and link types. This information is used to build a
comprehensive view of the network topology.

46. How does OSPF calculate the shortest path?

Ans - OSPF uses the Dijkstra's Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm to calculate the shortest path by
considering the link costs between routers. It constructs a tree-like structure representing the best paths to
reach each network.

47. What are the types of OSPF routers?

Ans - OSPF routers can be classified into four types: internal routers (within an area), backbone routers (in
the backbone area), Area Border Routers (ABRs), and Autonomous System Boundary Routers (ASBRs).

48. What is the purpose of OSPF areas?

Ans - OSPF areas are used to divide a large OSPF network into smaller segments. This hierarchical structure
improves scalability, reduces routing updates, and contains the impact of topology changes.

49. How does OSPF elect a Designated Router (DR) and a Backup Designated Router (BDR)?
Ans - OSPF routers in a multi-access network elect a DR and BDR to reduce the number of adjacencies
needed. The router with the highest OSPF priority becomes the DR, and the second highest becomes the
BDR. In case of a tie, the router with the highest router ID is chosen.

50. What is OSPF hello interval?

Ans - The OSPF hello interval is the time between successive hello packets sent by routers to establish and
maintain OSPF neighbor relationships. The default hello interval is 10 seconds on Ethernet links.

51. How does OSPF handle network convergence?

Ans - OSPF achieves network convergence through its SPF algorithm and link-state database. When a change
in the network occurs, OSPF routers recalculate the SPF tree to determine new routes, leading to efficient
convergence.
52. What is the significance of the OSPF cost metric?
Ans - The OSPF cost metric is used to determine the preferred path between routers. It's inversely
proportional to the bandwidth of the link. The lower the cost, the more preferable the path.

53. What is the difference between OSPFv2 and OSPFv3?

Ans - OSPFv2 is used for IPv4 networks, while OSPFv3 is used for IPv6 networks. OSPFv3 includes additional
enhancements to support IPv6 addressing and other features.

54. How do you configure OSPF authentication?

Ans - OSPF authentication can be configured using various methods, such as clear text, MD5, and IPsec.
Authentication ensures the integrity and security of OSPF routing updates.

55. What is the OSPF Link-State Database (LSDB)?

Ans - The OSPF Link-State Database (LSDB) is a local database that stores information about the routers,
links, and network topology within an OSPF area. It contains a collection of link-state advertisements (LSAs)
that describe the state of the network.

56. What is Link-State Advertisements (LSAs) in OSPF?

Ans - LSAs are OSPF packets containing information about routers, links, and network topology. They are
used to update routers' LSDBs and build a complete view of the network. Different types of LSAs convey
different information.

57. How are LSAs identified in OSPF?

Ans - LSAs are identified by their type numbers. OSPF has various types of LSAs, such as Router LSAs,
Network LSAs, Summary LSAs, and AS-External LSAs, each serving a specific purpose.

58. What is the purpose of the OSPF Router LSA?

Ans - The Router LSA (Type 1) is generated by each router and provides information about the router's own
interfaces, associated networks, and link states. It helps build a map of the router's local links.

59. Explain the purpose of the OSPF Network LSA?

Ans - The Network LSA (Type 2) is generated by the Designated Router (DR) on a multi-access network. It
describes the attached routers, their IP addresses, and subnet masks. It helps other routers in the network
determine the topology.

60. What is the function of the OSPF Summary LSA?

Ans - The Summary LSA (Type 3 and Type 4) provides information about routes to networks outside the
OSPF domain. Type 3 LSAs summarize routes between areas, while Type 4 LSAs summarize routes from an
NSSA (Not-So-Stubby Area) into the backbone area.

61. Explain the role of the OSPF AS-External LSA.

Ans - The AS-External LSA (Type 5) is used to advertise routes from outside the OSPF domain into the OSPF
network. It allows OSPF routers to learn about networks from other routing domains.

62. What is the OSPF Link-State Advertisement (LSA) flooding process?

Ans - When a router receives an LSA, it verifies the sequence number. If the LSA is newer, the router floods it
to all other routers in the area, ensuring that every router has consistent LSDB information.
63. What is the OSPF LSA sequence number used for?
Ans - The LSA sequence number is used to track the freshness of LSAs. When an LSA is updated, its sequence
number is incremented to ensure routers accept the most recent version.

64. How does OSPF achieve synchronization of LSDBs in an area?

Ans - OSPF routers use a reliable flooding mechanism to ensure that LSAs are propagated to all routers in the
area. By flooding LSAs with higher sequence numbers, routers achieve LSDB synchronization.

65. How does OSPF prevent loops in the LSDB synchronization process?
Ans - OSPF routers implement the Dijkstra algorithm to calculate the shortest path tree based on the LSDB.
This algorithm guarantees loop-free paths and determines the best routes to reach destinations.

66. How does OSPF SPF work?

Ans - OSPF SPF works by constructing a shortest path tree for the network. It starts from the router where
the calculation is initiated (usually the router itself or a designated router) and then proceeds by iteratively
examining the reachable routers and calculating the shortest paths to them. The algorithm considers link
costs, and the shortest path is determined based on the sum of link costs.

67. What is the purpose of OSPF areas in relation to SPF calculations?

Ans - OSPF divides large networks into smaller areas to reduce the SPF calculation scope. Each area
maintains its own link state database, and SPF calculations are done independently within each area. This
helps in optimizing the OSPF network's performance.

68. How is OSPF SPF used to prevent routing loops?

Ans - OSPF SPF calculates shortest paths based on link costs, and it inherently avoids routing loops. The
algorithm constructs the shortest path tree, ensuring that paths never contain loops due to the nature of
Dijkstra's algorithm.

69. Can OSPF SPF be influenced by administrative weights?

Ans - Yes, OSPF SPF can be influenced by administrative weights, also known as link costs. These link costs
are assigned manually to OSPF links and can be used to adjust the path preference. Lower link costs indicate
a more preferred path.

70. What is the impact of network size on OSPF SPF calculations?

Ans - Larger networks can lead to more complex SPF calculations and longer convergence times. To mitigate
this, OSPF uses hierarchical design with areas to contain the scope of SPF calculations and improve
scalability.

71. What is an OSPF stub area?

Ans - An OSPF stub area is an area within an OSPF network that does not receive external routes (routes
from other Autonomous Systems) and instead uses a default route to route traffic outside the area. Stub
areas reduce the amount of routing information that needs to be exchanged within the OSPF network.

72. What is the purpose of using OSPF stub areas?

Ans - OSPF stub areas help simplify the routing process and improve network efficiency. By blocking external
routes, the size of the routing tables in the area is reduced, leading to faster convergence and less overhead
in terms of memory and processing power.
73. What types of OSPF stub areas are there?
Ans - There are three main types of OSPF stub areas: stub area, totally stubby area, and not-so-stubby area
(NSSA).
Stub Area: This area doesn't receive external routes but can receive summary routes from other areas. It
uses a default route to route traffic outside the area.
Totally Stubby Area: This is a more restricted version of a stub area. It doesn't receive external routes or
summary routes from other areas. It only uses a default route.
NSSA (Not-So-Stubby Area): This area is similar to a stub area but allows for the injection of external routes
in a controlled manner, using a special type of OSPF route called Type 7 LSA. These external routes are then
translated into Type 5 LSAs by an ASBR (Autonomous System Boundary Router) within the NSSA.

74. How is routing handled within an OSPF stub area?

Ans - In an OSPF stub area, all internal routers have a complete link-state database of the area's internal
routes. However, they rely on a default route for any traffic that needs to exit the area and reach
destinations outside it. The default route is provided by the Area Border Router (ABR) connecting the stub
area to the backbone area (Area 0).

75. How does OSPF handle the advertisement of routes within a stub area?
Ans - In a stub area, the ABR generates a Type 3 Summary LSA that summarizes all routes within the area.
This LSA is flooded throughout the OSPF network. Routers in other areas then use this summary information
to route traffic towards the stub area.

76. What is OSPF MD5 authentication?

Ans - OSPF MD5 authentication is a more secure form of OSPF authentication compared to simple password-
based authentication. With MD5 authentication, OSPF routers exchange hello packets with a digest that is
based on a shared secret key (password). This key is used to generate and verify the hash values in OSPF
packets, ensuring the authenticity of the sender.

77. What are some common security threats to OSPF networks?

Ans - There are several security threats that can affect OSPF networks, including:

Spoofing: Attackers can impersonate routers or inject false routing information into the network.
Denial of Service (DoS): Attackers flood the network with excessive traffic or invalid LSAs, disrupting normal
OSPF operations.
Hello Flooding: Attackers send a large number of OSPF hello packets, overwhelming the network.
LSA Injection: Attackers inject malicious LSAs to influence routing decisions and redirect traffic.
Rogue Router: Unauthorized routers are added to the OSPF network, potentially leading to incorrect
routing.

78. What is OSPF TTL security?

Ans - OSPF TTL security is a method to prevent the leakage of OSPF routing information beyond specific
boundaries by setting the TTL value in OSPF packets to a predetermined value. This can be used to restrict
the range of OSPF packets and prevent them from reaching unintended areas or networks.

79. How does OSPF TTL security work?

Ans - OSPF TTL security works by modifying the TTL value of OSPF packets. When routers send OSPF packets,
they set the TTL value in the packet's IP header. By setting a lower TTL value than the default maximum, you
can limit the distance the OSPF packets can travel before being dropped by routers. This can help contain
OSPF traffic within certain network segments and prevent it from crossing into unauthorized areas.
80. What is the purpose of using OSPF TTL security?
Ans - The primary purpose of OSPF TTL security is to enhance the security of OSPF routing information. By
controlling the TTL value, you can prevent OSPF packets from being forwarded beyond specific network
boundaries. This can help prevent information leakage, unauthorized routing updates, and potential attacks
that rely on OSPF packets crossing into unauthorized areas.

81. What happens if the OSPF DR fails?

Ans - If the OSPF DR fails, the BDR takes over as the new DR. OSPF routers on the segment detect the change
and update their routing tables accordingly. A new BDR is also elected from the remaining routers.

82. Why do OSPF routers form adjacencies with the DR and BDR?
Ans - OSPF routers form adjacencies with the DR and BDR to exchange link-state information more
efficiently. Instead of forming adjacencies with all routers on the segment, OSPF routers only need to
establish adjacencies with the DR and BDR. This reduces the number of adjacencies and the amount of OSPF
control traffic.

83. Can the OSPF DR and BDR roles be preconfigured?

Ans - Yes, you can preconfigure the DR and BDR roles by manually setting the OSPF router priority on the
routers in the segment. Setting a higher priority on a router increases its chances of becoming the DR or
BDR. This can be useful in scenarios where you want to ensure specific routers take on these roles.

84. Are there any cases where the DR/BDR concept might not be suitable?
Ans - The DR/BDR concept is most relevant in multi-access networks with a significant number of routers. In
point-to-point networks and point-to-multipoint networks, there's typically only one neighbor, so the DR and
BDR roles are not necessary.

85. What is the maximum hop count in EIGRP?

Ans - The maximum hop count in EIGRP is 224.

86. What is the composite metric used in EIGRP?

Ans - The EIGRP metric is calculated using the formula: metric = (K1 * bandwidth) + (K2 * bandwidth) / (256 -
load) + (K3 * delay) * (K5 / (reliability + K4)).

87. What is the default value of K1, K2, K3, K4, and K5 in the EIGRP metric calculation?
Ans - The default values are K1=1, K2=0, K3=1, K4=0, and K5=0.

88. How does EIGRP provide equal-cost load balancing?

Ans - EIGRP provides equal-cost load balancing by automatically distributing traffic across multiple paths to a
destination with equal metrics.

89. What is a "stuck in active" (SIA) route in EIGRP?

Ans - An SIA route occurs when a router is unable to find a feasible successor for a failed route and is waiting
for route recomputation.

90. What is route summarization in EIGRP?

Ans - Route summarization is the process of advertising a summary route for a range of subnets to reduce
the size of routing tables.

91. How is EIGRP for IPv6 configured in named mode?

 Ans - EIGRP for IPv6 in named mode is configured using the ipv6
#router eigrp <name> command.

92. How can you troubleshoot EIGRP neighborship issues?

Ans - Check for matching AS numbers, K-values, IP addresses, and network connectivity on directly
connected interfaces.

93. What metrics does EIGRP consider for load balancing?

Ans - EIGRP considers bandwidth and delay in its metric calculations for load balancing.

94. Why would you use authentication in EIGRP?

Ans - EIGRP authentication provides an additional layer of security by ensuring that only authorized routers
exchange routing updates.

95. How does EIGRP achieve fast convergence?

Ans - EIGRP achieves fast convergence through DUAL, EIGRP hello and hold timers, and the use of feasible
successors.

96. What is the purpose of configuring EIGRP stub routing?

Ans - EIGRP stub routing reduces unnecessary routing information on stub routers to enhance network
efficiency.

97. What is the primary use case for Policy-Based Routing?

Ans - PBR is often used to implement granular routing decisions for specific types of traffic, such as directing
traffic through specific paths based on factors like source IP, application type, or time of day.

98. What is the primary use case for Policy Based Routing?
Ans - PBR is often used to implement granular routing decisions for specific types of traffic, such as directing
traffic through specific paths based on factors like source IP, application type, or time of day.

99. How does PBR differ from traditional routing?

Ans - Traditional routing is based on destination IP addresses, while PBR takes additional attributes into
account to make routing decisions.

100. What are the different actions that can be taken with PBR?
Ans - PBR can be used to set the next-hop IP address, set the outgoing interface, redirect traffic to a specific
routing table, or modify DSCP/ToS values.

101. How do you define an access control list (ACL) for PBR?
Ans - An ACL is defined using conditions that match the traffic you want to apply PBR to, such as
source/destination IP addresses, protocols, and port numbers.

102. Can PBR be used for load balancing traffic across multiple links?
Ans - Yes, PBR can be used to distribute traffic across multiple links based on specific criteria defined in the
route map.

103. How are route maps evaluated in PBR?

Ans - Route maps are evaluated sequentially, and the first match determines the action taken. Once a match
is found, the rest of the route map is not evaluated.
104. What is the significance of the "permit" and "deny" keywords in route maps?
Ans - "Permit" statements define the conditions for which a specific action should be taken, while "deny"
statements can be used to exclude traffic from being affected by PBR.

105. How can PBR be used for traffic prioritization or Quality of Service (QoS)?
Ans - PBR can be used to mark traffic with Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) values, which can then
be used by downstream devices to apply QoS policies.

106. Can PBR be used for security-related decisions?

Ans - Yes, PBR can be used to direct certain traffic through security appliances or firewalls to apply security
policies.

107. How can PBR help in isolating and inspecting potentially malicious traffic?
Ans - PBR can route suspicious traffic through a monitoring or inspection device, allowing for analysis
without affecting regular network traffic.

108. What are some common issues that can arise when configuring PBR?
Ans - Issues can include incorrect ACL or route map configuration, incorrect application of route maps, and
route asymmetry.

109. How can you troubleshoot PBR-related problems?

Ans - You can use debugging commands, verify ACL and route map configurations, and check interface and
routing table status.

110. What is an example use case for PBR?

Ans - One use case is to route traffic from a specific subnet through a different ISP or VPN connection for
load balancing or specific security requirements.

111. Describe the DHCP lease process.

Ans - The DHCP lease process involves a client requesting an IP address, the DHCP server offering an
available address, the client accepting the offer, and the server confirming the lease.

112. What is a DHCP lease time?

Ans - The DHCP lease time is the duration for which a client is allowed to use the assigned IP address. After
the lease expires, the client must renew the lease.

113. What happens during the DHCP lease renewal process?

Ans - The client sends a renewal request to the DHCP server before the lease expires. If the server responds,
the client's lease is renewed.

114. What is a DHCP reservation?

Ans - A DHCP reservation is a configuration on the DHCP server that assigns a specific IP address to a
particular MAC address, ensuring that a client always receives the same IP.

115. How does DHCP help manage IP addresses in a network?

Ans - DHCP manages IP addresses by dynamically allocating addresses to devices as they connect to the
network and releasing them when they disconnect.
116. How can you secure a DHCP environment?
Ans - You can secure DHCP by using features like DHCP snooping, DHCPv6 Guard, and implementing proper
access controls.

117. What is DHCP failover?

Ans - DHCP failover is a feature that provides high availability by allowing two DHCP servers to share IP
address allocation responsibilities.

118. How does DHCPv6 differ from DHCPv4?

Ans - DHCPv6 is designed for IPv6 networks and provides similar functionality as DHCPv4, including address
assignment and configuration parameters.

119. What role does DHCPv6 play in IPv6 networks?

Ans - DHCPv6 can be used to assign IPv6 addresses, configuration parameters, and DNS server information
to devices in an IPv6 network.

120. How does a DHCP relay agent function?

Ans - A DHCP relay agent listens for DHCP messages on one subnet and then forwards those messages to the
appropriate DHCP server on a different subnet.

121. What type of DHCP messages does a relay agent handle?

Ans - A DHCP relay agent primarily handles DHCPDISCOVER, DHCPREQUEST, and DHCPRELEASE messages by
forwarding them to DHCP servers.

122. In what scenarios would you typically use a DHCP relay agent?
Ans - DHCP relay agents are used in scenarios where DHCP clients and servers are separated by routers, such
as in larger networks with multiple subnets.

123. How does using a DHCP relay agent impact network security?
Ans - DHCP relay agents don't alter the content of DHCP messages; they simply forward them. Proper
network segmentation and access controls are still required.

124. What is an Access Control List (ACL)?

Ans - An ACL is a set of rules that control network traffic by allowing or denying packets based on criteria
such as source/destination IP addresses, protocols, and port numbers.

125. What is the primary purpose of an ACL?

Ans - The primary purpose of an ACL is to filter and control the flow of traffic through a network device, such
as a router or firewall.

126. What is the difference between standard and extended ACLs?

Ans - Standard ACLs filter traffic based on source IP addresses only, while extended ACLs can filter based on
source/destination IP, port numbers, and protocols.

127. How are ACL rules processed?

Ans - ACL rules are processed sequentially, and the first match determines whether the traffic is permitted
or denied. No further rules are evaluated after a match is found.
128. Where can ACLs be applied?
Ans - ACLs can be applied on router interfaces (inbound or outbound), as well as on VLAN interfaces, SVIs, or
firewall interfaces.

129. What is the difference between applying ACLs inbound and outbound on an interface?
Ans - Applying an ACL inbound filters traffic before routing decisions are made. Applying it outbound filters
traffic after routing decisions.

130. What is a wildcard mask in ACLs?

Ans - A wildcard mask is used in ACLs to specify which bits of an IP address should be matched. It's the
inverse of a subnet mask.

131. Does an ACL have an implicit deny at the end?

Ans - Yes, every ACL has an implicit deny at the end, meaning that if traffic doesn't match any rule, it will be
denied.

132. How can ACLs help enhance network security?

Ans - ACLs can be used to restrict traffic flow, block unauthorized access, and prevent certain types of
attacks from entering the network.

133. How do ACLs contribute to network segmentation?

Ans - ACLs can be used to isolate different segments of a network by allowing or denying traffic between
those segments.

134. What is the main purpose of IP SLA?

Ans - The main purpose of IP SLA is to proactively monitor network performance, identify potential
problems, and ensure that network services meet specified service level agreements.

135. What are some common types of IP SLA operations?

Ans - Some common IP SLA operations include ICMP Echo (ping), UDP Jitter, ICMP Path Echo, TCP Connect,
HTTP GET, DNS Query, and more.

136. How does IP SLA work?

Ans - IP SLA works by sending simulated network traffic (test packets) between a source and a target device.
The source measures the time taken and other metrics, which are used to assess network performance.

137. What information does an IP SLA operation provide?

Ans - IP SLA operations provide information about round-trip time, packet loss, jitter, latency, reachability,
and other performance metrics.

138. What is the role of the IP SLA responder?

Ans - The IP SLA responder is a feature that allows a target device to respond to IP SLA operations, providing
accurate performance measurement.

139. What is a threshold in IP SLA?

Ans - A threshold is a value set for a specific metric (e.g., round-trip time) that, when exceeded, triggers a
predefined action.
140. How can IP SLA be used for network troubleshooting?
Ans - IP SLA can help identify performance issues, such as excessive latency, packet loss, or jitter, allowing
administrators to pinpoint network problems.

141. How does IP SLA relate to Quality of Service (QoS)?

Ans - IP SLA can provide valuable data for QoS decisions, helping to determine how network traffic is
prioritized and managed.

142. What is SPAN?

Ans - SPAN (Switched Port Analyzer) is a network feature that allows you to copy network traffic from one or
more source ports to a destination port for analysis, monitoring, or troubleshooting purposes.

143. What is the advantage of using RSPAN?

Ans - RSPAN enables remote monitoring of network traffic across multiple switches, which can be
particularly useful in large and distributed networks.

144. What is a SPAN Session?

Ans - A SPAN session is a configuration that defines which source ports to monitor and where to send the
monitored traffic (destination port).

145. In what situations would you use SPAN or RSPAN?

Ans - SPAN and RSPAN are used for network monitoring, troubleshooting, security analysis, performance
analysis, and compliance monitoring.

146. What kind of tools are commonly used with SPAN and RSPAN?
Ans - Network analyzers, packet capture tools, intrusion detection/prevention systems, and performance
monitoring software can be used to analyze SPAN or RSPAN data.

147. What are the main components of a wireless network architecture?

Ans - The main components include wireless clients, access points (APs), wireless LAN controllers (WLCs),
and the distribution system (wired network infrastructure).

148. How do access points (APs) contribute to a wireless network?

Ans - APs provide wireless connectivity by serving as bridges between wireless clients and the wired
network.

149. What is WPA2 (Wi-Fi Protected Access 2)?

Ans - WPA2 is a wireless security protocol that provides encryption and authentication to secure wireless
networks.

150. How does WPA3 improve wireless security?

Ans - WPA3 enhances security by introducing stronger encryption, protection against brute-force attacks,
and better security for open networks.

151. What is wireless roaming?

Ans - Wireless roaming is the process of a wireless client moving from one access point to another while
maintaining an active network connection.
152. How can fast and seamless roaming be achieved in a wireless network?
Ans - Techniques like 802.11r (Fast BSS Transition) and 802.11k (Neighbor Report) improve roaming by
reducing the time it takes for a client to switch between APs.

153. What is a wireless LAN controller (WLC)?

Ans - A wireless LAN controller is a centralized device that manages and controls multiple access points in a
wireless network, providing features like centralized configuration and monitoring.

154. What factors should be considered when designing a wireless network?

Ans - Factors include coverage area, client density, interference sources, channel planning, security
requirements, and capacity planning.

155. What is a next-generation firewall (NGFW)?

Ans - A next-generation firewall is an advanced network security device that combines traditional firewall
functionalities with additional features such as application visibility and control, intrusion prevention, URL
filtering, and more.

156. How does an NGFW differ from a traditional firewall?

Ans - NGFWs provide more advanced and granular security capabilities beyond basic packet filtering. They
focus on understanding and controlling application-layer traffic, user identities, and more.

157. Can an NGFW enforce security policies across different network segments?
Ans - Yes, NGFWs can enforce security policies across various network segments, including internal, DMZ,
and external zones.

158. How do NGFWs utilize threat intelligence?

Ans - NGFWs can receive updates about emerging threats and attack patterns from external threat
intelligence sources, enabling them to proactively block known malicious activities.

159. What is the purpose of the debug ip routing command?

Ans - This command provides information about the routing decisions made by the router, showing how
packets are being routed in the network.

160. How does the debug icmp command help in troubleshooting?

Ans - The debug icmp command displays ICMP packet-related information, assisting in diagnosing issues
related to connectivity and packet loss.

161. What does the debug arp command show?

Ans - The debug arp command provides information about Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) operations,
helping to troubleshoot ARP-related issues.

162. How can the debug cdp command be useful?

Ans - The debug cdp command displays Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP) information, aiding in identifying
neighboring Cisco devices and troubleshooting layer 2 connectivity.

163. What precautions should you take when using debug commands in production environments?
Ans - Debug commands should be used sparingly in production networks due to their potential impact on
network performance. Always disable debugging after use.
164. Are there alternatives to using debug commands for troubleshooting?
Ans - Yes, show commands, logs, and monitoring tools often provide valuable information without the
potential side effects of debug commands.

165. What are debug commands in networking?

Ans - Debug commands are tools that provide real-time information about the operation and behavior of
networking devices. They help troubleshoot issues and analyze network activity.

166. What is Ansible, and how does it contribute to network automation?

Ans - Ansible is an open-source automation tool that allows you to define and manage the desired state of
your network using playbooks written in YAML. It facilitates configuration management, software
deployment, and task automation across network devices, leading to efficient and consistent network
operations.

167. How do APIs (Application Programming Interfaces) play a role in network automation?
Ans - APIs provide a way for different software applications to communicate and interact. In network
automation, APIs enable the integration of various tools and platforms, allowing you to programmatically
interact with network devices, gather information, and make configuration changes.

168. What is controller-based networking?

Ans - Ans - Controller-based networking, also known as Software-Defined Networking (SDN), an approach to
network architecture that separates the control plane and the data plane of network devices. In controller-
based networking, a central controller is responsible for making decisions about how traffic is forwarded and
configuring network devices, while the data plane handles the actual forwarding of network packets.

169. What is North-bound and south-bound APIs?

Ans - Northbound APIs are the interfaces and protocols that allow communication between the SDN
controller and higher-level applications, services, and orchestration platforms however, Southbound APIs
are the interfaces and protocols that allow communication between the SDN controller and the network
devices, such as switches, routers, and access points, in the lower layers of the network architecture.

170. How does SDN (Software-Defined Networking) relate to network automation?

Ans - SDN is a network architecture that separates the control plane from the data plane, allowing for
centralized control and automation. Network automation leverages SDN principles to programmatically
manage and control network resources, making it easier to deploy and manage complex network
configurations.