3.
2 Covalent bonding a) describe, including the use of ‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams:
and co-ordinate
(dative covalent)
Online Classes : Megalecture@gmail.com bonding including
247 shapes of simple
molecules
3 Chemical bonding
This topic introduces the different ways by which chemical bonding occurs and the effect this can have
on physical properties.
3 Chemical bonding
This topic introduces the different ways by which chemical bonding occurs and the
effect this can have on physical properties.
3.1 Ionic bonding
3.3 Intermolecular forces, electronegativity and bond properties
3.3 Intermolecular
forces,
electronegativity
3.2 Covalent bonding
andco-ordinate
and bond properties
(dative covalent)
bonding including
shapes of simple
molecules
3.4 Metallic bonding
3.5 Bonding and
physical properties
3.3 Intermolecular
forces,
electronegativity
and bond properties
Back to contents page
3.4 Metallic bonding
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES 3.5 Bonding and
physical properties
Back to contents page
BILAL HAMEED INTERMOLECULAR FORCES BILAL HAMEED
www.youtube.com/megalecture
Cambridge
(i) covalent International
bonding, AS andsuch
in molecules A Level Chemistry 9701
as hydrogen, syllabus
oxygen, Syllabus content
chlorine,
hydrogen chloride, carbon dioxide, methane, ethene
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(ii) co-ordinate (dative covalent) bonding, such as in the formation of the
ammonium ion 248
and in the Al 2Cl 6 molecule
b) describe covalent bonding in terms of orbital overlap, giving σ and π
bonds, including the concept of hybridisation to form sp, sp2 and sp3
orbitals (see also Section 14.3)
c) explain the shapes of, and bond angles in, molecules by using the
qualitative model of electron-pair repulsion (including lone pairs), using
as simple examples: BF3 (trigonal), CO2 (linear), CH4 (tetrahedral), NH3
Learning outcomes
(pyramidal), H2O (non-linear), SF6 (octahedral), PF5 (trigonal bipyramidal)
Candidates
d) predict should be able
the shapes to: bond angles in, molecules and ions analogous
of, and
to those specified in 3.2(b) (see also Section 14.3)
a) describe ionic bonding, as in sodium chloride, magnesium oxide and
a) calcium
describefluoride,
hydrogenincluding theusing
bonding, use of ‘dot-and-cross’
ammonia and waterdiagrams
as simple
examples of molecules containing N–H and O–H groups
a)
b) describe,
understand,including the terms,
in simple use of the
‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams:
concept of electronegativity and apply
it tocovalent
explain the properties of molecules
(i) bonding, in molecules such such as bond oxygen,
as hydrogen, polarity (see
chlorine,
alsohydrogen
Section 3.3(c)), thecarbon
chloride, dipoledioxide,
moments of molecules
methane, ethene(3.3(d)) and the
behaviour of oxides with water (9.2(c))
(ii) co-ordinate (dative covalent) bonding, such as in the formation of the
c) explain the terms
ammonium ionbond energy,
and in the Al bond length and bond polarity and use
2Cl 6 molecule
them to compare the reactivities of covalent bonds (see also Section
b) describe covalent bonding in terms of orbital overlap, giving σ and π
5.1(b)(ii))
bonds, including the concept of hybridisation to form sp, sp2 and sp3
d) orbitals
describe intermolecular
(see also Sectionforces
14.3) (van der Waals’ forces), based on
permanent and induced dipoles, as in, for example, CHCl 3(l); Br2(l) and
c) explain the shapes of, and bond angles in, molecules by using the
the liquid Group 18 elements
qualitative model of electron-pair repulsion (including lone pairs), using
as simple examples: BF3 (trigonal), CO2 (linear), CH4 (tetrahedral), NH3
a) (pyramidal), H2O (non-linear),
describe metallic SF6 (octahedral),
bonding in terms of a lattice PF (trigonalions
of 5positive bipyramidal)
surrounded
d) predict by delocalised
the shapes electrons
of, and bond angles in, molecules and ions analogous
to those specified in 3.2(b) (see also Section 14.3)
a) describe, interpret and predict the effect of different types of bonding
(ionic bonding,
a) describe covalent
hydrogen bonding,
bonding, usinghydrogen
ammonia bonding,
and water other intermolecular
as simple
interactions,
examples metallic bonding)
of molecules on the
containing N–Hphysical
and O–H properties
groups of substances
b) understand,
b) deduce the type of bonding
in simple terms,present from of
the concept given information and apply
electronegativity
c) itshow understanding
to explain of chemical
the properties reactions
of molecules in terms
such as bondofpolarity
energy (see
transfers
associated
also Sectionwith the the
3.3(c)), breaking
dipoleand makingof
moments ofmolecules
chemical bonds
(3.3(d)) and the
behaviour of oxides with water (9.2(c))
c) explain the terms bond energy, bond length and bond polarity and use
them to compare the reactivities of covalent bonds (see also Section
5.1(b)(ii)) www.cie.org.uk/alevel 19
d) describe intermolecular forces (van der Waals’ forces), based on
permanent and induced dipoles, as in, for example, CHCl 3(l); Br2(l) and
the liquid Group 18 elements
a) describe metallic bonding in terms of a lattice of positive ions
surrounded by delocalised electrons
a) describe, interpret and predict the effect of different types of bonding
(ionic bonding, covalent bonding, hydrogen bonding, other intermolecular
interactions, metallic bonding) on the physical properties of substances
b) deduce the type of bonding present from given information
c) show understanding of chemical reactions in terms of energy transfers
associated with the breaking and making of chemical bonds
www.cie.org.uk/alevel 19
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
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 Table 2 Bond lengths of the hydrogen halides
delocalised structures: Cl–Cl 242
a SO42− b PO43− c ClO4 −
Bond strength 193
Br–Br
The bond enthalpy reflects the strength of the covalent bond. As we 151
I–I
Online Classes : Megalecture@gmail.com move from single to double to triple bonds theClasses
Online number: of electrons in
Megalecture@gmail.com
249 250
the bond increases resulting in an increase in electrostatic forces and a Table 1 Average bond enthalpies
shortening of the bond length. This trend can be seen in the carbon– at 298 K
carbon bond of the homologous series of alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes.
Understand what is meant by
electronegativity
BOND POLARITIES
In a covalent bond between two different atoms, the atoms do not Bond polarity POLAR BONDS
Predict whether a molecule will
attract thetwo
electron pairatoms
in thebond
bond equally. How strongly theareelectrons The polarity of a bond can be described by the difference in
The example in which hydrogen is simple because both atoms be polarPolar covalent bond is the preferred term for a bond made up of
electronegativity of the bonded atoms (tables 3 and 4).
the same. are attracted depends on the size of the individual atoms and their unequally shared electron pairs.
nuclear charge.
Also, each one has a single proton and a single electron, so the attractions are easy Atom Electronegativity Bond 4(Electronegativity) Bond enthalpy/
In the F2 molecule, the two F atoms attract the electrons in the bond One end of the bond (in this case, the F atom)
kJ molis
–1 more electron rich
to identify. H 2.2
equally and thus the electrons lie symmetrically (Figure 3.87). This (higher electron density), hence,
H–F 1.8 more negative.
567
However, many covalent bonds form between two different atoms. F 4.0
molecule is non-polar. The other end
These atoms often have different attractions for shared electrons. Cl 3.2 H–Clof the bond1.0 (in this case, the431
H atom) is less electron rich
Electronegativity is a measure
(lower electron density), hence, more positive. δ-
Br 3.0 H–Br 0.8 366
of the attraction of an atom in a δ+
These two ends, one somewhat
Table 4 Bond
positive and the other
Table 3 Electronegativity
molecule forvaluesthe electron pair polarity
in and bond enthalpy at 298 K
somewhat negative may be described as electronic H F
Fluorinethe hascovalent
the highestbond of which it isvalue of any element.
electronegativity
a part.
The polarity poles, hence the term polar covalent
of the H–F bond results in a partial charge on each bonds.
atom. The bond is said to have ionic character. The partial charges
1
attract one another, increasing the strength of the bond (figure 1).
3
Figure 1 The polar H–F bond
However, in HF, F is more electronegative than H and attracts the
electrons in the H–F bond more strongly than the H atom does. The
electrons in the bond thus lie closer to the F than to the H (Figure 3.88). 153
H–F is a polar molecule. The unsymmetrical distribution of electron
density results in small charges on the atoms. F is − because the electrons
However,
in the bond lie closer to F, whereas electron in HF,has
density F isbeen
morepulled
electronegative
away than H and attracts the
from H, so it is +. electrons in the H–F bond more strongly than the H atom does. The
BOND POLARITIES electrons in the bond thus lie closer to the F than to the H (Figure 3.88). POLAR BONDS
H–F is a polar molecule. The unsymmetrical distribution of electron
Now consider a diatomic molecule composed density results in small charges on the atoms. F is In −abecause
polar covalent bond, the shared electrons, which are in a molecular orbital,
the electrons
of two different elements; HF is a common in the bond lie closer to F, whereas electron density arehas
more
beenlikely to beaway
pulled found nearer to the atom whose electronegativity is higher.
example. from H, so it is +. This unequal distribution of charge makes the bond polar covalent.
It has been experimentally shown that the To emphasize the dipole nature of the HF molecule, the formula can be written
tes a small negativeelectrons in the H—F bond are not equally However, in HF, F is moreas Helectronegative than
δ+ Fδ−. The symbol H andpartial.
δ means attracts the
shared; the electrons spend more time in the electrons in the H–F bond With morepolar
strongly than the H atom
molecules, such as HF, the does. The δ+ is used to show a partial
symbol
vicinity of the fluorine atom. electrons in the bond thus lie closer to the F than to the H (Figure
positive charge on one end of the molecule.3.88).
There are various scales of electronegativity and it is important
H–F istoa realise
polar molecule. The unsymmetrical distribution of electron
This is because fluorine is a more
that, although they are derived from physical quantities (such as bond
density Likewise,
results in small charges on the symbolFδ−
theatoms. is is−used to show
because theaelectrons
partial negative charge on the other
electronegative element
energies),than hydrogen.
the numbers themselves are not physical quantities; they
in the bondhavelieno end.
closer to F, whereas electron density has been pulled away
− indicates a small negative
charge. units and must only be used in a comparative way. The most fromcommonly
H, so it is +.
used scale of electronegativity
2
is that developed by Linus Pauling. The 4

There are various scales of

electronegativity values for some elements are shown in Table 3.11. electronegativity and it is important to realise
that, although they are derived from physical quantities (such as bond
energies), the numbers
Noble gases do not have electronegativity values asthemselves
they do not are not physical quantities; they have no
als have higher units and must only be used in a comparative way. The most commonly
gativities thanBILAL
metals.
HAMEED form compounds. INTERMOLECULAR FORCES BILAL HAMEED INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
used scale of electronegativity is that developed by Linus Pauling. The
www.youtube.com/megalecture
electronegativity values for some elements are shown in Table 3.11. www.youtube.com/megalecture
− indicates a small negative
iner’s tip charge. Noble gases do not have electronegativity values as they do not
Non-metals have higher
 Online Classes : Megalecture@gmail.com Online Classes : Megalecture@gmail.com
251 252

ELECTRONEGATIVITY Linus Pauling

Linus Pauling
related
Linus the MOLECULAR
related
Paulingelectronegativity
the
related the POLARITY
electronegativity
electronegativity
difference diffbetween
erencediffbetween
erence between
Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom to attract electrons two atomstwo
Thetoatoms
thetwo ionic
toatoms
the
electronegativity character
ionic
to the
character
of
ionic
difference a between
bond.
character
of aHe
bond.
twosuggested
of He
a bond.
atoms suggested
that
Heansuggested
covalently that an that an
bonded Exam
in a chemical bond. Elements with high electronegativity have a greater electronegativity
electronegativity
togetherelectronegativity
difference
results in diff
theof erence
1.7diff
electronscorresponded
oference
1.7 more
lying corresponded
of 1.7 tocorresponded
towards50%one to
ionic
50%
atom character
ionic
to 50%
than character
the in in If aske
ionic character in
ability to attract electrons than do elements with low electronegativity. a bond and
aother.
bond
reasoned
We and
a call
bond
reasoned
that
such and aa bond
greater
reasoned
thatpolar.
a electronegativity
greater
that aelectronegativity
greater electronegativity
difference diffthan
erencethis
diffthan thisthan this th
erence that
corresponded
corresponded
tocorresponded
a structure
to a structure
that
to was
a structure
that
more wasionic
that
more than
was
ionic
more
covalent,
than
ionic
covalent,
whereas
than covalent,
whereas whereas two e
The four most electronegative elements are F, O, N, Cl. However, whether an overall molecule is polar also depends on the
if the diff
ifshape
erence
the diff differe
electronegativity increases
ofifis
erence
thethe
less diff
than
iserence
molecule. less
thatthan
the
is less
that
bonding
than
the that
bonding
is more
the bonding
iscovalent
more covalent
isthan
moreionic.
covalent
than ionic.
than ionic.
This is aThis
useful
is aidea,
This
usefulbut
is idea,
a ituseful
must
butidea,
be
it must
used
butbe with
it must
used
great
with
be used
caution.
great
with
caution.
For
great
instance,
caution.
For instance, and c
For instance,
The polarity of molecules is distinct from the polarity of individual bonds; less th
KI (electronegativity
KI (electronegativity
KI (electronegativity
difference diff1.7)
erencewould
diff1.7)
erence
come
would1.7)
outcome
would
of this
outcome
discussion
of this
outdiscussion
of this discussion

increases
a non-polar molecule may have polar bonds.
as havingas 50%
having
ionic
as50%
having
and
ionic
50%
50%and
covalent
ionic
50%andcovalent
character,
50% covalent
character,
and NaIcharacter,
and
(diffNaI
erence
and
(diffNaI
erence
(difference
of 1.6) would
of 1.6)appear
would
of 1.6)to
appear
would
be mostly
toappear
be covalent,
mostly
to becovalent,
mostly
whereas covalent,
whereas
both behave
whereas
both asbehave
bothasbehave as
Electronegativity increases across a period and decreases down a group predominantly
predominantly
ionic
predominantly
compounds.
ionic compounds.
ionic
Pauling,
compounds.
Pauling,
in his original
Pauling,
in his original
discussion
in his original
discussion
of discussion
of of
5 this, wasthis,
actually
was this,
actually
referring
was referring
actually
to diatomic
referring
to diatomic
molecules
to diatomic
molecules
7and not
molecules
and
to macroscopic
not and
to macroscopic
not to macroscopic
compounds.
compounds.compounds.

The electronegativity
The electronegativity
The electronegativity
difference diffbetween
erence diffbetween
erence
two atoms between
twocovalently
atomstwocovalently
atoms
bonded covalently
bonded bonded
togethertogether
results in
together
results
the electrons
inresults
the electrons
in
lying
themore
electrons
lyingtowards
morelying
towards
onemoreatomtowards
onethan
atom the
one
than
atomthethan the
other. We
other.
call We
such
other.
call
a bond
such
We calla bond
suchHowever,
polar. a bondHowever,
polar. whether
polar. However,
whether
an overallwhether
an molecule
overallanmolecule
overall
is molecule
is is
BOND POLARITIES polar also
polar
depends
alsopolar
depends
on also POLAR
the shape
depends
on theofshape
on MOLECULES
the the
molecule.
of shape
the molecule.
of the molecule.
Non-polar bond Polar bond
For a For
molecule
For a molecule
to
For be a polar
molecule
to be
it polar
must
to be
have
it must
polar
a
a molecule to be polar it must have a positive have
it must
positivea positive
have
endto ato
end thepositive
end
the to the
molecule end to the
• Similar atoms have the same • Different atoms have different
electronegativities
moleculemolecule
andand molecule
a negative
andend.
a negative a negative
and
end.
For a For instance,
negative
end.
instance, HCl, For
NH instance,
3 HCl,
end.andFor
HNH
2O 3 and
instance,
HCl,
are allNHH 32O
and
HCl,
polar. are
NHHall
23OandareHall
2O are all
electronegativity
• They will both pull on the • One will pull the electron pair closer to its end polar (Figure
polar (Figure
polar
3.89). These
(Figure
3.89). molecules
These
3.89). molecules
These
all have
molecules
all
an have
overall
an
all
These molecules all have an overall dipole moment, and the arrow
overall
have
dipole an overall
dipole
moment, moment,
dipole moment,
electrons to the same extent • It will be slightly more negative than average, δ- and the and
arrow
theindicates
indicates arrow
and theindicates
the
arrow
the direction direction
of indicates
thedipole
the direction
of the direction
dipole
moment.of themoment.
dipole
of themoment.
dipole moment.
• The electrons will be equally • The other will be slightly less negative, or more
shared positive, δ+
• A dipole is formed and the bond is said to be
polar
• Greater electronegativity difference = greater
polarity

6 8
Saying
momen
Although Although
individual
Although
individual
bonds individual
may
bondsbemay polar,
bonds
bethe
may
polar,
overall
bethe
polar,
overall
molecule
the molecule
overall molecule
saying t
may bemay non-polar
be may
non-polar
if,beowing
non-polar
if, to
owing
theif,symmetry
to
owing
the symmetry
to of
thethe
symmetry
molecule,
of the molecule,
ofthe
the molecule,
the the
BILAL HAMEED INTERMOLECULAR FORCES dipole moments
dipole moments
BILAL HAMEED dipole
of themoments
individual
of the individual
of bonds
the individual
cancel
bonds out.
cancel
bonds out.
cancel out.
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
www.youtube.com/megalecture www.youtube.com/megalecture
CO2 is aCO non-polar
2 is aCO
non-polar
2molecule.
is a non-polar
molecule.
Each C–O
molecule.
Eachbond
C–OEach
is bond
polar,
C–O isbecause
polar,
bond because
isoxygen
polar, because
oxygen oxygen
is more iselectronegative
more electronegative
is more than
electronegative
carbon,
than carbon,
butthan
overall
but
carbon,
the
overall
dipoles
butthe
overall
cancel
dipoles
thesocancel
dipoles
that socancel
that so that
 wo atoms to the ionic character of a bond. He suggested twothat an to the ionic character
atoms
Examiner’s tip
of a bond. He suggested that an Examiner’s tip The intermolecu
electronegativity difference of 1.7 corresponded to 50% electronegativity If asked about this, assume
ionic character indifference of 1.7 corresponded to 50% ionic character in If asked about this, assume dipole–permane
a bond and reasoned that a greater electronegativity difference
a bond than this
and reasoned that the
that a greater bonding between
electronegativity difference than this that the bonding between
corresponded to a structure that wasOnlinemoreClasses
ionic than covalent, whereas
corresponded twowas
to a structure that elements is ionic
more ionic thanif covalent,
the whereas two elements is ionic if the means that the b
: Megalecture@gmail.com Online Classes : Megalecture@gmail.com
f the difference is less than that the bonding is more covalent
if253 than
the diff diffthe
ionic.is less than that
erence erence is more
bonding than covalent
is more 1.7, than ionic. difference is more than 2541.7, That we simp
This is a useful idea, but it must be used with great caution.
ThisForis a instance,
useful idea, but it mustandbecovalent if the
used with diffcaution.
great erence isFor instance, and covalent if the difference is
KI (electronegativity difference 1.7) would come out ofKI this(electronegativity
discussion less1.7)
difference than 1.7. come out of this discussion
would less than 1.7. intermolecular fo
as having 50% ionic and 50% covalent character, and NaIas (diff erence
having 50% ionic and 50% covalent character, and NaI (difference can be seen if we
of 1.6) would appear to be mostly covalent,POLAR
whereas bothof 1.6)
behave
MOLECULES would
as appear to be mostly covalent, whereas both behave as NON-POLAR MOLECULES
predominantly ionic compounds. Pauling, in his originalpredominantly
discussion of ionic compounds. Pauling, in his original discussion of
his, was actually referring to diatomic molecules and not this,
to was actually referring to diatomic molecules and not to macroscopic
macroscopic In contrast, a molecule containing polar bonds may be either polar or non-
compounds. compounds. δ+ polar depending on the relative arrangement of the bonds and any lone pairs
ofCCl4 is non-polar,
CCl but CHCl
4 isCCl
non-polar, is polar
3but CHCl (Figure 3.90).
3 isCHCl
polar (Figure 3.90).
CHCl3 δ+ NH3 Cl
δ+ δ- Examiner’s tip
electrons, e.g. 4 is non-polar, but 3 is polar.
H δ- δ- O
Examiner’s tip
C
N
Examination answer as toanswer
Examination why as to why
The electronegativity difference
C
between
Cl
δ- two atoms The electronegativity
covalently bonded
H difference between two
CClatoms
ClCCl4 is non-polar: covalently
4 is ‘although
non-polar: bonded
‘although
Cl δ+ δ+
Cl
H
together results in the electrons each more
lying individual bond
towards
each is polar
one
individual atom
bond than
is polarthe
ogether results in the electrons lyingδ- more towards one
δ- δ- δ+ atomδ+than δ+the
H
δ- COCl δ+

other. We call such a bond polar. due2

to the diff
However, due erence
to the in
whether diff
an erence
overall inmolecule is
other. We call such a bond polar. However, whether an overall molecule is electronegativity of the atoms,
electronegativity of the atoms,
polar also depends on the shape of the molecule. polar also depends on the shape of the molecule.
because of the symmetry
because of the of the
symmetry of the
For a molecule to be polar it must have a positive end For a molecule to be polar it must
to the have the
molecule a positive
dipoles the
molecule
end to the
cancel’.
dipoles cancel’. Explain why BrF has a higher boiling
molecule and a negative end. For instance, HCl, NHmolecule and a negative end. For instance, HCl, NH3 and H2O are all
3 and H2O are all
polar (Figure 3.89). These molecules all have an overall dipole moment,
polar (Figure 3.89). These molecules all have an overall dipole moment,
point than ClBr, despite ClBr having Br2 is the only
and the arrow indicates the direction of the dipole moment.
and the arrow indicates the direction of the dipole moment. the greater relative molecular mass.
11
boiling point as
9
Some polarSome
and non-polar
polar and molecules
non-polar are shown in
molecules areTable
shown3.12.
in Table 3.12.
therefore, stronge
Dipole moment
Dipoleis moment
the product
is theof product
the of the
charge and charge
the distance between
and the distancethe between the
charges. The unit isThe
charges. the debye
unit is (D).
the debye (D).

Cis-1,2-dichloro
This will
Saying that also be discussed
a molecule has a dipole on pages isomers – they d
Saying that a molecule has a dipole moment is just another way of
NON-POLAR Although
MOLECULESindividual bonds may be
moment polar,
is just the overall
another way of molecule 487–491. DIPOLE MOMENTS C=C (Figure 3.9
Although individual bonds may be polar, the overallmay molecule saying that it is polar.
be non-polar if, owing tothat
saying the itsymmetry
is polar. of the molecule, the
Although individual bonds may be polar,
may be non-polar if, owing to the symmetry of the dipole the overall
molecule, molecule
the of the individual bonds cancel out.
moments
dipole momentsmay
of be
thenon-polar if, owing
individual bondstocancel
the symmetry
out. of the molecule, 13 Arrange 13theArrange
following
theatoms in order
following of in order of 15 Sort the
atoms 15following
Sort themolecules
following into polar and
molecules into polar and
the dipole moments of the individual bonds cancel out.
CO2 is a non-polar molecule. Each electronegativity
C–O bond (smallest
is polar, first):
because
electronegativity oxygen
(smallest first): non-polar molecules. For the polar
non-polar molecules. Formolecule
the polar molecule
CO2 is a non-polar molecule. Each C–O bond is polar,
is because
more
CO2 is a non-polar molecule. Each C–O bond is polar, oxygen
electronegative than carbon, Cl overall
but O Clthe Hdipoles
O Brcancel
H NasoBrthat Na draw diagrams
draw showing theshowing
diagrams dipoles.the dipoles.
s more electronegative thanoxygen
because carbon,isbut overall
more the dipoles
electronegativetherecancel
is no
than so thatbutdipole moment 14
overall
carbon, andSelect the
14 polar
Selectmolecules
the molecule isthe polar from
non-polar. from the following XeF6
the following
molecules XeF
XeF46 SF
XeF
4 4 PCl
SF45 SF
PCl2 5 SF2
list. For the polar molecules, draw diagrams SF6 ClF
SF BrF
ClF SOCl
BrF SOCl
here is no overall overall
dipole moment andcancel
the dipoles the molecule is non-polar.
so that there isBF is also non-polar.
no3 overall dipole
list. For the polar
Again, each individual bond is polar but the molecules, draw diagrams 65 35 3 2 2
showing theshowing
dipoles.the dipoles.
BF3 is also non-polar. Again, each individual bond
moment and the molecule is non-polar.
is polar but
dipoles the
cancel.
HBr HCN
HBr PH3
HCN SCl
PH23 CF
SCl4 2 CF4
dipoles cancel.
BF3 is also non-polar. Again, each individual bond is polar but
N OCl
2 N2 2 O OCl32 BCl O3 3 C Cl BCl
2 32 C2Cl2 Both molecul
H2S CH
H22SCl2 CH2Cl2
the dipoles cancel. except that one
the boiling poin
10 12
interactions in th
UnderstandUnderstand
how intermolecular
how intermolecular
forces ariseforces arise
UnderstandUnderstand
how physical how physical Br2 is a liquid
Br2atis room
a liquid temperature. It consists of
at room temperature. It discrete
consists molecules
of discrete in
molecules in
properties of covalentof
properties molecular which the two
covalent molecular which Br the
atomstwoareBrjoined
atoms byareajoined
covalent
by bond (an intramolecular
a covalent bond (an intramolecular
BILAL HAMEED INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
substances depend on depend
substances the on theBILALforce).
HAMEED if Br2 isBut
But force). to if
beBra 2liquid, there
is to be must there
a liquid, be some forces
must be some INTERMOLECULAR
between
forces between Hydrogen bondi
FORCES
molecules holding them in thethemliquid
in state (otherwise it would beitawould
gas). be a gas).
intermolecular
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Predict relative
forces
intermolecular
boiling
forces
points These forces
of points of
molecules holding
are intermolecular
These
the liquid
forces (Figure
forces are intermolecular
state (otherwise
www.youtube.com/megalecture
3.91).
forces (Figure 3.91).
responsible for ic
Predict relative boiling
substances substances There are various
There aretypes of intermolecular
various forces.The forces.
types of intermolecular main type
Thebetween
main type between DNA, it helps m
non-polar atoms/molecules is the van der
non-polar atoms/molecules Waals’
is the van derforce. Van der
Waals’ Waals’
force. Van der Waals’
ethanol is soluble
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255 256

SKILL CHECK 1 SKILL CHECK 3

Decide whether the following bonds are polar or non-polar. if the Predict whether each of the following molecules is polar:
bond is polar, state which is the δ+ atom, and explain whether or not
the molecule is polar: a. CO2 b. BrCl c. SCl2 d. CS2

A C-O as in CO2
B C-I as in CH3I
Using the shapes drawn on slide 48 to 51, predict whether each of the
following molecules is polar:
a. CF4 b. Cl2O c. PF3 d. NCl3 e. SiCl4 f. SO3

13 15

SKILL CHECK 2 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

Predict which of the following bonds are polar, and, if polar, in which Intermolecular forces are weak attractive forces between molecules.
direction the electrons are pulled: These forces determine such properties as the solubility of one substance in
a. O—S b. Cl—Cl c. C—N d. I—Cl another and the freezing and boiling points of liquids.
Without intermolecular forces there could be no molecular liquids or solids.

Predict whether each of the following molecules is polar:

a. BCl3 b. HCl c. NH3 d. SiCl4

14 16

BILAL HAMEED INTERMOLECULAR FORCES BILAL HAMEED INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

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257 258

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES VAN DER WAALS’ FORCES DUE TO PERMANENT DIPOLES

Weak intermolecular forces arise from electrostatic attractions between

dipoles, including attractions between:

• Molecules with permanent dipoles such as hydrogen chloride

• A permanent dipole in one molecule and a dipole induced in a
Because of the molecule,
neighbouring electronegativity difference
such as the attraction between between
iodine andH and Cl, the H–Cl
molecule is polar.
water

•vanTemporary
der Waals’ forces
dipoles are present
are created fleetingly between
in non-polar the atomsmolecules
or in HCl(l) but,
molecules
owing to the polarity of the molecules, there are also other intermolecular
forces present (Figure 3.96). These are called permanent dipole–
17 19

permanent dipole interactions, or usually just dipole–dipole attractions.

The intermolecular forces between molecules, which are polar
(permanent dipole–permanent dipole interactions as well as van der Waals’
forces) are stronger than between non-polar molecules (only van der All other things being equal:
Waals’ forces), all other things being equal. this basically means that we should
VAN DER WAALS’ FORCES DUE TO PERMANENT DIPOLES
In general, all other things being equal, these permanent dipole VAN DER WAALS’ compare compounds
FORCES with relative
IN NON-POLAR MOLECULES

interactions
Van der Waal’swould betoexpected
forces due to cause
permanent dipoles meltingbetween
are interactions molecular
points and boiling pointsIntermolecular forces also existmasses as molecules.
in non-polar similar Van
as der Waal’s forces
to polar molecules - the positive end of one molecule attracts the negative
be higher for polar molecules. possible.
due to induced dipoles are the intermolecular attraction resulting from the
end of a neighbouring molecule. uneven distribution of electrons and the creation of temporary dipoles.
If we compare propane and ethanal, both have a relative molecular mass Because electrons move quickly in

of 44 and therefore the strength of van der Waals’ forces should be similar.orbitals, their position is constantly
changing; at Ifanymolecules
H Cl
with similar relative
given instant they
However, ethanal is a Hpolar
Cl H Cl
molecule H Clhas dipole–dipole interactions as
and could be anywhere in an atom.
δ+ δ- δ+ δ- δ+ δ- δ+ δ-
molecular masses are compared,
well as van der Waals’ forces. The intermolecular forces between moleculesThe possibility will exist that one side
polar molecules have higher
δ- δ- δ-
Cl Cl Cl
van der Waal’s forces
of ethanal are therefore stronger than between propane molecules and will have more electrons than the other.
C
Cl δ- C
Cl δ- C
Cl δ- melting and boiling points than
ethanal has a significantly higher boiling point (more energy must be
H
δ+ Cl
H
δ+ Cl H
δ+ Cl This will give rise to a dipole.
δ- δ- δ-
non-polar molecules.
supplied to break the forces between molecules): 18 20

BILAL HAMEED INTERMOLECULAR FORCES BILAL HAMEED INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

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 Chapter 11: Condensing Particles: Solids, Liquids, and Solutions 101
In addition to the relatively weak forces described above, ionic and covalent bonds
(discussed in detail in Chapter 5) are strong forces that greatly affect the melting point
Online Classes : Megalecture@gmail.com of a compound:
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259 260 a major source of
! In ionic solids, ionic bonds (electrostatic interactions) provide
attraction between particles. These types of solids tend to be hard but brittle (the
ionic lattice can crack) and have very high melting points. Lattice energy is a measure
of the strength of the interactions between ions in the lattice of an ionic solid. The
larger the lattice energy, the stronger the ion-ion interactions.
! In covalent solids, particles are bound to each other within strong networks of covalent
VAN DER WAALS’ FORCES DUE TO INDUCED DIPOLES VAN DER WAALS’ FORCES DUE TO INDUCED DIPOLES
bonds. These solids are often exceptionally hard and have very high melting points.

Consider liquid argon. The electrons in an atom are in constant motion, and at any one
time the electrons will not be symmetrically distributed about the nucleus. Figure 11-2: a) b) Attraction c) Electrons b.p. / oC
− δ−
Inter-
+ δ+ − δ+ δ+
This results in a temporary (instantaneous) dipole in the atom, which will induce an molecular eδ- e− δ+ δ+ NOBLE GASES
− δ-
interactions
+
2+ δ- 2+ δ− hydrogen bond
opposite dipole in a neighbouring atom. include e − δ+
e−
He 2 -269
− + δ+
(a) dipole- van der Waal’s forces Ne 10 -246
These dipoles will attract each other so that there is an attractive force between atoms. dipole inter- − + due to induced dipoles dipoles
actions, induced Ar 18 -186
(b) London + −
Although the dipoles are constantly disappearing and dispersion Kr 36 -152
+ −
forces, and ALKANES
reappearing, the overall force between the argon (c) hydrogen Attraction δ− δ+ δ− δ+
atoms is always attractive, because a dipole always bonds. Repulsion CH4 10 -161

induces an opposite one. C2H6 18 -88

C3H8 26 -42

Moving Through States with Phase Diagrams

21 23
The previous sections described how microscopic interactions between particles can lead to
large-scale differences in the properties of a sample, especially by causing the sample to be
in different states (solid, liquid, or gas). This section describes some tools you can use to
track the state of a sample as it moves through different regions of temperature, pressure, or
added heat energy.

Phases and phase diagrams

Each state (solid, liquid, gas) is called a phase. When matter moves from one phase to another
due to changes in temperature and/or pressure, that matter is said to undergo a phase transi-
molecular mass also increases, and we normally talk about ‘an increase in the tion. The way a particular substance moves through states as temperature and pressure vary is
er Waals’ forces VAN DER WAALS’ FORCES DUE TO INDUCED DIPOLES
strength of van der Waals’ forces as the relative molecular mass increases’.
EXAMPLES OF VAN DER WAAL’S
summarized by a phase diagram. Phase diagrams usually display pressure on the vertical axis
and temperature on the horizontal axis. Lines drawn within the temperature-pressure field of
he relative the diagram represent the equilibrium boundaries between phases. A representative phase dia-
A clear correlation between boiling point and relative molecular/ BOILING
ncreases. In general, van der Waals’ forces get stronger as the number of electrons in a gram is shown in FigurePOINTS
11-3. ReferOF HYDRIDES
back OF
to this figure as GROUP 14
you read through the section.
atomic mass can be seen down group 7 (blue line) and down group 0 (red
molecule increases.
line) in Figure 3.94. As the number of electrons increases, the relative molecular to gas is called boiling, and the temperature at which boiling occurs is
Moving from liquid 100
mass also increases, resulting in an increase in the strength of van der Waals’ forces. called the boiling point. The normal boiling point is when this transition occurs at 1 atmos-
phere of pressure. Moving from solid topoints
The boiling liquid is
ofcalled melting,increase
the hydrides and the temperature at which
with increasing number of
melting occurs is called the melting point. The melting point temperature is the same as the
electrons. CH4 has the lowest boiling point as it is the smallest molecule.
freezing point temperature, but freezing implies matter moving from liquid to solid phase.
The melting point a substance has at 1atm pressure is called the normal melting point. Just

BOILING POINT / C°
as freezing and melting points are the same, condensation points and boiling points are the
0
same temperature. For this reason published 50 tables are of100
freezing points
140 and boiling points.
Mr

PbH4

SiH4 GeH4 Larger molecules have more electrons and

therefore have greater intermolecular forces and
therefore higher boiling points.
-160 CH4

22 24

Consider group 7: fluorine (Mr 38.00) is a gas at room temperature,

but iodine (Mr 253.80) is a solid. This is because there are more electrons
in an iodine molecule, and the atoms making up the molecule are larger.
More electrons means that the temporary dipoles will be larger with INTERMOLECULAR
BILAL HAMEED
more FORCES BILAL HAMEED INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
electrons moving around. The larger atoms in the molecule means that
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the outer electrons will be less strongly held, and therefore the induced www.youtube.com/megalecture
dipoles will also be larger.
Care must, however, be exercised when using this rule of thumb. If the
st useful when above data for group 7 and group 0 are plotted together against relative
 from the increase in the strength of van der Waals’ forces as the relative
molecular mass increases.
H2O has, however, a much higher boiling point than would be
expected from its relative molecular mass. This suggests that there must
be intermolecular forces other than van der Waals’ forces between H2O There is mo
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molecules :and
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that these intermolecular forces are stronger than van der
between dip
261 262
Waals’ forces. These extra intermolecular forces between H2O molecules
to a very ele
are called hydrogen bonds. A hydrogen bond between two water molecules
the electron
is shown in Figure 3.98. strongly fro
an interactio
Let us compare the boiling points of the hydrides of group 6 elements: It is important to realise that, although hydrogen bonding is the density of th
HYDRIDES OF GROUP 16 HYDROGEN BONDING
strongest of the intermolecular forces, it is much weaker than in one mole
covalent bonding. in a differen
Strong hydrogen bonds can form with a hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to a directiona
bonds. If th
very electronegative atoms in the upper-right part of the periodic table: nitrogen, dipole–dipo
Hydrogen bonding occurs between molecules when a very
oxygen, and fluorine. electronegative atom (N, O, F) is joined to a hydrogen atom in the electronega
molecule. The electronegative atom withdraws electron density from the expected to
Let us compare the boiling points of the hydrides of group 6 elements: When a hydrogen atom bonds to an atom of N, O, or F, the hydrogen atom has a bonding, bu
H, polarising the bond such that there is a strong interaction between the
large, partially positive charge. + H and the − atom (N, O, F) on the other molecule. be explaine
more diffus
The hydrogen bonding between ammonia molecules and hydrogen
The partially positive hydrogen atom interacting
fluorideofmolecules
polar molecules
is shown incan be 3.99.
Figure attracted to the
unshared pairs of electrons of neighbouring molecules.

The requ
are that
a very el
O, F – w
one lone
25 27

The boiling point increases from H2S to H2Te, as would be expected

from the increase in the strength of van der Waals’ forces as the relative
The boiling point increases from H2S to H2Te, as would be expected
molecular mass increases. from the increase in the strength of van der Waals’ forces as the relative
H2O has, however, a much higher boiling molecular
point than masswould
increases.be
H2O has, however, a much higher boiling point than would be
expected from its relative molecular mass. This suggests that there must
expected from its relative molecular mass. ThisThere suggestsisthat there to
more must
hydrogen bonding
be intermolecular forces other than van der Waals’ forces between
be intermolecular forces other O van der Waals’ forces
H2than between H2O There is more to hydrogen bonding
than just an electrostatic interaction
than just an electrostatic interaction
molecules and that these intermolecular forces are stronger
molecules and that than van der forces are stronger than van der
these intermolecular
HYDROGEN Waals’ forces. These extra intermolecular forcesbetween between Hdipoles. When Hbetween
is attacheddipoles. When H is attached
Waals’ forces. These extra intermolecularBONDING
forces between H2O molecules 2O molecules
to a very electronegative atom, HYDROGEN BONDING
are called hydrogen bonds. A hydrogen bond between to a verytwo electronegative
water molecules atom,
the electron density is pulled away
are called hydrogen bonds. A hydrogen bond between two water
is shown in Figure 3.98. molecules
the electron density is pulled One away
stronglyreason
from thethat hydrogen
H. There is then bonds are such strong forces is because the
is shown in Figure 3.98. HO 100
2
strongly from the H. There an is
interaction
then atom between the electron
It is important to realise that, although hydrogen bonding is the hydrogen
density of the lone pair on N, O and
is small or F has only one electron.
an interaction between the electron
in one molecule and the H nucleus
The higher than strongest of the intermolecular forces, it is much weaker than
It is important to realise that, although hydrogen covalentbonding
bonding. is the density of the lone pair on in N,
When Oerent
a diff or molecule.
that Felectron is pulled
There is thus away by a highly electronegative atom, there
expected boiling in one molecule and the are a directional
H nucleus component to hydrogen
BOILING POINT / C°

strongest of the intermolecularHF forces, it is much weaker than

0
no more electrons
bonds. If the interaction were purely
under it. Thus, the single proton of the hydrogen
points of NHbonding.
covalent 3, H2O 50 100 in a different molecule. There
140
Mr
is thus
dipole–dipole,
nucleus Cl, with theexposed.
is partially same
HydrogenGROUPbonding
VI occurs between molecules when a very
and HF are due to electronegative atom GROUP a directional
(N,V O, F) isHI joined to a hydrogen atom incomponent
the to hydrogen as N, would also be
electronegativity
NH3 HS 2
molecule. The electronegative atom
GROUP VII withdrawsbonds.
electronIfdensity
the interaction
from the expected
were
As to participate
purely
a result, in hydrogen
hydrogen’s proton is strongly attracted to the lone pair of
intermolecular bonding, but it does not. This could
H, polarising the bond such PbH4 that there is a strong interaction between
dipole–dipole, Cl, the the
with same
Hydrogen bonding occurs between moleculesHCl when a very electrons
be explained of
by other
the molecules.
higher energy and The combination of the large
HYDROGEN + H andHBr the − atom (N, O, F) on the other molecule.
electronegative atom (N, O, F) is joined to a hydrogen atom in the
GROUP IV electronegativity as N, would more also
diffusebe lone pair on the Cl not
BONDING The hydrogen bonding between ammonia molecules and hydrogen electronegative difference (high polarity) and hydrogen’s small size
the 3.99. expected to participate inaccounts hydrogen
PH 3 interacting effectively with the H.
molecule. The electronegative atom withdraws electron
fluoride GeH
density
molecules from
is shown in Figure
4

H, polarising the bond such that thereSiHis a strong interaction between the
-160
4 bonding, but it does not. This couldfor the strength of the hydrogen bond.
+ H and the − atom (N, O,CHF) on the other molecule. be explained by the higher energy and
26 4
more diffuse lone pair on the TheCl not
requirements for H bonding 28
The hydrogen bonding between ammonia molecules and hydrogen are that the H atom is attached to
interacting effectively with the H.
fluoride molecules is shown in Figure 3.99. a very electronegative atom – N,
O, F – which possesses at least
one lone pair of electrons.

BILAL HAMEED INTERMOLECULAR FORCES BILAL HAMEED INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

The requirements for H bonding
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a very electronegative atom – N,
O, F – which possesses at least
one lone pair of electrons.
 There is no hydrogen bonding between molecules of CH3CH2F, as the
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263 264

CH3OCH3 is an ether with the structure shown in Figure 3.100. It is a

polar molecule, but there is no hydrogen bonding between molecules.
EXAMPLES OF HYDROGEN BONDING
The hydrogen bonding between some molecules of ethanol is shown in SOLUBILITY
Figure 3.101. Pentane does not dissolve in water because there is hydrogen bonding
The cis form has a lower melting point, because as well as intermolecular
hydrogen bonding it is also able to participate in intramolecular hydrogen between water molecules.
bonding (Figure 3.102). This means that there is less hydrogen bonding
between molecules andethanol
that the intermolecular forces are weaker than in If pentane were to dissolve in water there would be van der Waals’ forces
Substanceshydrogen
the trans form. The trans form participates only in intermolecular that are able to
n influence Ethanol (C2H5OH) is very soluble in water, because ethanol is able to
bonding, as the COOH groups are further away fromparticipate
each other; in
thehydrogen bonding between water molecules and pentane. The energy released if van der Waals’
ances in will generally be soluble in water, hydrogen bond to the water (Figure 3.105). The hydrogen bonding
intermolecular forces are therefore stronger in the trans form.
cules that are as they are able to hydrogen bond between water and ethanol molecules in the solution releases energy and forces were to form between water molecules and pentane molecules would not
d are soluble to the water. pays back the energy to break theacid
hydrogen bonds in pure water and pure
but-2-ene-1,4-dioic pay back the energy required to break the hydrogen bonds between water
discussed ethanol.
Only intermolecular forces are broken when covalent molecular
molecules, as hydrogen bonds are stronger than van der Waals’ forces
Consider
substances arethe cis andortrans
melted forms
boiled – of butenedioic
covalent bondsacid:
are not broken.

ethanol inuence
water Octan-1-ol is insoluble in water. Although there is some hydrogen
We have looked at several factors that infl the strength of The stronger the intermolecular
bonding between the O–H group of the alcohol and the water molecules,
intermolecular forces and hence the melting and boiling points of forces, the more energy must be chain prevents water molecules on either side from
the long hydrocarbon
covalent substances. Now let us consider all the above points together supplied to hydrogen
break them and theto each other (Figure 3.106). Energy is needed to
bonding
with some examples. higher the boiling point.
break the hydrogen bonds between the water molecules, but this is not
paid back as only van der Waals’ forces form between the water molecules
Intermolecular forces increase in strength as: 29
and the hydrocarbon part of the molecule. 31
van der Waals’ forces < permanent dipole–dipole < hydrogen bonding
WEAKEST STRONGEST
Relative molecular mass –
If relative molecular masses are approximately equal, then the boiling generally substances with higher
points usually go in the order shown in Table 3.13. relative molecular masses have
higher melting points and boiling
points due to stronger van der
Waals’ forces.

SOLUBILITY SOLUBILITY
Generally a substance will dissolve in a solvent if the intermolecular forces in the solute Ethanol (C2H5OH) is very soluble in water, because ethanol is able to form
and solvent are similar. E.g. pentane is readily soluble in hexane but not in water. hydrogen bonds with the water.
Compare the
Theboiling points of
amount of sulfur,
energy chlorine and argon.
required to break the van der Waals’ forces in pure hexane and Substances that are able to
The hydrogen bonding between water andinethanol
participate moleculesEthanol
hydrogen bonding in the (C2H5OH) is very soluble in water, beca
pure pentane is paid back when van der Waals’ forces are formed between the
Sulfur, chlorine and argon are all non-polar substances, and therefore the strongest intermolecular forces are van will generally be soluble in water, hydrogen bond to the water (Figure 3.105). The
molecules
der Waals’ forces. of hexane
Any difference betweenand
thesepentane
substances is thus due to the strength of van der Waals’ forces, solution releases energy and pays back
as they the energy
are able to break
to hydrogen bond the hydrogen
between water and ethanol molecules in the solu
which is affected by relative molecular mass (relative atomic mass for argon). Sulfur forms S8 molecules with a to the water. pays back the energy to break the hydrogen bond
bonds in pure water and pure ethanol. ethanol.
relative molecular mass of 256.48; Cl2 has a relative molecular mass of 70.90; and Ar has a relative atomic
Consider themass of
dissolving of sodium chloride:
39.95. Therefore the boiling point of sulfur would be expected to be highest, as S8 has a greater relative molecular
‘+ water’
mass and therefore stronger van der Waals’ forces than Cl2 and Ar. More energy is thus required to break the
NaCl(s) NaCl(aq)
intermolecular forces in sulfur than to break the intermolecular forces in chlorine and the interatomic forces in Ar. + −
Chlorine would be expected to have a higher boiling point than Ar, again due to the greater mass and the stronger contains aqueous ions (Na (aq) and Cl (aq)).
The aqueous solution
ethanol in water Octan-1-ol is insoluble in water. Although there
van der Waals’ forces. Ion–dipole interactions form between the water and the ions (Figure bonding between the O–H group of the alcohol
3.107). Energy is required to break the electrostatic forces in the ionic the long hydrocarbon chain prevents water molec
lattice but energy is released when hydrated ions are formed. If the energy hydrogen bonding to each other (Figure 3.106).
released when the hydrated ions are formed is comparable to the energy break the hydrogen bonds between the water mo
required to break apart the lattice then the substance is generally soluble. paid back as only van der Waals’ forces form betw
30 32 and the hydrocarbon part of the molecule.

BILAL HAMEED INTERMOLECULAR FORCES BILAL HAMEED INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

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 as they are able to hydrogen bond
to the water. pays back the energy to break the hydrogen bonds in pure water and pure
ethanol.

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Octan-1-ol is insoluble in water. Although there is some hydrogen
bonding265
between the O–H group of the alcohol and the water molecules, 266
the long hydrocarbon chain prevents water molecules on either side from
hydrogen bonding to each other (Figure 3.106). Energy is needed to
break the hydrogen bonds between the water molecules, but this is not
paid back as only van der Waals’ forces form between the water molecules
SOLUBILITY
and the hydrocarbon part of the molecule. SKILL CHECK 5
Octan-1-ol is insoluble in water. Although State all the forces operating between molecules of:
there is some hydrogen bonding between
the O–H group of the alcohol and the (a) ammonia, NH3
water molecules, the long hydrocarbon
(b) methane, CH4
chain prevents water molecules on either
side from hydrogen bonding to each (c) oxygen fluoride, OF2
other.

Energy is needed to break the hydrogen

bonds between the water molecules, but
this is not paid back as only van der Waals’
forces form between the water molecules
and the hydrocarbon part of the molecule.
33 35

Consider the dissolving of sodium chloride:

‘+ water’
NaCl(s) NaCl(aq)

The aqueous solution contains aqueous ions (Na+(aq) and Cl−(aq)).

Ion–dipole interactions form between the water and the ions (Figure
3.107). Energy is required to break the electrostatic forces in the ionic
lattice but energy is released when hydrated ions are formed. If the energy
released when the hydrated ions are formed is comparable to the energy
SKILL CHECK 4
required to break apart the lattice then the substance is generally soluble. HYDROGEN BONDING IN ICE
Explain why, in comparison with the other group 6 hydrides, water has • Each water molecule is hydrogen-bonded to 4
an anomalous boiling temperature. others in a tetrahedral formation

• Ice has a “diamond-like” structure

• Volume is larger than the liquid making it less
dense

• When ice melts, the structure collapses slightly

and the molecules come closer; they then move a
little further apart as they get more energy as they
warm up
Hydrogen bonding
This is why water has a maximum density at 4°C and Lone pair
ice floats.

34 36

BILAL HAMEED INTERMOLECULAR FORCES BILAL HAMEED INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

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 Group 17

boiling poin
0 group
NH3 H2Se SbH3
H2S H
AsH3
–50 Figure 3.53 Boiling points of the hydrides of
Group 15 HCl HBr Groups 14SnH
to 17
4 150
03_52 Cam/Chem AS&A2
–100 PH3
GeH4
H2O
Barking Dog Art
Group 14 SiH4 100
–150
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CH4 267 50
HF
268
–200

boiling point/°C
Group 17 H2Te
2 3 4 5
0
period NH3 H2Se SbH3
H2S H
AsH3
gure 3.54 Thymine, adenine, cytosine –50
Group 15 HCl HBr SnH4
nd guanine are bases in DNA. The hydrogen 03_53 Cam/Chem AS&A2
PH3
onding between them allows the DNA
olecule to replicate (make new copies of
self) and also allows the genetic code to be
Barking Dog Art HYDROGEN BONDING IN DNA –100
Group 14 SiH4
GeH4
SKILL CHECK 7
xpressed in the synthesis of proteins. –150

–200
CH4 Which types of intermolecular forces can exist between adjacent urea
C O N N O 2 3 4
N
C
N
C period
molecules? 5
C C C C C C C C

N NFigure 3.54 Thymine, adenine, cytosine

C N N C C N N C
and guanine are bases in DNA. The hydrogen 03_53 Cam/Chem AS&A2
to DNA bondingto DNA
between them allows the DNA
N C C N N C C N chainto replicate (make new copies of
chain molecule Barking Dog Art
itself) and also allows the genetic code to be
O to DNA O N
o DNA expressed in the synthesis of proteins.
hain chain
cytosine guanine
thymine adenine
N
A hydrogen bonding
C O N N O N
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C C
C C C C C C C C
B permanent dipole-dipole forces
N N
C N N C C N N C
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g Dog Art
N
30/09/14 5:52 PM
C C N
to DNA
chain
N C C N C temporary
to DNA
chain induced dipole-dipole forces
O to DNA O N
to DNA
chain chain
thymine adenine cytosine guanine

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66

Remember that proteins are

made up of a specific sequence
of amino acids (called the
primary structure). This sequence
gives the protein its shape and
therefore its function, and it is
the sequence of nucleotide
bases within each gene that
dictates the primary structure
of the protein produced. In
other words, the information
for the structure of each protein
is carried in the sequence of
nucleotide bases within the
particular gene.
What is involved when a hydrogen bond is formed between two
molecules?
Translation is the process of
A a hydrogen atom bonded to an atom less electronegative than itself
protein synthesis in which the
code held in the sequence of
bases of the mRNA is translated
B a lone pair of electrons
into the sequence of amino acids
(primary structure) of the protein.
03_54 Cam/Chem AS&A2 66
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Barking Dog Art
protein. It is these proteins produced by the cell that carry out the
thousands of biochemical processes that are responsible for life.
For a cell to produce a protein, the gene must first undergo a process
called transcription. This occurs in the nucleus, and the first step in this
process is the unwinding and separation of the two strands of DNA on
which the gene is situated. In a similar manner to DNA replication, this
exposes the nucleotide bases of the gene and allows the bases on one of
SKILL CHECK 6
the DNA strands to be used as a template.
Transcription differs to DNA replication, however, in that only one
strand of DNA is used as a template and the complementary strand
produced is a ribonucleic acid called messenger RNA (mRNA). The
complementary strand of mRNA is built up through complementary
RNA nucleotides (called ribonucleotides) forming base pairs with
the exposed bases of the DNA template. Guanine pairs with cytosine
and adenine pairs with uracil (not thymine, as in DNA). As each
ribonucleotide comes in and forms a base pair, it is joined covalently to
the growing mRNA chain by a phosphodiester link. This results in the
production of a strand of mRNA that has the complementary sequence
of bases to the gene of the DNA template strand. This mRNA then leaves
the nucleus and enters the cytoplasm, where it takes part in the second
process to produce a protein, known as translation.

C an electrostatic attraction between opposite charges

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BILAL HAMEED INTERMOLECULAR FORCES BILAL HAMEED INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

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