A1 Chem Book 1 PDF

AS CHEMISTRY
BOOK 1
BILAL HAMEED
1
Contents
Atomic Structure 5
Atomic Structure WS 1 20
Electronic Configuration 67
Electronic Configuration WS 1 102
Periodic Trends 131

Periodic Trends WS 11 147
Periodic Trends WS 12 157
Covalent Bonding 177

Covalent Bonding WS 1 193
Shapes of Molecules 207

Shapes of Molecules WS 1 220
Intermolecular Forces 237

Intermolecular Forces WS 1 253
Data Booklet 231

3
Homework
Date Particulars
5
1 Atoms, molecules and stoichiometry

This topic illustrates how quantitative relationships can be established when
different substances react. (The term relative formula mass or Mr will be used for all
compounds including ionic.)
1.1 Relative masses of atoms and molecules
1.3 The determination of relative atomic masses, Ar
2 Atomic structure
2.1 Particles in the atom
2.2 The nucleus of the atom
Atomic Structure 
Atomic Structure
Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701 syllabus Syllabus content
 
Physical chemistry
1 Atoms, molecules and stoichiometry
This topic illustrates how quantitative relationships can be established when different substances react.
(The term relative formula mass or Mr will be used for all compounds including ionic.)
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1.1 Relative masses a) define and use the terms relative atomic, isotopic, molecular and
of atoms and formula masses, based on the 12C scale
molecules
1.2 The mole and the a) define and use the term mole in terms of the Avogadro constant
Avogadro constant
1.3 The determination a) analyse mass spectra in terms of isotopic abundances

of relative atomic (knowledge of the working of the mass spectrometer is not required)
masses, Ar b) calculate the relative atomic mass of an element given the relative
abundances of its isotopes, or its mass spectrum
1.4 The calculation a) define and use the terms empirical and molecular formula
of empirical and b) calculate empirical and molecular formulae, using combustion data or
molecular formulae composition by mass
1.5 Reacting masses a) write and construct balanced equations

and volumes (of b) perform calculations, including use of the mole concept, involving:
solutions and gases)
(i) reacting masses (from formulae and equations)
(ii) volumes of gases (e.g. in the burning of hydrocarbons)
(iii) volumes and concentrations of solutions
When performing calculations, candidates’ answers should reflect the
number of significant figures given or asked for in the question. When
rounding up or down, candidates should ensure that significant figures
are neither lost unnecessarily nor used beyond what is justified (see also
Practical Assessment, Paper 3, Display of calculation and reasoning on
page 52)
c) deduce stoichiometric relationships from calculations such as those in
1.5(b)
Back to contents page www.cie.org.uk/alevel 17

2 Atomic structure
This topic describes the type, number and distribution of the fundamental particles which make up an
atom and the impact of this on some atomic properties.
Learning outcomes
2.1 Particles in the atom a) identify and describe protons, neutrons and electrons in terms of their
relative charges and relative masses
b) deduce the behaviour of beams of protons, neutrons and electrons in
electric fields
c) describe the distribution of mass and charge within an atom
d) deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons present in both
atoms and ions given proton and nucleon numbers and charge
2.2 The nucleus of the a) describe the contribution of protons and neutrons to atomic nuclei in
atom terms of proton number and nucleon number
b) distinguish between isotopes on the basis of different numbers of
neutrons present
c) recognise and use the symbolism xy A for isotopes, where x is the nucleon
number and y is the proton number
2.3 Electrons: energy a) describe the number and relative energies of the s, p and d orbitals for
  levels, atomic the principal quantum numbers 1, 2 and 3 and also the 4s and 4p orbitals
orbitals, ionisation b) describe and sketch the shapes of s and p orbitals
energy, electron
c) state the electronic configuration of atoms and ions given the proton
affinity
number and charge, using the convention 1s22s22p6 , etc.
d) (i) explain and use the term ionisation energy
(ii) explain the factors influencing the ionisation energies of elements
(iii) explain the trends in ionisation energies across a Period and down a
Group of the Periodic Table (see also Section 9.1)
e) deduce the electronic configurations of elements from successive
ionisation energy data
f) interpret successive ionisation energy data of an element in terms of the
position of that element within the Periodic Table
g) explain and use the term electron affinity
18 www.cie.org.uk/alevel Back to contents page

8
of the atom itself. Eventually, Rutherford was able to chip away from this nucleus small
positively charged particles. He showed that these were also identical to each other, no
matter which element they came from. This positive particle is called the proton. It is
much heavier than the electron, having nearly the mass of the 9hydrogen atom.
1
erford (right) and
ratory at Manchester
They are seen with
used to detect and
are the nuclei of 1. 1 What we know about atoms
Atoms are mostly empty space!
Atoms have 2 charged particles:
Positively charged protons.
Negatively charged electrons.
Atoms have 1 uncharged particle called a neutron.
The total number of protons, neutrons and electrons in any one atom
Itdetermines
was another its
20 properties.
years before the last of the three sub-atomic particles, the neutron,
was discovered. Although its existence was first suspected in 1919, it was not until 1932
that James Chadwick eventually pinned it down. As its name suggests, the neutron is
electrically neutral, but it is relatively heavy, having about the same mass as a proton.
Scientists had therefore to change the earlier picture of the atom. In a sense the
picture had become more complicated, showing that atoms had an internal structure,
and were made up of other, smaller particles. But looked at in another way it had
become simpler – the 90 or so different types of atoms that are needed to make up
1. 2 Illustration of an atom
the various elements had been replaced by just three sub-atomic particles. It turns
out that these, in different amounts, make up the atoms of all the different elements.
of the atom in the
most of the volume

the nucleus is very small; of the atom is occupied
it contains the protons by the electrons
and the neutrons
21
02_02 Cam/Chem AS&A2
Barking Dog Art

21/10/14 9:22 AM
1. 3 Sub-atomic particles
Relative Relative
Mass / g Charge / C
mass charge
PROTON 1.672 x 10-24 1.602 x 10-19 1 +1
NEUTRON 1.675 x 10-24 0 1 0
ELECTRON 9.109 x 10-28 1.602 x 10-19 -1

1836
BilalHameed
Bilal Hameed Atomic structure Atomic Structure
10
2
1. 4 Example
Calculate the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
A neutral 12C atom has 6 protons, 6 neutrons, and 6 electrons.
Therefore, its mass is:
(6 x 1.672 x 10-24) + (6 x 1.675 x 10-24) + (6 x 9.109 x 10-28)
= 2.0089 x 10-23 g PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
2.2 The properties of the three

sub-atomic particles
Table 2.1 lists some of the properties of the three sub-atomic parti
Table 2.1 The properties of the sub-atomic
Property Electron Proton
particles. Note that the masses in the last row
1
are given relative to 12 the mass of an atom electrical charge/coulombs −1.6 × 10−19 +1.6 × 10−19
of carbon-12. These masses are often quoted charge (relative to that of the proton) −1 +1
relative to the mass of the proton instead,
when the relative mass of the electron is 1 , mass/g 9.11 × 10−28 1.673 × 10−
1. 5 Behaviour of particles in an electric
mass/amufield
and the relative masses of the proton and
(see section 1.4)
1836
5.485 × 10−4 1.007
neutron are both 1.
Because of their relative masses and charges, the three particles be
n
p+ an electric field, as shown in Figure 2.3. Neutrons are undeflected
neutral. Protons are attracted towards the negative pole, and elect
e– positive pole. If their initial velocities are the same, electrons are d
greater extent than protons because they are much lighter.
– +
The picture of the atom assembled from these observations is a
● Atoms are small, spherical structures with diameters ranging fro

3 × 10−10 m.
● The particles that contribute to the atom’s mass (protons and neu
within a very small central nucleus that has a diameter of about 1
● The electrons occupy the region around the nucleus. They are to b
inside the atom but outside the nucleus, which is almost the whole
● All the atoms of a particular element contain the same number o
equals the number of electrons within those atoms.
beam of particles ● The atoms of all elements except hydrogen also contain neutron
Figure 2.3 The behaviour of protons, nucleus along with the protons. Almost the only effect they hav
neutrons and electrons in an electric field of the atom is to increase its mass.

2.3 Isotopes
Barking Dog Art
At the same time as Rutherford and his team were finding out abo
the nucleus, it was discovered that some elements contained atom
masses, but identical chemical properties.
1. 6 Isotopes These atoms were given the name isotopes, since they occupy
place (topos) in the Periodic Table. The first isotopes to be discove
of the unstable radioactive element thorium. (Thorium is element
Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons and electrons but
Periodic Table.) In 1913, however, Thomson was able to show tha
different number of neutrons.
obtained from liquid air contained atoms with a relative atomic m
as those with the usual relative atomic mass of 20. These heavier n
They have the same atomic number but different massstable,
number.
unlike the thorium isotopes. Many other elements contain i

which are listed in Table 2.2.
Chemical properties ofTable
isotopes
2.2 The are identical,
relative abundance ofwhereas, Isotope
physical Mass relative to hydrogen Relative
some isotopes
properties (such as density) can differ. boron-10 10.0 20%
boron-11 11.0 80%
neon-20 20.0 91%
neon-22 22.0 9%
magnesium-24 24.0 79%
The isotopes of an element differ in their
composition in only one respect – although
they all contain the same numbers of Most of the naturally occurring isotopes are stable, but some, like t
electrons and protons, they have different and also many artificially made ones, are unstable and emit radiatio
numbers of neutrons. radioactive isotopes.
22
Atomic structure Bilal Hameed
Atomic Structure 181333_02_AS_Chem_BP_020-043.indd 22

Bilal Hameed
Because of their relative masses and charges, the three particles behave differently in
n
p+ an electric field, as shown in Figure 2.3. Neutrons are undeflected, being electrically
neutral. Protons are attracted towards the negative pole, and electrons towards the
e– 11 are deflected to a
positive pole. If their initial velocities are the same, electrons
3
greater extent than protons because they are much lighter.
+
The picture of the atom assembled from these observations is as follows.
● Atoms are small, spherical structures with diameters ranging from 1 × 10−10 m to
3 × 10−10 m.
1. 7 Isotopes of hydrogen
● The particles that contribute to the atom’s mass (protons and neutrons) are contained
within a very small central nucleus that has a diameter of about 1 × 10−15 m.
● The electrons occupy nucleus. They are to be found intritium
protium the region around the deuterium the space
inside the atom but outside the nucleus, which is almost the whole of the atom.
electron neutron
● All the atoms of a particular element contain the same number of protons. This also
equals the number of electrons within those atoms.
proton
eam of particles ● The atoms of all elements except hydrogen also contain neutrons. These are in the
e behaviour of protons, nucleus along with the protons. Almost the only effect they have on the properties
ectrons in an electric field of the atom is to increase its mass.
protons 1 1 1
m AS&A2
2.3
neutrons
Isotopes
1
0 1
2
2
3
isotopic symbol H
At the same time 1as Rutherford and his team were H H
1 finding out about the structure 1 of
the nucleus, it was discovered that some elements contained atoms that have different
Figure 2.8 The atomic structure
masses,andbut
isotopic symbols
identical for the three
chemical isotopes of hydrogen.
properties.
These atoms were given the name isotopes, since they occupy the same (iso)
place (topos) in the Periodic Table. The first isotopes to be discovered were those
the nucleon numberofafter the the name.radioactive
unstable For example, The chloride
element thorium. (Thorium ion has
is element a single
number negative
90 in the charge because
the isotopes of hydrogen can be called hydrogen-1, there are 17 protons
Periodic Table.) In 1913, however, Thomson was able to show that a sample of neon (+) and 18 electrons (−).
hydrogen-2 and hydrogen-3.
obtained from liquid air contained atoms with a relative atomic mass of 22 as well
2+
as those with the usual relative atomic mass of 20. These Mgheavier→ neon atomsMgwere + 2e−
1. 8 Examples of more isotopes
stable, unlike the thorium isotopes. Many other elements magnesium magnesium
contain isotopes, some of 2 electrons
Check-up which are listed in Table 2.2. atom ion removed
relative abundance of 12 protons 12 protons
3 Use the Periodic Table on page 497 to Mass relative to hydrogen Relative abundance
Isotope
12 electrons 10 electrons
help you. boron-10 10.0 20%
a Write isotopic symbols for the following
boron-11 11.0 The magnesium 80% ion has a charge of 2+ because it has 12
neutral atoms:
neon-20 20.0 protons (+) but only 10 electrons (−
91% ).
i bromine-81 neon-22 22.0
Th e isotopic
9%
symbol for an ion derived from sulfur-
33 2−
ii calcium-44magnesium-24 24.0
33 is 16 S . Th
79%
is sulfide ion has 16 protons, 17 neutrons
iii iron-58magnesium-25 25.0
(because 33 − 16
10%
= 17) and 18 electrons (because 16 + 2 = 18).
of an element differ in their
iv palladium-110
only one respect – although
b
n the same numbers of
What is the number of protons and
Most of the naturally occurring isotopes are stable, but some, like those of uranium
neutrons in
protons, they have different andeach
alsoof these
many cially made ones, are unstable Check-up
atoms?
artifi and emit radiation. These are called
utrons. radioactive isotopes.
4 Deduce the number of electrons in each of
2.4 How many protons, these ions:
neutrons and electrons?

40
a 19K+
43.indd 22 In a neutral atom the number of positively charged b 157N3− 15/10/14 12:19 PM
protons in the nucleus equals the number of negatively 18 2−
c 8O
1. 9the nucleus.
charged electrons outside Relative
Whenmasses
an atom
gains or loses electrons, ions are formed which are d 71
31Ga
3+
Theexample:
electrically charged. For
12C (carbon-12) isotope is chosen as a standard and given a relative
mass of exactly 12.
Cl + e− → Cl−
chlorine atom Important relative
1 electron chloride measured
masses ion against this standard are:
gainedAtomic Mass (Ar) 

Relative
17 protons 17 protons
The relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element is the weighted average
17 electrons 18 electrons
mass of the naturally occurring isotopes of the element relative to one-
twelfth the mass of the Carbon-12 isotope.
2 Atomic structure 29
Bilal Hameed Atomic structure
Bilal Hameed Atomic Structure

12
4
1. 10 Relative masses
Relative Isotopic Mass 
The relative isotopic mass of an element is the mass of an atom of the
isotope of the element relative to one twelfth of the mass of an atom of
the isotope carbon-12.
Relative Molecular Mass (Mr) 

The relative molecular mass (Mr) of a compound is the mass of a
molecule of that compound relative to one-twelfth the mass of the
Carbon-12 isotope.
1. 11 Skill check
How many protons, electrons and neutrons are present in a sulphide ion,
S2-? Sulphur has atomic number 16 and mass number 32.
1. 12 Skill check
How many protons, neutrons and electrons are present in a potassium
ion, K+? Potassium has atomic number 19 and mass number 39.
Atomic Structure Bilal Hameed

13
5
1. 13 Mass spectrometer
A mass spectrometer is used to calculate the relative atomic mass of
an atom by comparing it with the mass of a 12C atom.
You can also use a mass spectrometer to calculate the relative

abundance of different isotopes of any element.
2 .1 T H E N U C L E A R ATO M
Alternatively: ● The relative atomic mass, Ar , is the ratio of the average mass of the
atom to the unified atomic mass unit. Study tip
Relative atomic mass is a ratio
Ar − mass number ofAslighter isotope
mentioned in sub-topic 1.2, the average mass of the atom is a weighted
so it does not have units.
× 100
average of the atomic masses = isotopes
of its % of heavier
and theirisotope
relative abundances.
difference in mass number of two isotopes
The mass spectrometer
(192.22 − 191)
In the example here: × 100 = 61%
The mass spectrometer is an instrument used to determine the relative
(193atomic
− 191)
mass of an element. It can also show its isotopic composition.
1. 14 How does a mass spectrometer work?
detector
lighest particles (stage 5)
positive ions are (deflected most)
accelerated in the electric
field (stage 3)
heating filament to vaporize magnet (stage 4)
determine the proportion of sample (stage 1)
n element. Figure 2.6 shows a
inlet to inject heaviest particles
meter. sample (deflected least)
N
electron beam to
ionize sample (stage 2)
Figure 10 Schematic diagram of a mass spectrometer
There are five stages in this process:

● Stage 1 (vaporization): The sample is injected into the instrument
where it is heated and vaporized, producing gaseous atoms or
molecules.
1. 15 Stage
● Mass spectrometer
2 (ionization): stage
The gaseous atoms 1 & 2 by high-
are bombarded
energy electrons, generating positively charged species:
100
X(g) + e- → X+(g) + 2e- 80.1 (area under peak)
Relative abundance
● Stage 3 (acceleration): The positive ions are attracted to negatively

charged plates and accelerated
– in the electric field. 50
● Stage 4 (deflection): The positive ions are deflected by a magnetic
field perpendicular to their path. The degree of deflection depends on 19.9 (area under peak)
+
the mass-to-charge ratio (the m/z ratio). The species with the smallest
0
mass, m, and the highest charge, z, will be deflected the most. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Particles with no charge are not deflected in the magnetic field. m/z
+
● Stage 5 (detection): The detector detects species of a particular m/z Figure 11 Mass spectrum of boron. The two
ratio. The ions hit the counter and an electrical signal is generated. peaks correspond to two isotopes
The instrument can be adjusted so that only positive ions of a single
charge are detected. The deflection will then depend only on the mass.
The mass spectrum is therefore a plot of relative abundance (of each
isotope) versus m/z or the mass number, A. The height of each peak
indicates the relative abundance of the respective isotope.
to produce gaseous atoms/molecules.

Bilal Hameed Atomic structure 47
+ –
Bilal Hameed
h high-energy electrons to produce Atomic Structure
+
+ –
+
+
14
6
1. 16 Mass spectrometer stage 3
ed and vaporised to produce gaseous atoms/molecules.

+ –
e bombarded with high-energy electrons to produce
+
2.7):
+ –
(g) + 2e−
ectrons knock other electrons out of the atoms.
e accelerated in an electric field (Figure 2.8).
1. 17 Mass spectrometer stage 4
The positive ions are deflected in a magnetic fi
+ Note: particles are deflected according to

The positive ions are deflected in a magne
(m/z) ratio; i.e. lighter ions and particles
+
+ deflected more.
Note: particles are deflected accordin
+ (m/z) ratio; i.e. lighter ions and part
+
deflected more.
+
A greater magnetic field is required to cause su
with higher mass :charge
A greater ratiofiso
magnetic eld that they tohitcaut
is required
with higher mass :charge ratio so that they
Usually the particles have only a single posit

Usually the particles have only a single
are therefore sorted according
are therefore to mass.to mass.
sorted according
Note: a particle will onlyNote: a particle will only undergo

undergo
deflection in a magnetic field if it is
deflection in a magnetic charged
field if–ituncharged
is particles are For one particular magnetic field, particles
charged – uncharged particles
not deflare
ected. For one particular magnetic These
the spectrometer. field,hitparticles of oan
the detector
not deflected. the spectrometer. of an electrichit
These current, which is proportion
the detector and pro
1. 18 Mass spectrum the detector. The magnetic field is varied t
of an electric current,
values. which is proportional to
The mass spectrum is a plot of the detector. The magnetic field is varied to sca
values.
relative abundance (of each In the mass spectrum of an element, we ge
isotope) versus m/e or the mass individual isotopes. The height of each p
under each peak) is proportional to the nu
number. The height of each peak In the mass spectrum
present inof
thean element,
sample. wespectrum
The mass get on
indicates the relative abundance of Figure 2.10.
individual isotopes. The height of each peak
The relative atomic mass can be calculated
the respective isotope.   under each peak) is proportional to the numbe
(78.6 × 24) + (10.1 × 25) + (11.3 × 2
present in the sample.
Ar = The mass spectrum of ma
100
Figure 2.10.
The relative atomic mass can be calculated as:
Sometimes it happens that more than one
(78.6 ×atom
24) when
+ (10.1
it is× 25) + (11.3
bombarded 26)
with×high-ene
Ar = is produced: 100 =
M(g) + e− M2+(g) + 3e−
This ion will be deflected twice as much a
the charge (there is very little difference in
Sometimes it happens that more than one elect
an extra electron). A 24Mg2+ ion will there
The smaller the massatom
: chargewhen it is bombarded24with high-energy e
value of 12 (i.e. 2 ) (see Figure 2.11). Thu
Atomic structure ratio, the more the ion is Bilal Hameed
is produced: (m/z = 24), 40Ca2+ (m/z = 20) and 48Ti3+
deflected for a certain magnetic
smallest mass : charge ratio, it will be deflec
M(g) + e−
field in a mass spectrometer. Min
field
2+
(g) + 3e
a mass
−
spectrometer.
This ion will be deflected twice as much as M+
the charge (there is very little difference in mas
24 2+
15
7
1. 19 Mass spectrum of Mg
Ar of neon
=
(20.0 × 90.9) (21.0 × 0.3) (22.0 × 8.8)
= 20.2 Fact file
100 A high-resolution mass spectrometer can give very a
16
5 Chromium has four naturally occurring isotopes, Indium relative isotopic masses. For example O = 15.995 a
Note that this answer is given 7toa3 significanthas two naturally occurring
figures, isotopes:
1. 20 Skill check
and their masses and natural abundances are shown
which is consistent
32
S = 31.972. Because of this, chemists can distinguis
indium-113 and indium-115. The relative
with the data given. molecules such as SO2 and S2 which appear to have
in the table below. atomic mass of indium is 114.82. Calculate
relative molecular mass.the
The graph shows the mass spectrum of natural abundance of each isotope.
Neon.
b Gallium has two naturally occurring isotopes:
90.9 %
100 gallium-69 and gallium-71. The relative atomic

How many isotopes does Neon contain?
80
mass of gallium is 69.723.1.4 Amount
Calculate of substance
the natural
Relative abundance / %
abundance of each isotope. The mole and the Avogadro constant

What are the relative isotopic masses of 60 8 Arrange the following ions Thin eterms
formulaofofhow
a compound
much shows us the num
the isotopes of Neon?
atomsspectrometer
they will be deflected in a mass of each element present in one formula
(the
40
Calculate the relative atomic mass of chromium to molecule
one that will be deflected most of the compound. In water we know
first):
What are the two
relative amounts
decimal places. of the 84 2+ 81 + atoms
120 of 2+hydrogen2 3(Ar =+1.0) combine with on
20 2 3Kr 35Br 50Sn 11Na
8.8 %
of oxygen (Ar = 16.0). So the ratio of mass of h

0.3 %
isotopes of6Neon?
Silicon has three naturally occurring isotopes and 0 atoms to oxygen atoms in a water molecule is
their details are given in the table below. 19 20 21 22 23 matter how many molecules of water we have
Mass/charge (m/e) ratio will always be the same. But the mass of even
is far too small to be weighed. We have to scal
Figure 1.5 The mass spectrum of neon, Ne. more than this to get an amount of substance
easy to weigh.
Ar of neon The relative atomic mass or relative molecul
=
(20.0 × 90.9) (21.0 × 0.3) (22.0 × 8.8)
= 20.2 Fact file a substance in grams is called a mole of the su
100 Check-up A high-resolution mass spectrometerSocan give very
a mole
16
accurate (A = 23.0) weighs 23.0 g
of sodium r
Calculate the relative atomic mass 2 of silicon
Look at to
the two
mass
Note that this answer is given to 3 significant figures, spectrum
relative isotopic masses. For example
of germanium, Ge.
O = 15.995for
abbreviation anda mole is mol. We define the
1. 21 Skill check
32
decimal S = 31.972. Because of this, chemists canof
distinguish between
whichplaces.
is consistent with the data given. terms the standard carbon-12 isotope (see p
molecules such as SO2 and S2 which appear to have the same
relative molecular mass.
36.7 %
Calculate the average relative atomic mass of40neon using the information
below: One mole of a substance is the amount of t
27.4 %
90.9 %
100 30 substance which has the same number of sp

1.4 Amount of substance
20.6 %
Abundance / %
particles (atoms, molecules or ions) as there

80 20 atoms in exactly 12 g of the carbon-12 isoto
The mole and the Avogadro constant

7.7 %
7.6 %
60 The formula of a compound shows us the number of

10
atoms of each element present in one formula unit or one
40 0 molecule of the compound. In We wateroften refer tothat
we know thetwo
mass of a mole of substa
70
atoms
75
of hydrogen
80
(A molar mass (abbreviation M). The units of m
r = 1.0) combine with−1 one atom
20 Mass/charge (m/e) ratio are of
g mol
mass. of hydrogen
8.8 %
of oxygen (Ar = 16.0). So the ratio

0.3 %
0 atoms to oxygen atoms in a waterTh

Figure 1.6 The mass spectrum of germanium.
e number
molecule of atoms in a mole of atoms is
23 is 2 : 16. No
19 20 21 22 23 matter how many molecules of 6.02 water× 10 atoms.
we have, thisTh is number is called the A
ratio
a Write the isotopic formula
Mass/charge (m/e) ratio for the
will always beheaviest constant (or Avogadro
the same. But the mass of even 1000 atoms number). The symbol
isotope of germanium.is far too small to be weighed. We Avogadro
have toconstant
scale up ismuch
L. The Avogadro constan
Figure 1.5 The mass spectrum of neon, Ne. b Use the % abundancemore of each
thanisotope
this to get an amount toof
atoms, molecules,
substance whichionsis and electrons. So in
to calculate the relativeeasyatomic mass of
to weigh. sodium there are 6.02 × 1023 sodium atoms an
germanium. of sodium
The relative atomic mass or relative chloride
molecular (NaCl)
mass of there are 6.02 × 10
a substance in grams is called a ions
mole and
of the × 1023 chloride ions.
6.02substance.
Check-up
So a mole of sodium (Ar = 23.0) weighs 23.0 g. The
Bilal Hameed 4 1 Moles and equations Atomic structure
abbreviation for a mole is mol. We define the mole in
2 Look at the mass spectrum of germanium, Ge.
terms of the standard carbon-12 isotope (see page 1).
36.7 %
40
One mole of a substance is the amount of that
27.4 %
30 substance which has the same number of specific

%
/%
16
8
1. 22 Skill check
Boron has two naturally occurring isotopes with the natural abundances
shown.
Calculate Boron’s relative atomic mass.
Isotope Relative abundance/%
10 B 19.9
11 B 80.1
Ar of neon
=
(20.0 × 90.9) (21.0 × 0.3) (22.0 × 8.8)
= 20.2 Fact file
100 A high-resolution mass spectrometer can give very accurate
1. 23 SkillNote
check
16
relative isotopic masses. For example O = 15.995 and
that this answer is given to 3 significant figures, 32
S = 31.972. Because of this, chemists can distinguish betw
which is consistent with the data given. molecules such as SO2 and S2 which appear to have the sam
Calculate the average relative atomic mass of lead using the information
relative molecular mass.
below:
90.9 %
Isotopic100mass Relative abundance/%

1.4 Amount of substance
20480 2
The mole and the Avogadro constant

60 The formula of a compound shows us the number o
206 24
atoms of each element present in one formula unit o
40
molecule of the compound. In water we know that
207 22 atoms of hydrogen (Ar = 1.0) combine with one ato
20
8.8 %
of oxygen (Ar = 16.0). So the ratio of mass of hydrog

0.3 %
2080 52 atoms to oxygen atoms in a water molecule is 2 : 16.

19 20 21 22 23 matter how many molecules of water we have, this r
Mass/charge (m/e) ratio will always be the same. But the mass of even 1000
is far too small to be weighed. We have to scale up m
Figure 1.5 The mass spectrum of neon, Ne. more than this to get an amount of substance which
easy to weigh.
The relative atomic mass or relative molecular ma
a substance in grams is called a mole of the substanc
1. 24 Skill check Check-up
So a mole of sodium (Ar = 23.0) weighs 23.0 g. The
2 Look at the mass spectrum of germanium, Ge. abbreviation for a mole is mol. We define the mole
Calculate the average relative atomic mass of Germanium usingterms theof the standard carbon-12 isotope (see page 1
information below:
36.7 %
40
One mole of a substance is the amount of that
27.4 %
30 substance which has the same number of specific

20.6 %
Abundance / %
particles (atoms, molecules or ions) as there are

20 atoms in exactly 12 g of the carbon-12 isotope.
7.7 %
7.6 %
10
0 We often refer to the mass of a mole of substance as

70 75 80 molar mass (abbreviation M). The units of molar m
Mass/charge (m/e) ratio are g mol−1.
The number of atoms in a mole of atoms is very la
Figure 1.6 The mass spectrum of germanium.
6.02 × 1023 atoms. This number is called the Avogad
a Write the isotopic formula for the heaviest constant (or Avogadro number). The symbol for th
isotope of germanium. Avogadro constant is L. The Avogadro constant app
b Use the % abundance of each isotope to atoms, molecules, ions and electrons. So in 1 mo
to calculate the relative atomic mass of sodium there are 6.02 × 1023 sodium atoms and in 1
germanium. of sodium chloride (NaCl) there are 6.02 × 1023 sodi
ions and 6.02 × 1023 chloride ions.
4 1 Moles and equations

17
9
1. 25 Calculating abundance
Naturally occurring potassium consists of potassium-39 and
potassium-41. Calculate the percentage of each isotope present if the
average is 39.1:
Assume there are x nuclei of 39K in every 100, so there will be (100 – x)
of 41K
This means that:

39x + 41 (100 – x) = 39.1
100
1. 26 Mass Spectra: calculating abundance

therefore 39x + 4100 - 41x = 3910
thus - 2x = - 190
x = 95
There will be 95% 39K and 5% 41K.
1. 27 Skill check
Silver has two isotopes. 51.35% of the atoms are Silver-107 and 48.65%
of the atoms are Silver-109. Calculate the relative atomic mass of Silver.

18
10
1. 28 Skill check
The relative atomic mass of copper is 63.5. Calculate the relative
abundance of the two copper isotopes with relative isotopic masses of
63.0 and 65.0
1. 29 Skill check
Silver has two isotopes. 51.35% of the atoms are Silver-107 and 48.65%
of the atoms are Silver-109. Calculate the relative atomic mass of Silver.
1. 30 Skill check
A sample of element X contains 69% of 63X and 31% of 65X. What is the
relative atomic mass of X in this sample?

19
11
1. 31 Mass spectrum of molecular ions

Molecules also give peaks in their mass spectrum.
For example the mass spectrum of chlorine gaseous molecule includes

both peaks of its isotopes and peaks of its molecular form (molecular
ions):
1. 32 molecular ions of chlorine

Cl2+ molecular ion produces three peaks:
peak at m/e @ 70: 35Cl - 35Cl  

Species responsible: 70Cl2+
peak at m/e @ 72: 35Cl - 37Cl  

peak at m/e @ 74: 37Cl - 37Cl  


1
11
ATOMIC STRUCTURE WS 1 1
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
20
WS 1
ATOMIC
ATOMIC STRUCTURE WS 11
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE
SECTION A WS
WS 1
1
Which
Atomic Structure WS 1
SECTION A
Which one the following has more neutrons
one the following has more neutrons
SECTION
SECTION thanA
thanA
electrons and more electrons than
1 protons? SECTION Aelectrons and more electrons than
1 protons?
Which
Which one
one the the following
following has has more
more neutrons
neutrons thanthan9 electrons
electrons and and more
more electrons
electrons than
than
111 Which
A 19F-- one the following has more neutrons than
protons? C electrons and more electrons than
Be
protons?
A 19F-- C 9Be
protons?
B 19F
A
A
37
19 Cl
-- -- D 99Be
C 2+
37F C
D 9Be
--
B 19
A FCl
-- -- C Be 2+
B 37Cl--
B 37 Cl-- D
D 99Be
9
Be2+
2+
B 37Cl-- D Be2+
2 Chlorine exists as two isotopes 35Cl with an abundance of 75.5% and 37Cl with an abundance
2 Chlorine
of 24.5%.exists as two isotopes Cl with an abundance of 75.5% and 37Cl with an abundance
35
2 of 24.5%.exists
Chlorine exists asas two
two isotopes
35Cl with an abundance of 75.5% and 37Cl with an abundance
22 Chlorine isotopes 35 35Cl with an abundance of 75.5% and 37 Cl with an abundance
2 Chlorine
Phosphorus
of 24.5%. exists
has asonly
twooneisotopes
isotope, Cl31with
P. Theanmass
abundance
spectrum of 75.5%
of PCl3and Cl with
has37four linesanatabundance
m/z = 136,
of 24.5%.
Phosphorus
140 and has 142.only one isotope, P. The mass spectrum of PCl3 has four lines at m/z = 136,
31
of 24.5%.
138,
138, 140 andhas
Phosphorus
Phosphorus 142.only
has only oneone isotope,
isotope, 31
31P. The mass spectrum of PCl3 has four lines at m/z = 136,
Phosphorus has onlylines
one will
isotope, 31P. The mass spectrum of PCl3 has four lines at m/z = 136,
P. The massheight?
spectrum of PCl3 has four lines at m/z = 136,
Which
138,
138, 140
140 oneand
and of these
142.
142. have the smallest
Which
138, 140one andof142.
these lines will have the smallest height?
A 136 one
Which
Which of
of these
these lines
lines will
will have
have thethe smallest C height?
138
A 136 one
Which one of these lines will have the smallest
smallestC height?
138
height?
B 136
A
A 140 D 138
C 142
B 136
A 140
136
C
D 138
C 142
138
B
B 140
140 D
D 142
142
B 140 D 142
3 Antimony has two isotopes Sb and Sb. The relative atomic mass of a naturally occurring
121 123
3 Antimony
sample of has two isotopes
antimony is measured
121Sb and 123Sb. The relative atomic mass of a naturally occurring
as 121.75.
sample of antimony is measured as 121.75.
33 Antimony has two isotopes
3 121Sb and 123Sb. The relative atomic mass of a naturally occurring
Antimony has two isotopes 121 121Sb and 123Sb. The relative atomic mass of a naturally occurring
3 Antimony
Which
sample one
of has
of twofollowing
the
antimony isotopes
is is
measured Sb
the and
best
as 123Sb. The relative atomic mass of a naturally 121
approximate estimate of the percentage of occurring
121.75. Sb
sample
Which one of antimony
of the is measured
following is the asas 121.75.
best approximate estimate of the percentage of 121Sb
sample
present of
in antimony
the is measured
naturally occurring 121.75.
sample?
presentone
Which
Which one in the
of naturally
of the
the following
following occurring
is
is the sample?
the best
best approximate
approximate estimate
estimate of of the
the percentage
percentage of of 121Sb
121
Sb
Which
A 20%
present onein of the
the following
naturally is the best
occurring sample?approximate
C 40% estimate of the percentage of 121Sb
present in the naturally occurring
A 20% in the naturally occurring sample? C 40% sample?
present
B 20%
A
A 60% D 40%
C 80%
B 20%
A 60%
20%
C
D 40%
C 80%
40%
B
B 60%
60% D
D 80%
80%
B 60% D 80%
4 When sulfur, 32S is bombarded with neutrons 1n, two particles are formed. One of them is a
4
4 When
hydrogen sulfur, 32S 1is bombarded with neutrons 1n, two particles are formed. One of them is a
atom, H and the other is an element, X.
4 hydrogen
When
When sulfur,
sulfur,atom, 1H and the other is an element,
32S is
32S is bombarded with with32neutrons
1n, X.
1n, two particles
particles areare formed.
formed. One
One ofof them
them is is a
4
4 When sulfur, 32S 1is bombarded
bombarded with
neutrons
neutrons
two
1n 1n, two 1H particles are formed. One of them
a
is a
hydrogen atom, H and the
hydrogen atom, 1H and the other is32an other is anS +
element, X. + X
S element, X. 1H + X
1
hydrogen atom, H and the other is an + 1n
element, X.
Which one of the following correctly 32Srepresents
+
32S + 1n
1n X?11H ++ X
Which one of the following correctly 32Srepresents
+ 1n X?1HH + X
X
A 32S one
Which
Which of the following correctly represents C 33X?S
X?
A 32S one of the following correctly represents C 33
Which one of the following correctly represents X?S
B 32S
A
A
32
32 P D 33
C 33P
33 S
32S
B 32 P C
D 3333S
A S C SP
B 32
B 32 P
P D
D 33
33 P
P
B 32P D 33P
55 What is the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons in boron-11?
5 What is the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons in boron-11?
5
5 A 5 protons,
What
What is
is the 5 electrons
the number
number of and 11electrons,
of protons,
protons, neutrons and Cneutrons
5 protons, in 5 electrons and 6 neutrons
in boron-11?
5 A 5 protons,
What is the number5 electrons and 11electrons,
of protons, neutrons and
electrons,
neutrons
andCneutrons
5 protons, boron-11?
5 electrons and 6 neutrons
in boron-11?
B 5
A
A 5 protons,
protons, 5 5 electrons
electrons and and 11 10.8
11 neutrons
neutrons D5
C
C 11 protons,
protons, 5 11electrons
electronsand
and6 5neutrons
neutrons
B
A 5 protons, 5 electrons and 11
neutrons 10.8
neutrons D5
C
protons,
protons, 5
511 protons,
electrons
electronsand
511electrons and6
and
neutrons
65neutrons
neutrons
neutrons
B
B 55 protons,
electrons and and 10.810.8 D
D 1111 protons,
electrons and
and 55 neutrons
neutrons
B 5 protons, 5 electrons and 10.8
neutrons D 11 protons, 11 electrons and 5 neutrons
neutrons
neutrons
CEDAR COLLEGE ATOMIC STRUCTURE WS 1

CEDAR
CEDAR COLLEGE
COLLEGE ATOMIC
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE WSWS 11
Atomic Structure 1 Bilal Hameed
2
2
2
2
21
6 What is the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons in 34S2--?
6
6 What
What is
is the number of protons, electrons, and
and neutrons
neutrons in
34S2--?
is the
the number of
of protons, electrons, in 34S2--?
66 What number
A 18 protons, protons,
16 electrons electrons,
and 18 neutronsandCneutrons in 3418
16 protons, S2--electrons
? and 18 neutrons
A
A 18
18 protons,
protons, 16
16 electrons
electrons and
and 18
18 neutrons
neutrons C 16 protons, 18 electrons and
and 18
18 neutrons
A 18 protons,
B 16 protons, 18
16 electrons
electrons and
and 18 neutrons C
18 neutrons C 16 protons,
D 16
16 protons,
18 electrons
protons, 18
16 electrons
electrons and
and 18
neutrons
18 neutrons
neutrons
B
B 16 protons, 18 electrons and 18 neutrons D 16 protons, 16 electrons and 18 neutrons
B 16
16 protons,
protons, 18
18 electrons
electrons and
and 18
18 neutrons
neutrons D D 16
16 protons,
protons, 16
16 electrons
electrons and
and 18
18 neutrons
neutrons
7 Which statements about the isotopes of chlorine, 35Cl and 37Cl are correct?
7 Which statements about the isotopes of chlorine, 3535Cl and 37 37Cl are correct?
77
7 Which
Which statements
statements about
about the
the
I. They
isotopes
isotopes of
of chlorine,
have the chlorine, 35Cl
same chemical Cl and 37Cl
Cl are
are correct?
andproperties. correct?
I.I. They have
have the
the same
same chemical
chemical properties.
I.II.They
TheyThehave
havethe
thesame
samechemical
atomic number.
properties.
properties.
II.
II. The
The have
have the
the same
same atomic
atomic number.number.
II.
III.The
Thehave
havethe
thesame
sameatomic
physical number.
properties.
III.
III. The have the same physical
physical properties.
A I and II only III. The
The have
have the
the same
same
C IIphysical
an III only
properties.
properties.
A
A I and
I and II only
IIII only C
C II an
II an III III only
A
B II and
and III only
only C
D III, an
II andIII only
only
III
B
B I and III only D I, II and III
B II and
and III
III only
only D
D I,I, IIII and
and III
III
8 A sample of element X contains 69% of 63X and 31% of 65X. What is the relative atomic mass
8
88 A
of
A sample
X in thisof
sample element
sample?
of element X
X contains
contains 69%
69% of
of
63X and 31% of 65X. What is the relative atomic mass
63X and 31% of 65X. What is the relative atomic mass
8 A
of sample
X in thisof element
sample? X contains 69% of 63X and 31% of 65X. What is the relative atomic mass
of
of X in this sample?
A X in this sample?
63.0 C 65.0
A
A 63.0
63.0 C
C 65.0
A 63.6
B 63.0 C 65.0
D 65.0
69.0
B
B 63.6 D 69.0
B 63.6
63.6 D
D 69.0
69.0
99 What is the relative atomic mass of an element with the mass spectrum shown below?
9
9 What
What is the relative atomic mass of an element with the mass spectrum shown below?
9 What is
is the
the relative
relative atomic
atomic mass
mass of
of an
an element
element with
with the
the mass
mass spectrum
spectrum shown
shown below?
below?
A 24 14 C 26
A
A 24
24 C
C 26
26
A
B 24
25 C 26
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
D 27 WS 2
B
B 25
25 D
D 27
B 25 D 27
27
101 Give the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons present in each of the following atoms:
a) 40Ar c) 197Au+
b) 127I d) 52Cr3+
2 This question concerns the following five species:

CEDAR
CEDAR COLLEGE
COLLEGE
16O2-- 19F 20Ne 23Na ATOMIC
25Mg2+
Bilal Hameed
CEDAR COLLEGE ATOMIC STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE WS
WS 111
Atomic Structure
a) Which two species have the same number of neutrons? ........................................
a)
a) Ar
Ar c)
c) Au
Au
b)
b)
b) 127III
127
127 d)
d)
d)
52 Cr3+
Cr3+
52Cr
52 3+
22
2
11 This question
This question
2 This
2 concerns
question concerns the
concerns the following
the following five
following five species:
five species:
species:
16 O
16O
16 2--
O2--
2-- 19 F
F
19F
19 20
20 Ne
Ne
20Ne 23
23 Na
Na
23Na 25 Mg 2+
Mg2+
25Mg
25 2+
a) Which
a) Which
a) two
Which two species
two species have
species have the
have the same
the same number
same number of
number of neutrons?
of neutrons? ........................................
neutrons? ........................................
........................................
b) Which
b) Which
b) two
Which two species
two species have
species have the
have the same
the same ratio
same ratio of
ratio of neutrons
of neutrons to
neutrons to protons?
to protons? ........................................
protons? ........................................
........................................
c) Which
c) Which
c) two
Which two species
two species do
species do not
do not have
not have 10
have 10 electrons?
10 electrons? ........................................
electrons? ........................................
........................................
12
3 The element
The element
3 The
3 Rhenium
element Rhenium (Re)
Rhenium (Re) has
(Re) has two
has two main
two main isotopes,
main isotopes, 185
isotopes, 185 Re with
Re with
185Re an
with an abundance
an abundance of
abundance of 37.1%
of 37.1% and
37.1% and
and
187 Re with
Re with
187Re
187 an
with an abundance
an abundance of
abundance of 62.9%.
of 62.9%.
62.9%.
Calculate the
Calculate the
Calculate weighted
the weighted mean
weighted mean atomic
mean atomic mass
atomic mass of
mass of rhenium.
of rhenium.
rhenium.
4
13 Antimony has
Antimony has
4 Antimony
4 two
has two main
two main isotopes,
main isotopes, 121
isotopes, 121 Sb and
Sb and
121Sb 123
and 123 Sb. A
Sb. A
123Sb. forensic
A forensic scientist
forensic scientist was
scientist was asked
was asked to
asked to help
help aaa
to help
crime investigation
crime investigation
crime investigation byby analysing
by analysing the
analysing the antimony
the antimony in
in aaa bullet.
antimony in bullet. This
bullet. This was
This was found
was found to
found to contain
to contain 57.3%
contain 57.3% of
57.3% of
of
121 Sb and
Sb and
121Sb
121 42.7%
and 42.7% of
42.7% of 123
of 123 Sb.
Sb.
123Sb.
a) Calculate
a) Calculate
a) the
Calculate the relative
the relative atomic
relative atomic mass
atomic mass of
mass of the
of the sample
the sample of
sample of antimony
of antimony from
antimony from the
from the bullet.
the bullet. (Write
bullet. (Write your
(Write your
your
answer to
answer to
answer three
to three significant
three significant figures)
significant figures)
figures)
b) State
b) State
b) one
State one similarity
one similarity and
similarity and one
and one difference
one difference between
difference between isotopes
between isotopes in
isotopes in terms
in terms of
terms of subatomic
of subatomic particles.
subatomic particles.
particles.
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
CEDAR
CEDAR COLLEGE
CEDAR COLLEGE
COLLEGE ATOMIC STRUCTURE
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
ATOMIC WS
STRUCTURE WS 2
WS 2
2

15
23
514 Bromine exists as a molecule with two bromine atoms combined together. Bromine has two
isotopes: bromine-79 and bromine-81
a) A molecule of bromine containing two atoms of bromine can be written as 79Br2. Write the
formulae for the two other possible molecules of bromine.
...............................................................................................................................................................................
b) The mass spectrum of molecules of bromine is shown below:
i. Explain why these peaks are observed.
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
ii. The peaks at 79 and 81 are the same height. What does this tell you about the relative
abundances of the two isotopes?
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
iii. Explain why the peak at 160 is twice the height of the peaks at 158 and 162.
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
6 a) Explain why the relative atomic mass of copper is not an exact whole number?
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
Bilal Hameed
CEDAR COLLEGE Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE WS 2 1
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
24
15 a) Explain why the relative atomic mass of copper is not an exact whole number?
6
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
16
...............................................................................................................................................................................
b) The relative atomic mass of copper is 63.5. Calculate the relative abundance of the two
copper isotopes with the relative isotopic masses of 63.0 and 65.0.
7 Chlorine exists as a molecule with two chlorine atoms combined together. Chlorine has two
isotopes: chlorine-35 and chlorine-37.
The mass spectrum of chlorine os shown below:
a) The peak at 35 is three times as high as the peak at 37. Calculate the relative atomic mass
of chlorine.
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
b) Explain why the peaks are observed at 70, 72 and 74.
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
c) The heights of the peaks at 70, 72 and 74 are in the ratio 9 :6 :1. Explain why the heights
areStructure
Atomic in this ratio.
1 Bilal Hameed
...............................................................................................................................................................................
25
16
7 Chlorine exists as a molecule with two chlorine atoms combined together. Chlorine has two
isotopes: chlorine-35 and chlorine-37.
The mass spectrum of chlorine os shown below:
a) The peak at 35 is three times as high as the peak at 37. Calculate the relative atomic mass
of chlorine.
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
b) Explain why the peaks are observed at 70, 72 and 74.
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
c) The heights of the peaks at 70, 72 and 74 are in the ratio 9 :6 :1. Explain why the heights
are in this ratio.
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
Bilal Hameed Atomic Structure 1

copper isotopes with relative isotopic masses 10 List the particle
of 63.0 and 65.0. increasing radiu
17
26 11 Explain why th
3 The data about silicon in the table below were noble gases dec
17 The data about silicon in obtained
8 from were
the table below a mass spectrometer.
obtained from a mass spectrometer.
12 The successive
m/z % abundance X, are given in
28 92.2 periodic table d
29 4.7 Ionisation
30 3.1 1st
Calculate the relative atomic mass of silicon to 2nd

Calculate the relative atomic mass of silicon to one decimal place.
one decimal place. 3rd
4th
4 Bromine has two isotopes of mass numbers
5th
79 and 81. The mass spectrum of a sample of
6th
bromine is shown below.
7th
Relative 8th
intensity
9th
10th
13 Discuss the rela

of ESI and TO
14 By considering
and d electrons
158 160 162 m/z why the differe
of fluorine and
a) Identify the particles responsible for the between chlori
peaks.
807404_C02_Edexcel_GF_Chem_009-036.indd 35
Atomic COLLEGE
CEDAR Structure 1 Bilal Hameed
can
ofan
NH also be, and
logarithms
Clionic usually
ofin
the H—Cl + –
● Worked
H example 1cleaves
ng(as4 inwith
sber bond
Figure Barking 6126protons
Dog Art and here
6 neutrons, withstrong
a which
mass of number of 12
3s tomost
row,
-cross no 2.28
diagram for below).
‘steps’ to other C elements).
is the
Importantly, symbol
ofThis
carbon for
atoms carbon-12,
allows the
form millions
2pmassbonds
is organic
the other common
35 compounds
andcarbon
isotope,
to be
37,Handatoms
containing
stable.
(as a1sThe
doabundances
few –
ener
ergies
NH4Clof magnesium Chlorine
14 5.5 consists two isotopes, with numbers with
+ relative
energy
● 66 C is the symbol for here
acarbon-14, which contains 6 compounds
protons and
sber
(as in diagram
Figure 2.28
for below). The other
76% protons
simplest and
molecule
elements).
and
shape 24% 6 with
neutrons,
This
twoallows
respectively. withmillions
the
Calculate athe
carbon–carbon mass number
bond
yof
xaverage organic of
z relative 12
is ethane (see
atomic to8 as
Figure
mass of
neutrons,
be3.6).
stable.
chlorine.
with
1sThe a
d-cross Chlorine
H Nof the of
consists ammonium isotopes,
H ion is2p
with
Cl amass
regular tetrahedron,
numbers 35 the
H and 37, same
N and with that
H relative ofabundances
Cl
● mass number of with 14.
14
simplest 6C 5 is the
molecule symbol for acarbon-14, carbon–carbon 2s which contains
bond isHethane 6 protons (see and
Figure 8 neutrons,
3.6). with a
methane molecule (see Figure 3.14). Allxaverage four y N z¬ bonds aremass exactly the same. It is
AS&A2 More
The
not
76%03_13
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3.8 Multiple bonding
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MISTRY
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MISTRY
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91
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16 P containing
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uorine
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17 ofPbonding
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uoride
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21/10/14 5:52
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23
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15/10/14 12:19 PM
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Cl 30/09/14 12:19
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36 15/10/14 PM
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25 C¬Cl bonds
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51on page
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31 473 to help 10
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Write
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117
11chlorine
the
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18
175the
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The mole
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Write proton the number
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17 11proton
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theelectronic bottom
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Write
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there and conditions.
Ionisation The
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otons rged. the chlorine
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at
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The a
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utrons
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The
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The
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Hydrogen
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is written:
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=electron
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19
single
12
number
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115number
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the principal
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The
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16 5
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Z =structure
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11
to find The
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ad number
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6aZfor =18
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are measured
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The general symbol for ionisation energy
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The nucleon
17 Hydrogenb
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c magnesium,
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Z = the
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11 5isotopes
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18
because are
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there calcium
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electrons The atomic
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i The general symbol for ionisation energy is
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rotons
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ectrons
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are proton
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fluorine,
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has
potassium, (+)2.8.
three forZ =Zthe
and isotopes. 19 11
electrons
three isotopes
The (–).atomic
atomic ofstructure
hydrogenstructure are
and and calcium
The
1sti ionisation
conditions.
as an example:
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general ionisation
Ca(g)
symbol for energy
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ionisation is eenergy
ΔH–
i1. Using
is
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otons The
are proton proton
Hydrogen
shown
17 e
chloride
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When c
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Figure Z three
Z =
and =6 for
generally 9
2.8.generally
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The isotopes,
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hydrogen there
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are ΔH The. Its units
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eutrons
ofctrons
there
neutrons
there Evidence for electronic structure
shown
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Hydrogen
are
name
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Hydrogen
name
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17 them
shown
When
ein
protons
d
ein When
Figure
Structure
symbols
carbon,
them
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carbon,
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and
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and
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the three The
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are
Evidence for electronic structure The symbol for the
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+(g) +iseΔH
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Figure for
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The
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umber of protons the shown
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in Figure
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calcium also are i1
ionisation energy: Ca(g) fromCa each
+(g)ion + ein– a mole of
m ofatom
r there
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isotopic symbols
When
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about
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are also
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590 mol–1 + –
29

There
There is
interference
number isof an
anan agreed
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This and
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ain
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39 K, inand
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atomic mass number.
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is shown
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39
19
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39 K, in
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For example,
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39 K, the
produce
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19 Figure
potassium
the
in Figure
Figure 1.9.
mass
1.9.
Ions
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For example,
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39 the positive ions on the basis of their mass-
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19
19
) is to-charge
ion can be written as 19
39
39
19 K +. 30
)) isis to-charge ratios. 19
19
K
m, of
39
Test are
There yourself various types of mass spectrometer. They differ in the method
m, of mass
39
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There
Test yourself
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mass 8
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Test
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8
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ions and then separates
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diameter
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19
9 How
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19
atoms and ions: atomic
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19
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19
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39 FK––– aa particular
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92
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199 K
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Figure 1.9
1.9 The
The mass
mass number
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92 to the detector atd) 19
19
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1.9 The mass number and atomic
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e)
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Ca2+ 2+ 9 number can be shown with the symbol of
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20Ca
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40
20 from
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9 number
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20Ca symbols
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The horizontal
8 protons,
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8 neutrons
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and 8
the m/z
8 electrons
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argon
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188 horizontal
8 protons,
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22neutrons
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22neutrons
8 neutrons and
andand
andthe
8 18
8 m/z
electrons
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18 values.
electrons
electrons
Each b)
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four of
peaks argonon with
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spectrum 22 of neutrons
lead in and
Figure 181.11electrons
represents
Each b) of the
c)
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an
an four
ion
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181+ spectrum
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and
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181.11 represents
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C
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He
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of spectrometer. 13/04/19 10:15 PM
a)
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13/04/19 10:15 PM
10:15 PM
PM
c) S
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13/04/19 10:15
d)
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atoms
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than He
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atoms
atoms 1.3 Comparing the masses of atoms – mass spectrometry 17
c)
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b)
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Mg
C atoms
atoms thanthan
than He
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Comparing the the masses
masses of
of atoms
atoms ––– mass
mass spectrometry
spectrometry 17
17
c)
d)
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c) S
C atoms
S atoms than
atoms than He
than He atoms
He atoms
atoms 1.3
1.3 Comparing the masses of atoms mass spectrometry 17
e)
c)
d) Fe
S
C atoms
atoms than
than N
He atoms?
atoms 1.3
1.3 Comparing
Comparing the
the masses
masses of
of atoms
atoms –– mass
mass spectrometry
spectrometry 17
17
17
d)
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e)
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d)
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13 e)Silicon
d)
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13 e)
13 Silicon
Silicon consists
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isotopes,
28 Si (93.0%),
14
28
28
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Mass
13 e) spectrometers
Fe atoms than can N also
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Silicon consists of three naturally occurring isotopes, 14 (93.0%),
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13 e)
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13/04/19 10:15 P
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Silicon
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469983_01_Chem_Y1-2_012-038.indd
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469983_01_Chem_Y1-2_012-038.indd
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13/04/19
13/04/19 10:15
10:15 P
a)
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electrons
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469983_01_Chem_Y1-2_012-038.indd
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13/04/19 10:15 P
10:15 P
electrons
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469983_01_Chem_Y1-2_012-038.indd
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13/04/19 10:15 P
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58 14 b)
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58
58
58 14
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14
14 b)Neon
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b)
15 Whythe
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15
15 b)
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15 physical
Why the
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15
15
15 Why
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isotopes
dorelative
isotopes atomicsample
have
have
have
atomic the
mass
the same
of
same
the same
mass neonchemical
chemical
of neon in
chemical the properties,
air?
properties,
in theproperties,
air? but
but different
different
but different
15 physical
electron
physical
Why properties?
properties?
do isotopes
isotopes sample
have the same
same chemical
chemical properties,
properties, but but different
different
15 Why do
physical
physical
physical properties?
properties?
properties? have the
15 Why
15 physical do
Why do isotopes
physical isotopes
properties? have
have the
the same
same chemical
chemical properties,
properties, but
but different
different
Testphysical
yourself
physical
properties?
properties?
Test yourself properties?
Relative
Relative molecular
16 What is molecular
and
and formula
formula masses
masses Key terms
Relative
Relative
16 What is molecular
the
the relative and
relative molecular
molecular and
molecular formula
mass of:
formula
mass of: masses
masses Key
Key terms
terms
Relative
16 What
Relative
Relative
a)
Relative
is
atomic
atomicmolecular
the relative
masses
molecular
chlorine, Cl
masses
can
can and
molecular
also
and
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mass
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compare the
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compare the
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Key
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Relative
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a) molecular
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The
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Relative
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a)
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masses
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chlorine,
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The
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(symbol
Relative
b)(symbol
S
sulfur,
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2
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S
8 ).
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can also be used
Key
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molecularismass
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the sum an
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M
relative
r ).
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8
8 masses
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are the
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isisof
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of
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Relative
masses atomic
(symbol M rrr).
masses can also be used to compare the masses of different element compound the sum the
8 r ). The relative molecular mass of an
Atomic c)
molecules. ethanol,
The
Structure C
relative
4 H OH masses of molecules are called relative molecular relative
The atomic
relative
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Bilal ismass
Hameed all
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of
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anofthe
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(symbol
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2
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anof the
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masses The
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or molecular
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r).
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tetrachloromethane,
relative molecular
rrr). of all
masses
mass
mass CClof
the
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4?an element
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its molecular
relative molecular
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atoms
masses
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The d)
d) (symbol
relative
relative
relative M
tetrachloromethane,
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tetrachloromethane,
atomic massesrrr
molecular of mass
all
mass CCl
CCl
the of
of4 ?
4?an
atoms
an element
in
elementits or compound
molecular
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is the
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in
in its
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relative or compound
or compound
its molecular
atomic formula.
masses isof
is
formula. the
the sum
all sum of the
of
the atoms the
atoms
relative
relative atomic
atomic
17 relative
What masses
masses
is molecular
the relative of all the
of formula
all theofatoms
4
atoms
mass in its
inof: molecular
its molecular formula.
formula. relative
in
The
in its
its atomic
molecular
relative
molecular masses
formula.
formula mass
formula. of all
of the
a
The
relative
17 Whatatomic
is masses
the relative of mass
all the
formula
an element
atoms
mass inof:its or compound
molecular is the sum of the
formula. in
in its
relative
relative
its molecular
atomic
atomic
molecular formula.
masses
masses
formula. of all
of all the
of the atoms
a atoms
relative
The
For atomic
relative
17oxygen,
What masses
molecular
,M
isOthe relative (Oof) all the of
mass
formula atoms
mass ×inof:
Aits(O)
=an2 element molecular formula.
or= compound
2 × 16.0 =is32.0 the sum of the The
in itsrelative
molecularformula mass
formula.
40 50
atio (m/z) 60 be written
mass is
a)usually
How simplydo the aswhole
you +,2, 8, 1molecule
think (butboiling
the see Section
ionised. 1.6).
temperature So the mass of neon-20 of this compares
‘parent ion’ or these 159 079 kJ mol
values makes . Plotting
it possible the logarithms
to fit them of
‘molecular
In energya) with
How ion’,
level that
do M of
diagrams
you neon-22?
is
thinkthe Explain
relative
suchboiling
the as that your
molecular in answer.
temperature mass
Figure of
of theneon-22.
1.20,
neon-20 compound.
the compares
electrons are these values makes it possible to fit them
atio (m/z) ‘molecularb) Neon
with ion’, in
that the+ air
Mof, neon-22? contains
is the relative 90%
Explain neon-20
molecular
your answer. and 10%
mass of the compound. What is on to the vertical axis, while still showing
ectrum of a In energy level in+diagrams such as that ininanswer.
Figure 1.20, the electrons
ectrum of a representedb)e –theNeon
with by arrows.
that
relative the airWhen
of atomic
neon-22?contains
M(g) massanExplain
energy
90%
of⎯⎯→neon level
neon-20
your is filled,
the and
M + 10%
air? the electrons
neon-22.
+ eare
− +paired
What e –isare on to the vertical
where there are bigaxis, jumps while in still showing
the values.
ments.
ments. up andb)
represented
b) ein–Neon
each
the
Neon
by in
of
relative
in +the
arrows.
these
the
airpairs
atomic
air
contains
When
M(g)
containsthe
mass 90%
of⎯⎯→
anelectrons
energy
90%
neon-20
neon level
are
neon-20
is and
filled,
in spinning
the M
and
+ 10%
air? 10%
the neon-22.
electrons
+
in opposite
neon-22.
What
What e –is
are+paired
−
edirections.is where there are big jumps in the values.
15 Why
high-energy do isotopes have
molecule the same
inelectrons chemical properties,
molecular 31 ion but different
electrons
up andWhy
Chemists
high-energy
15 intheeach
have relative
of
dorelativefound
isotopes these atomic
thatpairs
molecule
have
mass
the
paired same
of neonare
theinelectrons chemical
in
can the
spinning
only
molecular
air?be in
properties, opposite
stable
ion when
but directions.
they spin
electrons
different
the
physical
electron properties? atomic sample mass of neon in the air?
Chemists
in 15 Why
opposite
electronphysical have
dodirectionsfound that
isotopes
properties? have
so paired
that
sample thethe electrons
same chemical
magnetic canattraction
only be stable
properties, but
resulting whendifferenttheytheir
from spin
15
7
in opposite Why do isotopes
directions have
so that thethe same chemical properties,
magnetic but different
opposite physicalspins properties?
can counteract electrical attractionrepulsion from resulting theirfrom their
negative
Testphysical
opposite spins properties?
yourself can counteract the electrical repulsion from their negative
Key term
charges.
Test yourself Key term
Relative
charges. molecular and formula masses Key terms
Shielding is an effect of inner electrons
Relative
In 16
energy
16 What
What is
level molecular
the relative
diagrams molecular
such and
as Figure formula
mass 1.20,of: the masses
opposite spins of the paired
Key terms
Relative
Relative
In energy
electrons atomic
level molecular
is the
are shown
relativecan
masses
diagrams
Cl2by drawing
molecular
such and
also
as be
Figure formula
mass
used of:compare
to
1.20, the
the arrows in opposite directions. masses
opposite the masses
spins of of thedifferent
paired Shielding
which
Keyrelativereduces
terms is anthe effect
pull of
of inner
the nucleuselectrons
Relative
Relative
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a) chlorine,
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The
chlorine,
are shown
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Cl
masses2by drawing
can
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of
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M relative
). of masses
electrons of molecules
correspond are
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element
on relative
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8
8r
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masses also be used
of where
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relative to shielding, mass theofelectronsanof
The
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molecules.quantum
c) (symbol
Periodic
ethanol,
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C ).H
relative
r 2 5
of
OH By electrons
noting correspond
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first the
big periods
jump
called relative of
comes elements
in
molecular the element
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in the outer
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is
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Periodic
ionisation MTable.
molecularCr).
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itcompound
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comes sum
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the element
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masses d)
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tetrachloromethane, ). CCl of in its
the
element
‘effectivemolecular
outer
or shell
compound
nuclear formula.
are attracted
charge’ is the
which sum byis anthe
of
less
relative molecular mass 4 an element oritcompound istothepredict
sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms
successive
group
The d)toatomic
relative ionisation masses
tetrachloromethane,
which
r
the element
molecular
of all
energiesmass
the
CClofatoms
4?an
belongs.
of an
in its
element,
For
element
molecular
example, or is the
compound
formula.
possible
first isbig the jump sum in
of the
the in its molecular
‘effective nuclear formula.
charge’
relative
17 relative
The
group What atomic
toatomic is the
which masses
molecular
therelative of formula
element all
mass the ofatoms
belongs. mass
an2element
Forinof:its molecular
example,or=compound the16.0formula.
first is
big thejump sum in of the
relative
than the
in itsrelative
The atomic
full
molecular masses
charge
formula on
formula. mass of a less
of
the which
all the
nucleus. isatoms
successive
For 8 oxygen,
17
relative What ionisation
isO the , relative
masses
M (O energies
of ) formula
all the for sodium
mass
atoms
= ×inof:
Aits comes
molecular
(O) 2after
× the
formula.
= first
32.0 electron is than the full charge on
relative
successive a) atomic
magnesium 2
ionisation masses r 2
of)that
chloride,
energies all the foratoms
MgCl sodium
r
inAjust
its molecular
comes after formula.
the first electron is
in its
compound molecular
The relativeis formula formula.
the sum mass ofthe thenucleus.
ofrelative
a
For
removed.
and oxygen,
a)
for This
magnesium
sulfuric O 2 , M
suggests
acid, r (O
chloride,
M 2 (H SO sodium
MgCl
) == 2 2has
2 ×× A r (O)
(H) one=
+ 2
A ×(S) 16.0
electron + 4 =in
× 32.0
Aits (O)outermost The relative
compound isformula
the sum mass
of the ofrelative
a
For oxygen, O Mr(O
,oxide, 2r) that 4 = 2 has × Ajust rr(O)one = 2 electron
×
r 16.0 =in32.0 atomic
The relativemasses of all the atoms a in its
isformula mass ofrelative
2 sodium 2
removed.
shell b) sulfuric
and,
and oxygen,
for This
iron( iii)2suggests
therefore, Mrit
,acid, Mmust
Fe 2O3be in Group 2 ××1. 2A× itsr (O)
A outermost compound theofsum ofHighest
the
2)r(H 2 SO4) = (H)+= +32.1 r(S) +× 4=×
For O (O = (2 A1.0) energy
b) iron( iii ) 2oxide, Fe O r(O) + 16.0
(4 32.0
16.0) r = 98.1 atomic masses
formula.
compound is the all the
sum of atoms
the relative in its
and for
shell and,
c) sulfuric
therefore,
hydrated acid, it
copper( M must(H
2 3 SO
be
r ii)2sulfate, in
4 ) =
Group2
CuSO × A
1. (H)
r.5H O? r + A (S) + 4 × A r (O) atomic masses of all the level
atoms
Highest – electron
in its
energy
and for c) sulfuric
hydrated acid,
copper( M r(H SO4) =CuSO
ii) 2sulfate, 2(2××A41.0) r(H)
.5H +
2 +32.1
O? Ar(S) + (4 + 4× ×16.0) Ar(O) = 98.1 formula.
atomic masses of all the easily
atoms
level – removed
in
electronits
Test
Metal
18 Look yourself
compoundscarefullyconsist at Figure giant=structures
of 1.15. (2 × 1.0) +
4 of 32.1
2 ions +and (4 not
× 16.0) molecules.= 98.1 To formula.
easily removed
Test
Metal
18 Look yourself
compounds
carefully consist atthat Figure of 1.15.
giant =structures
(2 × 1.0) +
of 32.1 +and (4 ×
ionsmolecules, not16.0) molecules.= 98.1 use To formula. Intermediate
avoid the suggestion their formulae represent chemists
Metal
19
avoid a) compounds
Write What is
equations the consist
relative
to of
represent: giant
molecular structures
mass of
of ions
the and
hydrocarbon?not molecules. To energy
Intermediate level –
the
Metal a)the
term suggestion
relative
compounds
What is the formula
consistthat of
relative their
mass
giantformulae
molecular (symbol
structures
mass represent
Mof ), the
rof not
ions molecules,
relative
and notmolecular
hydrocarbon? chemists
molecules. mass, use
To Tip electrons harder
avoid
19
theionic
term
a) the
Write
b)the The
the suggestion
equations
fragment
relative
second formula that
to
ionisation their
represent:
of the formulae
hydrocarbon
mass
energy (symbol represent
with
of calcium Mr),relative molecules,
mass
not molecules,
relative chemists
15 chemists
molecularis a CH mass,use energy level –
for
avoid b) The compounds
suggestion
fragment and
that for
their
of the mass other compounds
formulae
hydrocarbon represent
with with
Mr),relative
not
giant structures
mass molecular
15 is a CHmass, such
3 use as Tip to remove harder
electrons
the term
for ionic
silicon a)dioxide,relative
the
group. second
compounds What
SiO
formula
ionisation
doandyou energy
think
forenergy
other (symbol
the of calcium
fragments
compounds arerelative
with with
giantrelative
structures masses 3
such as Tip
Section A1.1 of AppendixtoA1 removeon
the
for
b)
term
ionic
the third
relative
group.
compounds What 2 .do
ionisation
formula and youfor mass
think
other
of
the aluminium.
(symbol
fragments
compounds Mr), with not
are relative
with
giant molecular
relative
structures masses mass,
such as Tip
Section A1.1 of Appendix A1 onto
silicon of
b) dioxide,
the 29thirdand SiO 43? .
ionisation energy of aluminium. page 626 gives advice on how
Lowest energy
for
20ionic
silicon
For The
magnesium ofcompounds
successive
dioxide,29 and SiO 43?
nitrate, . and for other
2ionisation compounds
energies of beryllium with are giant 900, structures
1757, such as Section
page 626A1.1 of Appendix
gives advice on A1
level how –onelectrons
to
2 work
Section out the
A1.1 value
of advice of
Appendixmaths Lowest
A1 ontoenergy
equations
silicon
For c)
20 magnesium
The
14 Draw
dioxide,
849successive
and a SiOpossible
21 2007
nitrate, .ionisation
kJstructure
mol−1energies for theofhydrocarbon.
. for beryllium are 900, 1757, page 626 gives on how
hardest
level to remove
– electrons
c) Draw a possible structure the hydrocarbon. work
with out
pagebrackets
626the the
givesvalue
and of maths
combinations
advice on how equations of remove
toto
ForMmagnesium
(Mg(NO
14 What
ra) 849 and 3 )2nitrate,
)21= 007 Ar(Mg) kJ mol + −12 .× [Ar(N) + 3 × Ar(O)] work
Figure out
1.20 Theand value
energy of maths hardest equations
levels of electrons
ForMmagnesium
(Mg(NO is) the
nitrate,
) = atomic
A (Mg) number
+ 2 × of beryllium?
[A (N) + 3 × A (O)] with brackets
multiplication
work out the and
value combinations
addition.
of maths equations of
Notice
M
r
a)
(Mg(NOthat,
What by
is ) the
) =
3 2 carefully
= 24.3
atomic
A
r +interpreting
(Mg) 2+×2(14.0
number × [Aof +r(N)48.0)
the+data
beryllium? 3=×148.3 Afrom
r
(O)] mass spectrometers, inFigure with
a brackets
1.20
sodium
multiplication The
atom. and
energy combinations
levels
and combinations
addition. of of
electrons
Notice rb) that,
Why do by3 2successive ionisation renergies always get more
)carefully +interpreting the +data from
Ar(O)]mass spectrometers, inmultiplication with brackets and and of
r r
Mr(Mg(NO
chemists can do deduce: =A
3)2successive 24.3r(Mg) 2+×2(14.0× [A+ (N)48.0)
renergies 3=×148.3 a sodium atom. addition.
b) Why
endothermic?
chemists can deduce: = 24.3 + ionisation
2 × (14.0 + 48.0) = always
148.3 get more multiplication and addition.
● the endothermic? = 24.3 + 2 ×elements (14.0 + 48.0) = 148.3
c)isotopic
Draw ancomposition
energy levelofdiagram for the electrons in beryllium, and
● the isotopic composition of elements
● thec)relative Draw an
predict atomic
itsenergy
electronmasseslevel of elements
diagram
structure. for the electrons in beryllium, and
● the relative atomic masses of elements
● the relative predict molecular
its electron masses of
structure. compounds.
● thed)relative To which group inmasses
molecular the Periodicof compounds.Table does beryllium belong?
Chemists d) Towho whichseparate group inand the synthesise
Periodic Table newdoes compounds berylliumcan belong? 1.4 Isotopes and relative isotopic masses 21
also identify
Chemists who separate and synthesise new compounds can also identify 1.4 Isotopes and relative isotopic masses 21
the fragments in the mass spectra of these compounds. Then, by piecing 1.4 Isotopes and relative isotopic masses 21
the fragments in the mass spectra of these compounds. Then, by piecing 1.4new Isotopes and relative isotopic masses 21
the fragments together, they can identify possible structures for the
the fragments together, they can identify possible structures for the new
compounds. 1.5 Evidence for the electronic structure of atoms 25
compounds.
469983_01_Chem_Y1-2_012-038.indd 21 1.5 Evidence for the electronic structure of atoms 2513/04/1
The combination
469983_01_Chem_Y1-2_012-038.indd 21 of gas chromatography and mass spectrometry is 13/04/1
The combination of gas chromatography and mass spectrometry is
particularly important
469983_01_Chem_Y1-2_012-038.indd 21 in modern chemical analysis. Chromatography is first 13/04/1
particularly important
469983_01_Chem_Y1-2_012-038.indd 21 in modern chemical analysis. Chromatography is first 13/04/1
used to separate the chemicals in an unknown mixture, such as polluted
used to separate25 the chemicals in an unknown mixture, such as polluted
water or similar compounds synthesised for possible use as drugs. Then mass
469983_01_Chem_Y1-2_012-038.indd 13/04/1
water or similar 25compounds synthesised for possible use as drugs. Then mass Table 1.3 Electron configurations of
469983_01_Chem_Y1-2_012-038.indd 13/04/1
spectrometry is used to detect andElectronic identify the separated components.
structure
spectrometry
Element is used to detect and identify the separated components. Tableelements
four 1.3 Electron in theconfigurations
fourth period.of[Ar]
Electronic structure
and symbol spdf notation
Element Electrons-in-boxes notation four elements
represents theinelectronic
the fourthconfiguration
period. [Ar] of
and symbol spdf notation Electrons-in-boxes notation represents
argon: 2 the2p
1s 2s 2 electronic
6 3s 3p .configuration of
2 6
3d 4s 4p
23 Table
ructure and the Periodic Write the electronic sub-shell structure for the elements in
Potassium argon: 1s22s22p63s23p6.
23 Table
Write the electronic sub-shell 3d
[Ar] this structure 64s 4p
ructure and the Periodic would be for
1s22the
2s22elements
3s11. in
[Ar]4s 1
K23 Question
Potassium
Write the
Question
22 – for sodium
electronic sub-shell
22 – for sodium
[Ar]4s 1 structure for the 2p
elements
[Ar] this would be 1s 2s 2p 3s .
6 in
K 24 Draw the electrons-in-boxes
Question representations
22 – for sodium this would be 1s22sfor22p
the following
63s 1.
24 Draw the electrons-in-boxes representations for the following
24 elements:
Vanadium
Draw the
elements:[Ar]3d 34s2 [Ar]
electrons-in-boxes representations for the following
VVanadium [Ar]
a) boron[Ar]3d
elements:
3 4s2
b) fluorine 13/04/19 10:15 PM
V a) boron b) fluorine 13/04/19 10:15 PM
a) phosphorus
Iron c) boron 6
[Ar]3d 4s 2 [Ar] b) potassium.
d) fluorine
c) phosphorus d) potassium.
Fe
Iron
25 Identify the
c) phosphorus elements
6
[Ar]3d 4s 2 with
[Ar] the following
d) electron structures in their
potassium.
Fe25 outermost
Identify theshells:
elements with the following electron structures in their
25 outermost
BromineIdentify[Ar]3d
theshells:
elements with the following electron structures in their
104s24p5 [Ar]
a) 1s 2 b) 2s22p2
Br outermost shells:
Bromine
a) 1s22 [Ar]3d 4s 4p [Ar]
10 2 5
b) 2s222p42
Br c)a) 3s
1s2 b) 3s
d) 2s23p
2p2.
c) 3s2 d) 3s23p4.
3s2
Testc)yourself d) 3s23p4.
TheTestdevelopment
yourself of knowledge and understanding about electronic
The development
structures illustrates of knowledge
how chemists use and understanding
the results of atoms about electronic
their experiments, such
26 Write
The the electronic
development sub-shell
of knowledge structure
and for the
understanding of theseelectronic
about
structures
as theelementsillustrates
measurements how chemists use the results of their experiments, such
26 Write
structures usingof
the electronic
illustrates ionisation
spdf
how sub-shellenergies,
notation:
chemists structure
use the to devise
for
results the
of atomic
atoms
their models
of thesethat they
experiments, such
as the
can usemeasurements
to explain
elements theof
using ionisation
properties
spdf ofenergies,
notation: elements.to Itdevise atomic models
also illustrates that they
the important
as thea) scandium
measurements
can use to explain of ionisation energies,
b) manganese
to devise atomic models that they
distinction
can a)
use to betweenthe
scandium
explain the
properties
evidence
properties andof
of
elements. It also
experimental
b) manganese
elements. It dataillustrates
also on the one
illustrates
the hand,
the
important
and
important
Bilal c) zincbetween evidence and experimental
Hameed
distinction d) germanium. data on the one hand, and Atomic Structure 4
ideas, theories
distinction and explanations on the other.
27 c)
ideas, zincbetween
theories
Identify and
the evidencewithand
explanations
elements on experimental
the the germanium.
d) other.
following data structures:
electron on the one hand, and
ideas,
In 27 theories
particular,
Identify and6 explanations
ionisation energies onandthe other.electron
spectra have provided chemists with
a) 1s22sthe
In particular,
22pelements with
2 the
3s23penergies
ionisation
64s following structures:
and spectra have provided chemists with
32

1 0
In the radioactive decay of an isotope of lead to an isotope of bismuth, a particle –1X is emitted.
0 33
2
Which particle is –1X?
Section A
A electron
For each question there are four possible answers,2 A, B, C, and D. Choose the one you consider to be
B ion
correct.
Section
Section A
A
C neutron
1For
1 each
InDthequestion
proton theredecay
are four possible answers, A, an
B, C, and D.
ofChoose
bismuth,the one you consider
0 to be
correct.
radioactive of an isotope of lead to isotope a particle –1X is emitted.
Which particle is 0
–1X?
2 As a simplification, an adult human can be considered to have a daily diet of 1.80 kg of
1 The use of the Data Booklet is relevant to this question.
Acarbohydrate
electron (empirical formula CH2O).
is the number of molecules in 500 cm3 of oxygen under room conditions?
Whation
B
Which mass of carbon dioxide does a person produce each day if all the carbohydrate eaten is
C neutron
Adigested
1.25 x and
1022oxidised?
!D
BA proton
1.34 x 1022
0.267 kg B 0.800 kg C 1.32 kg D 2.64 kg
[S'02 P1 Q01]
C 3.0 x 1022
22 As
D a3.0simplification,
x 1026 an adult human can be considered to have a daily diet of 1.80 kg of
3 The diagram
carbohydrate shows the
(empirical massCH
formula spectrum of a sample of naturally-occurring copper.
2O).
2 Which mass of carbon

In the preparation of softdioxide doesglyceryl
margarine, a person produce each day if all the carbohydrate eaten is
7 trieleostearate
digested and oxidised?
6
A 0.267 kg CHB3(CH 2)3CH CHCH 5 CHCH CH(CH
D 2)72.64
CO2CH
0.800 relative C 1.32 kg
kg kg 2
abundance 4
CH3(CH2)3CH CHCH CHCH CH(CH2)7CO2CH
3
3 The diagram shows the mass spectrum of2a sample of naturally-occurring copper.
CH3(CH2)3CH CHCH CHCH CH(CH2)7CO2CH2
1
7
is suitably hydrogenated so that, on average, one63of64its
61 62 65side-chains
66 67 68 is converted into the
CH3(CH2)4CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7CO 6 residue and two side-chains are converted into the
2 m/e
residue. 5
CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7CO2relative
abundance 4
How
Whatmany moles
is the of hydrogen
relative are required
atomic mass of 3thistocopper?
convert one mole of glyceryl trieleostearate into the
soft margarine? 2
1
! AA 463.3 B 5
B 63.5
C 6
C
D
63.6
9
D 64.0
[S'02 P1 Q03]
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68
m/e
33 Which isotope of an element in the third period of the Periodic Table contains the same number of
32
neutrons as 16 S?
What is the relative atomic mass of this copper?
23
A 11 Na
A 63.3
24 B 63.5 C 63.6 D 64.0
B 12 Mg
28
C 14 Si
31
D 15 P
!
[S'03 P1 Q03]
9701/1/M/J/02
4 The successive ionisation energies, in kJ mol–1, of an element X are given below.
870 1800 3000 3600 5800 7000 13 200
What is X?
A 33As B 40Zr C 52Te D

9701/1/M/J/02 53I
9701/1/M/J/03

1 Granular urea, CON2 H4 , can be used to remove NO2 from the flue gases of power stations,
234
3
converting it into harmless nitrogen.
Section A + yH O + zN
4 2CON2 H4 + x NO2 → 2CO
4 Unnilpentium is an artificial element. One of its isotopes is 262
105Unp.
2 2 2
For each
Whatquestion there are
are the values four
of x, possible
y and z in aanswers,
balancedA,equation?
B, C, and D. Choose the one you consider to
Which of the following statements is correct?
be correct.
A 262Unp
x
has a nucleon number of 105.
y z
1 105hydrocarbon
A pure is used in bottled gas for cooking and heating.
1½ 260 2 262
B The atom 105X is an isotope of 105Unp.
A 1¼
When
B 10 2 cm3 of the4 hydrocarbon
3
3 262is burned in 70 cm3 of oxygen (an excess), the final gaseous
Cmixture
There are 262
contains 30 neutrons
3
in 105dioxide
cm of carbon Unp. and 20 cm of unreacted oxygen. All gaseous volumes
were
C measured
3 under
4 identical
3½
262
conditions.
D The proton number of105 Unp is 262.
! What
D is the
3 formula4of the hydrocarbon?
3
[W'03 Q04]
5 The
A table
C2H6 gives the successive
B C3H6 ionisation C energies
C3H8 for an element
D C4HX.
5
10
2 The diagram shows the mass spectrum of a sample of zinc. Use the data to calculate the relative
atomic mass of the sample.
2 1st due to2nd
On collision, airbags in cars inflate rapidly 3rd of 4th
the production nitrogen. 5th 6th
100
ionisation
The nitrogen is formed / kJ mol–1
energyaccording to the950 1800
following 2700
equations. 4800 6000 12300
80
2NaN3 → 2Na + 3N2
What could be the formula of the chloride
60
of X ?
relative
10Na + 2KNO3 → K2O + 5Na2O + N2
abundance / %
A XCl B XCl2 C XCl3 D XCl4
40
How many moles of nitrogen gas are produced from 1 mol of sodium azide, NaN3?
A 1.5 B 1.6 20C 3.2 D 4.0

6 Which molecule contains only six bonding electrons?
0
3 AThe C 2 4 B C
firstHsix ionisation
2F6
energies C elements,
of four D65D, are
H2O 64A to NF663
67
given.
Ar
Which element is most likely to be in Group IV of the Periodic Table?
3
7 ! Chemists
A 65 have beenBinterested 65.25 in the properties
C 65.5 of hydrogen D selenide,
65.66 H2Se, to compare it with
‘bad egg’ gas
ionisation hydrogen sulphide, H S.
2 this question. [W'04 Q02]
4 Use of the Data Booklet 1stis relevant
2nd to 3rd 2 4th 5th 6th
energy / kJ mol−1
63 Which
The foul
It isSH, setsmell
now of data
thought would
that skunks
that the spray
where hydrogen selenide
is due
an element molecule
to a number
exists
Section as
of be
A several expected
isotopes, tothe
thiols, have?
one of which is methanethiol,
stable ones usually
CH 3 which burns as follows.
contain aA‘magic number’ 494 of neutrons.
4560 One 6940 9540
of these magic 13400
numbers 16600 is 126.
For each number B ofthere
question lone pairs CH3SH
are
736 four 1450bond
possible+ 3Oangle
answers,
7740 A, B,
10500 C, and
13600D. Choose
18000 the one you consider to
2 → CO2 + SO2 + 2H2 O
Which isotope is unstable?
Con Se atom
be correct.
3 1090 2350 4610 6220 37800
3 47000
AA sample
209
Bi of 10 cm ofBmethanethiol
208 was exploded
C 210Powith 60 cm Dof oxygen. 208
!A
Pb Tl
D 1 1400 2860 104 °
4590 7480 9400 53200
1 What
The petrol
wouldadditive tetraethyl-lead(IV),
be the final Pb(C2Hmixture
volume of the resultant 5)4, is now banned
of gases when in cooled
many to room [W'04
countries. WhenQ04]
it is
Bcompletely burned
temperature? 2 in air, lead(II) oxide, 104CO° 2 and H2O are formed.
74
5 An atom has eight electrons.
C In which species
How20
A many 2 are
cm3 moles
the numbers
ofBoxygen30 cm 3
are 109C°to burn
of electrons
required
and neutrons
3
50 cmone
equal?
mole ofDPb(C 702cm H5)34?
Which 9 diagram shows the 19 electronic configuration +of this atom in18its lowest energy state?
DA 4 Be 2 180C° 11 Na
23 2–
! A 9.5
B 9F D O
B 11 C 13.5 D 8 27
© UCLES 2004 9701/01/O/N/04 [S'05 Q04]
A
82 Which ion has more electrons than protons and more protons than neutrons?
B [H = 11 H ; D = 2
1H ;O= 16
8 O]
D– H3O+ OD– OH–

!
A B C D
© UCLES 2005
C
9701/01/M/J/05 [W'05 Q02]
3 What is the electronic configuration of an element with a second ionisation energy higher than
that of each of its neighbours in the Periodic Table?
9701/1/O/N/03 [Turn over
D 1s22s22p63s2
A
1s22s22p
AtomicBStructure
6 2
11 3s 3p
1
Bilal Hameed
6 CThe 1s
gecko,
2 2 a6 small
2s 2p 3s 3p2 2 lizard, can climb up a smooth glass window. The gecko has millions of
microscopic hairs on its toes and each hair has thousands of pads at its tip. The result is that the
1s22s22p
molecules
D 6
3s2pads
in the 3p3 are extremely close to the glass surface on which the gecko is climbing.
3 Gallium nitride, GaN, could revolutionise the design of electric light bulbs because only a small
–3
lengthisused
What as a filament
the minimum gives
volume of excellent
0.5 mol dmlight at low cost.
NaOH(aq) needed to dispose of 0.02 mol of N2O4?
3
A 8 cmnitride
Gallium is an B
ionic12.5 cm3
compound C 35 40 cm
containing
3
the Ga3+ ion. D 80 cm3
What is the electron arrangement of the nitrogen ion in gallium nitride?

92 A sample of chlorine containing isotopes of 2 mass numbers 35 and 37 was analysed in a
A 1s2 2s2
mass-spectrometer.
B 1s2 2s2 2p3 Section A
How many peaks corresponding to Cl 2+ were recorded?
2
C 1s
For each 2s2 2pthere
question
4
are four possible answers, A, B, C, and D. Choose the one you consider to
! D 1s2 2s2 2p6
A 2
be correct. B 3 C 4 D 5
[S'06 Q02]
10
13 The isotopic
Gallium composition
nitride, GaN, couldof an element is indicated
revolutionise
201
the designbelow.
of electric light bulbs because only a small
4 A radioactive
length used asisotope of thallium,
a filament 81 Tl, is
gives excellent used
light at to
lowassess
cost. damage in heart muscles after a heart
attack. 5
Gallium nitride is an ionic compound containing the Ga3+ ion.
Which statement about 201 4
81 Tl is correct?
What is the electron arrangement of the nitrogen ion in gallium nitride?
relative 3
A This 2 isotope has a nucleon number of 120.
A 1s 2s 2
abundance 2
B The number of electrons2 in one atom of this isotope is 81.
B 1s2 2s2 2p3
C The number of neutrons1 in one atom of this isotope is 201.
Section A
C 1s2 2s2 2p4
D 201
For each question
822X is
there are four
2 an6 isotope of 81 0Tl.possible answers, A, B, C, and D. Choose the one you consider to
201
! D
be correct.1s 2s 2p 9 10 11 12
mass number [S'06 Q04]
114 A radioactive isotope of thallium, 201

Tl, is used to assess damage in heart muscles after a heart
1 The
What isotopic
is composition
the relative of anofelement
atomic mass 81 is indicated
the element? below.
attack.
A 10.2 B 10.5 5 C 10.8 D 11.0
Which statement about 201 81 Tl is correct?
4
2© UCLES
Use
A of
2006the Data Booklet is relevant to this 9701/01/M/J/06
This isotope has a nucleon number ofquestion.
120.
relative 3
abundance
Oxides
B The ofnumber
nitrogenofare pollutant
electrons ingases which
one atom of are
this emitted
isotope from
is 81.car exhausts.
2
C urban
In The traffic,
number of neutrons
when in oneone
a car travels atom of this isotope
kilometre, is 201.
it releases 0.23 g of an oxide of nitrogen NxOy,
occupies 120 cm3. 201 1
which201
D 82 X is an isotope of 81 Tl.
What are the values of x and y?0

9 10 .) 11 12
3
(Assume 1 mol of gas molecules occupies 24.0 dm
A x = 1, y = 1 mass number
BWhat
x =is1,the
y = relative
2 atomic mass of the element?
C x = 2, y = 1
!D
A 10.2
© UCLES 2006
B 10.5 C 10.8
9701/01/M/J/06
D 11.0
x = 2, y = 4
[S'07 Q01]
12
3
2 Use of the Data Booklet is relevant to this question.
John Dalton’s atomic theory, published in 1808, contained four predictions about atoms.
Oxides of nitrogen are pollutant gases which are emitted from car exhausts.
Which of his predictions is still considered to be correct?
AIn urban
Atoms traffic,
are verywhen
smalla3incar travels one kilometre, it releases 0.23 g of an oxide of nitrogen NxOy,
size.
which occupies 120 cm .
B No atom can be split into simpler parts.
What are the values of x and y?
C All the atoms of a particular element have the same3mass.
(Assume 1 mol of gas molecules occupies 24.0 dm .)
! DA Allx the atoms of one element are different in mass from all the atoms of other elements.
= 1, y = 1
[S'07 Q03]
B x = 1, y = 2
© UCLES
C 2007x = 2, y = 1 9701/01/M/J/07
Bilal Hameed
D x = 2, y = 4 Atomic Structure 11
3 John Dalton’s atomic theory, published in 1808, contained four predictions about atoms.
be correct.
Section A
1 ForIneach
the question
Basic Oxygen steel-making
there are four possibleprocess
answers,the P4 O
A, B, impurity
C,10 and is removed
D. Choose the oneby
youreacting
considerittowith
36 is3 the salt calcium phosphate, Ca (PO ) .
be calcium
correct. oxide. The only product of this reaction
3 3 4 2
134 In4 this

The diagrams
reaction,
The diagrams howshow
show many the possible
moles
the possible
paths oxide
ofpaths
calcium of subatomic particles
reactparticles
of subatomic with moving
one moving
mole P4 in
of in O10an
an ? electric field in a
electric field in a
vacuum.
! Use1 of the Data Booklet
1 vacuum.
A B 1.5
is relevant to this question.
C 3 D 6
+ + +
Titanium(IV) oxide, TiO+2, is brilliantly white and much of+ the oxide produced is used +in the
manufacture of paint.
2 Use electrons
of the Data Booklet is relevant to neutrons
this question. protons
electrons
What is the maximum amount of neutronsTiO2 obtainable from 19.0 tonnes protons
of the ore ilmenite, FeTiO3?
– – –
A typical solid fertiliser for use with household plants and shrubs contains the elements N, P, and
KAin the
10.0 tonnes
ratio –12.7
of 15 g :B30 g
31
:15 gtonnes
per 100 g Cof fertiliser.
14.0 tonnes – D 17.7 tonnes
The recommended usage of fertiliser–is 14 g
2 3
1 of water.
of fertiliser per 5 dm 2 3
2 WhatWhich
Carbon diagrams
disulphide
is diagrams
the are correct?
vapour
concentration ofburns in oxygen
nitrogen atomsaccording to the following equation.
in this solution?
Which are correct?
A 1mol
AA 0.03 and 2 –3
only CS2(g) + 3O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2SO2(g)
1 and 2 dm only
B 1 and 3 –3 only3
BB 0.05
A sample
1 andmol 10 cm of carbon disulphide was burned in 50 cm3 of oxygen. After measuring the
3ofdm
only
volume
C 2ofand gas3 remaining,
only
–3 the product was treated with an excess of aqueous sodium hydroxide
CC 0.42
and 2the
mol
and 3 dm
only of gas measured again. All measurements were made at the same temperature
volume
!D
Dpressure,
and0.75 1, 2 andunder
–33 such conditions that carbon disulphide was gaseous.
D 1, 2 mol
anddm 3
[S'07 Q04]
What were the measured volumes?
5 The CN– ion is widely used in the synthesis of organic compounds.
1453 SkinCN
The –
cancer
ion iscan be used
widely treated using
in the a radioactive
synthesis of organicisotope of phosphorus, 15
compounds. 32
P . A compound
What is volume
the patternof gas
of electron 32pairs volume
3 − in this ion?of gas after
containing the phosphide / cmion
3 , wrapped
15 P adding in a plastic
NaOH(aq) / cm3 sheet, is strapped to the affected
What is theafter burning
pattern of electron pairs in this ion?
area.
A bonding 30pairs of lone pairs on lone
0 pairs on
electrons carbon atom nitrogen atom
What isbonding pairs of oflone
the composition the pairs on
phosphide lone32pairs
ion, 15 P
3 − on
?
B electrons30 carbon atom 20
nitrogen atom
A 2 1 1
C
A 2 50 1 20 1
B protons 2 neutrons 2electrons 1
D
BA C 2 50 2 40 1
15 3 17 1 18 1
C D
B 153 3 17 1 1
32 1 2
3 In which pair do both atoms have one electron only in an s orbital in their ground states?
D 3 1 2
C 17 15 17
A Ca, Sc B Cu, Be C H, He D Li, Cr
6 DPlastic bottles
32 for ‘fizzy 17 drinks’ are made 15 from a polymer with the following structure.
6 ! Plastic bottles for ‘fizzy drinks’ are made from a polymer with the following structure.
H [S'08 Q03]
X
15 H C
Hard water contains calcium ions and hydrogencarbonate X ions arising from dissolved calcium
hydrogencarbonate, Ca(HCO3)2. C C
H
C H n
How many electrons are present in the hydrogencarbonate anion?
H
H n
! A 30
The ability of theBpolymer 31 to preventCescape 32 of carbon dioxideD 33 through the wall of the bottle
depends on the ability of the group X to form hydrogen bonds with the carbon dioxide in the drink.
The ability of the polymer to prevent escape of carbon dioxide through the wall of the [W'08 Q04]
bottle
depends on the ability of the group X to form
Which group X best prevents loss of carbon dioxide? hydrogen bonds with the carbon dioxide in the drink.
Which
© UCLES A
2008 group
Cl X best prevents
B CN loss of carbon Cdioxide?
CO2 CH3
9701/01/M/J/08 D OH
A Cl B CN C CO2 CH3 D OH
© UCLES 2008 9701/01/O/N/08
© UCLES 2007 9701/01/M/J/07 [Turn over

Section
For each question there are four possible answers, A and D. Choose the one you consider to
A, B, C,
be correct.
For each question there are four possible answers, A, B, C, and D. Choose the one you consider to
37
be correct.
1 The molecular energy distribution curve represents the variation in energy of the molecules of a
gas at room temperature.
16
1 An element X consists of four isotopes. The mass spectrum of X is shown in the diagram.
100
proportion
of 80 3
molecules
2 In the ideal gas equation, pV = nRT, what are the units of n and T ?
relative 60
abundance
n T
% 40 0
0
A no units °C energy
B curve
no applies
20 K
units for the same
Which gas at a lower temperature?
C mol °C
A0 B
D mol K 90 91 92 93 94
2
m/e
proportion
3 The reaction VI) proportion
ions, Cr2O7 , and aqueous Fe2+ ions results in the
Section A 2–
is the between acidifiedmass
dichromate(
of dichromate(VI) ions being reduced to Cr3+ ions.of
What relative atomic of X?
molecules
For each question there are four possible answers, molecules
A, B, C, and D. Choose the one you consider to
! What
A 91.00 B 91.30
is the correct equation for this reaction?
be correct. C 91.75 D 92.00
[W'09 P1 Q04]
2– 2+ + 3+ 3+
A 0 2O7 + Fe + 14H → 2Cr + Fe + 7H2O 0
Cr
17
21 0.200 0 He,
Helium,mol of a hydrocarbon undergo complete 0
combustion
is the2+second +element3+in the Periodic Table. to give 35.2 g of carbon dioxide and
B Cr O
14.4 2 7
g of 2–
+
water 2Fe
as energy
+
the 14H
only → 2Cr
products. + 2Fe 3+
+ 7H2O energy
3
2–the isotope
C Cr2Ois
Tritium 7 + 3Fe2+ + of
14H
C
+
→ 2Cr3+
hydrogen H.+ 3Fe3+ + 7H O
D
What is the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon?2
2– 2+ + 3+ 3+
D Cr2is
What O7the +same atom→of2Cr
6Fe in +an14H 4
+ 6Fe
He and + 7H
an atom of2O
3
H?
A C 2 H4 B C2 H6 C C 4H 4 D C 4H 8
proportion
A the number of electrons
4 Sodium azide, NaN3 is an explosive used to inflateproportion
airbags in cars when they crash. It consists of
of positive
B thesodium
numberions
of and negative azide ions. of
neutrons
molecules molecules
What
C the are number
the numbers of electrons in the sodium ion and the azide ion?
of protons
D 0the relative atomic mass 0
sodium ion
0 azide ion 0
! energy energy [S'11 P12
A
Q01] 10 20
2 Which diagram correctly shows the bonding in the ammonium ion, NH4+?
B 10 22
18
2 In which species are the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons all different?
key C 12 20A B
AN 11electron + 11 +
19 − 23 + 24 2+
! D 5 B
12
B 9 F
22
C Na D 12 Mg
H H [S'12 P12 Q02]
H electron
19 H N H H N H
5 The 68Ge isotope is medically useful because it undergoes a natural radioactive process to give
an isotope of a different element, 68X, which can be used to detect tumours. This transformation
H
of 68Ge occurs when an electron enters the
H
nucleus and changes a proton into a neutron.
© UCLES 2012 9701/12/M/J/12
Which statement about the composition of an atom of 68X is correct?
A It has 4 electrons in its outerCp orbitals. D

B It has 13 electrons in its outer shell. + +
H H
C 2009
© UCLES It has 37 neutrons. 9701/11/O/N/09
!D Its proton number isH32. N H H N H

[S'12 P1 Q02]
H H

© UCLES 2016 9701/11/O/N/16 [Turn over
reactants
What is the order of their first ionisation energies?
C +5 +3 enthalpy
0 –2
D least
+5 +3 +4 +6 most
endothermic 38
endothermic
products
202 A Fr Ra Rn
Use of the Data Booklet is relevant to this question.
B Fr Rn progress
Ra of reaction
In which species are the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons all different?
C
Which Ra change could
enthalpy Fr the diagramRn 2not apply to?
A 199 F B 23 31 32 2 −
− +
Na C 15 P D 16 S
! D Rn
11
Ra Fr
Section A
A enthalpy of atomisation [S'10 P1 Q01]
For
3 each question there areenergies
four possible answers, A, B,
areC,given.
and D. Choose the one you consider to
21be
BThe enthalpy
first of combustion
six ionisation of four elements
5 correct.
In which species are the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons all different?
C enthalpy of formation −
Which
27 element is most likely
B 35 to be in Group IVSof
32 2 − the Periodic Table?
D 39
+
A 13 Al 17 Cl C 16 19 K
! D diagram
1 The enthalpybelow
of neutralisation
represents, for a given temperature, the Boltzmann distribution of the kinetic
−1
/ kJ molthat [S'13 P1 Q05]
energy of the molecules inionisation
a mixtureenergy
of two gases react slowly together.
6 An experiment is set up to measure the rate of hydrolysis of ethyl ethanoate.
22
4
1st
Use activation
of the Data
2nd
Booklet
3rd
is relevant
4th 5th 6th
The energy for the reaction, to
Ea,this question.
is marked.
A 494 4 560CH3CO26C2940 H5 + H29 O 540 CH 3CO
13 4002H + 16
C2600H5OH
When the reaction
The most common is ion-molecule
catalysed, the reaction
rate of reaction
in gas increases
clouds ofathe
little.
Universe is as shown.
TheB hydrolysis
736 is found
1 450to be 7slow 740 in neutral
10 500aqueous solution
13 600 18 but000it proceeds at a measurable
What will be
rate when the
the positionis of
solution Ea forHthe
acidified catalysed
with + reaction?
hydrochloric acid. +
2(g) + H2 (g) → H(g) + H3 (g)
C 1 090 2 350 4 610 6 220 37 800 47 000
What is
What the function of the hydrochloric acid?
+
D could be the 2composition
1 400 860 of an H
4 590 ion?
37 480 9 400 53 200
A to dissolve the ethyl ethanoate
protons number of
neutrons electrons
B to ensure that the reaction reaches equilibrium
molecules
C A to increase
2 the reaction1 rate by catalytic
1 action
D B to suppress
2 ionisation1 of the ethanoic
2 acid formed
C 3 0 kinetic
1 Ea
energy
D 3 0 2
! A B C D
[S'14 P13 Q04]
23
5
2
The electrolysis of brine using the diaphragm cell is an important industrial process.
What happens at the anode?
In some types of spectroscopy, it is important to know if ions are isoelectronic. This means that
© UCLES 2013
2
they contain equal
A Chloride ionsnumbers of electrons. 9701/13/M/J/13
are oxidised.
Which ion is notgas
isoelectronic with K+? Section A
B Hydrogen is produced.
!A
2+ there are four– possible answers,
For each
C Ca
question
Hydroxide ionsBareCl formed. C S2–A, B, C, and D Ti3+
D. Choose the one you consider to
be correct.
[W'14 P13 Q02]
D The electrode reaction is 2Cl –(aq) + 2e– → Cl 2(g).
24
3
1
Which row shows properties of a ceramic material?
© UCLES 2013
melting
In which do all boiling
optionpoint point
three particles conductivity
have the same electronic configuration and the
9701/11/M/J/13
same
[Turn over
/K
number of neutrons? /K of solid
A A 15N3– 1562–
16
O 19 –
F 352 none
B B 18O2– 922–
19
F 20
Ne 1380 good
C C 19F– 2130
20
Ne 23
Na+ 2943 good
D 3125 3873 none
D 22Ne 23 24
Mg2+
!
Na
[S'15 P12 Q01]

2 The shell of a chicken’s egg makes up 5% of the mass of an average egg. An average egg has a
mass of 50 g.
Assume the egg shell is pure calcium carbonate.
Atomic Structure
© UCLES
How 2014 11
many complete would be needed to neutralise 50 cm3 of 2.0Bilal
9701/13/O/N/14
chicken’s egg shells mol Hameed
dm–3
ethanoic acid?
A 1 B 2 C 3 D 4
16
[H = 11 H; D = 2
1 H; O= 8 O]
A D– B H3O+ C OD– D OH–

39
25
4 Which species contains the smallest number of electrons?
!A B3+ B Be2+ C H– D He+

3 [M'16 P12 Q04]
26
4 When nuclear reactions take place, the elements produced are different from the elements that
reacted. Nuclear equations, such as the one below, are used to represent the changes that
occur.
235 1 144 89
92 U + 0n → 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 01 n
The nucleon (mass) number total is constant at 236 and the proton number total is constant
at 92.
2
In another nuclear reaction, uranium-238 is reacted with deuterium atoms, 1 H. An isotope of a
new element, J, is formed as well as two neutrons.
238 2
92 U + 1H → J + 2 01 n
What is isotope J?
238 238 240 240
!
A Np B Pu C Np D Pu
3 [S'16 P1 Q04]
27
5 Dicarbon monoxide, C2O, is found in dust clouds in space. The structure of this molecule is
4 The relative
C=C=O. atomic mass
The molecule of copper
contains is 63.5.electrons.
no unpaired
Which
How chart
many is apairs
lone correct mass spectrum
of electrons thatinwould
are present lead toofthis
a molecule C2O?value?
© UCLES 2016 9701/12/F/M/16
A 1 B 2 A C 3 D 4 B
100%
abundance abundance 50%
6 A white powder is known to be a mixture of magnesium oxide and aluminium oxide.
33%
17% oxide in x grams of the
100 cm3 of 2 mol dm–3 NaOH(aq) is just sufficient to cause the aluminium
mixture to dissolve.
61 62 63 64 65 66 61 62 63 64 65 66
– –
m/e
The reaction occurring is Al 2O3 + 2OH + 3H 2 O → 2Al (OH)4 . m/e
800 cm3 of 2 mol dm–3 HCl (aq) is just sufficient to cause all of the oxide in x grams of the mixture
to dissolve. C D
The reactions occurring are Al 2O3 + 6H+ → 2Al 3+ + 3H2O
abundance abundance
74%
and MgO + 2H+ → Mg2+ + H2O. 33% 33%
22%
26%
How many moles of each oxide are present in x grams of the mixture? 12%
aluminium61 62magnesium
63 64 65 66 61 62 63 64 65 66
! oxide oxide m/e m/e
[S'16 P13 Q04]
A 0.05 0.25
5 Which
B isolated
0.05 gaseous atom
0.50 has a total of five electrons occupying spherically shaped orbitals?
AC boron 0.10 0.25
BD fluorine
0.10 0.50
C sodium
D potassium
6 Carbon and silicon have the same outer electronic structure.
C N–H covalent bonds are stronger than P–H covalent bonds.
D There is one lone pair in each ammonia molecule but no lone pair in each phosphine
molecule.
40
282 Neutrons are passed through an electric field. The mass of one neutron relative to 1
the mass of
12
a 12C atom and any deflection in the electric field is recorded.
Which row is correct?
mass of behaviour of beam of

neutron neutrons in an electric field
2
A 0 2
deflected
Section A
B 1 deflected Section A
For each question there are four possible answers, A, B, C and D. Choose the one you consider to
be C 0 not deflected
Forcorrect.
each question there are four possible answers, A, B, C and D. Choose the one you consider to
be correct.
D 1 not deflected 2
Use of the Data Booklet may be appropriate for some questions.
Use of the Data Booklet may be appropriate for some questions. [S'18 P13 Q02]
Section A
13 In
29 The tablepair
which refers to the
do the electron
atoms distribution
contain the sameinnumber
the second shell of an atom with eight protons.
of neutrons?
For each question there are four possible answers, A, B, C and D. Choose the one you consider to
1 correct.
be In which
Which
11 rowpair do the atoms
for thiscontain
atom? the same number of neutrons?
A B andis12correct
C
A 711Data
Use of B and9 12C
B the Li and Booklet
Be may be appropriate for some questions.
7 orbital9 shape orbital shape
B Li and Be
C 24Mg and 28Si
C 24Mg
1 What and 28
Si number of number of trifluoride?
D 14are the
Norbital
and 16shapes
type
O of the molecules
electrons
of type
orbital water and boron
electrons
D 14N and 16O
A Hp2O BF
2 3 s 4 [W'17 P12 Q01]
2 Two hydrocarbons have the formulae CWHX and CYHZ. W, X, Y and Z represent different whole
AB hydrocarbons
302 numbers.
Two
linear
p pyramidal
have 4 the formulae sCWHX and CY2HZ. W, X, Y and Z represent different whole
numbers.
BC linear
s trigonal
2 p 4
W = Y
CD non-linear
s pyramidal
4 p X
W Z2
= Y
D non-linear trigonal X Z
Which row is correct when comparing the two hydrocarbons?
Which row is correct when comparing the two hydrocarbons?
2 The electronic empirical
configuration ofmolecular
the two outermost relative
shells of an atom is 3s23p63d54s2.
formula
empirical formula
molecular molecular mass
relative
What formula
is thisdifferent
atom? formula molecular mass
A2018
© UCLES same different
9701/13/M/J/18
ABAmanganese different
different same
same different
same
Bphosphorus
BC different
same same
different same
different
Cstrontiumsame
CD same different
different different
same
D same different same
D vanadium
3 The airbags in cars contain sodium azide, NaN3, and an excess of potassium nitrate, [W'17
KNO3P12
. Q02]
33
31 The airbags
Drinking in may
water cars contain
In a car accident,
contain dissolved
sodium azide,
the reactions
NaNhydrogencarbonate,
shown calcium
3, and an excess of potassium
occur, producing Ca(HCO
nitrogen. This
nitrate,
causes3)2the
KNO3.
. airbag to inflate
rapidly.
In a car accident, the reactions shown occur, producing nitrogen. This causes the airbag to inflate
How many electrons are present in a hydrogencarbonate anion?
rapidly.
2NaN3 → 2Na + 3N2
A 30 B 31 C 32 D 33
2NaN3 → 2Na + 3N2

10Na + 2KNO3 → K2O + 5Na2O + N2 [M'18 P12 Q03]
4 Which molecule contains a10Na + 2KNO

nitrogen → K
atom3with sp2Ohybridised
+ 5Na2Oorbitals?
+ N2
How many moles of nitrogen gas are produced in total when 1 mol of sodium azide, NaN3,
decomposes
AHowCH many in an airbag?
moles of
B nitrogen
HNO3 gas are C produced
HCN in total when 1 mol of sodium azide, NaN3,
3CH2NH 2 D NH 3
decomposes in an airbag?
A 1.5 B 1.6 C 3.2 D 4.0
5 A 1.5mass of solid Bresidue
Which 1.6 is obtainedCfrom 3.2 D 4.0
the thermal decomposition of 4.10 g of anhydrous
calcium nitrate?
Atomic
A Structure
0.70 g 11 B 1.00 g C 1.40 g D 2.25 g Bilal Hameed
arequestions in thisonly
For each of the are one or moreonly
section, of the is
arethree numbered statements 1 to 3 may
be correct. correct correct correct correct
41
Decide whether each of the statements is or is not correct (you may find it helpful to put a tick against
No other combination of statements is used as a correct response.
the statements that you consider to be correct).
Section B
1
The responses A to D should be selected on the basis of
31 The isotope cobalt-60 ( 60
27 Co ) is used to destroy cancer cells in the human body.
A B C D
12 are correct?
Which statements about an atom of cobalt-60
1, 2 and 3 1 and 2 Section B 2 and 3 1 only
1 It contains 33 neutrons.
are only are only are is
2 Its
For each correct
nucleus
of the has ina this
questions relativecorrect
charge
section, of more
one or correct correct
27+. of the three numbered statements 1 to 3 may
be correct.
! whether
3 It has a different number of neutrons from the atoms of other isotopes of cobalt.
No other
Decide combination
each of of
thestatements is or
statements is used ascorrect
is not a correct
(youresponse.
may find it helpful to put a tick against
the statements that you consider to be correct). [S'04 P1 Q31]
32 The conversion of graphite has only a small positive value of !H.
2 responses
The
31 A to
The relative D should be
molecular selected
mass on the basis
of a molecule of of
chlorine is 72.
C (graphite) " C (diamond) !H = +2.1 kJ mol –1
Which properties
A of the atoms
B in this molecule C are the same? D
12
However, the production of synthetic diamonds using this reaction is very difficult.
1 radius
1, 2 and 3 1 and 2 2 and 3 1 only
Which
2 nucleon
correct number
explain this?Section
statements help tocorrect B
correct correct
For each of the questionsenergy
in this section, one or more of the three numbered statements 1 to 3 may
! 3 relative isotopic mass
1 The activation of the reaction is large.
be correct.
2 An equilibrium exists between diamond and graphite. [S'05 P1 Q31]
3 statements
32
the 3Which
Onlymolecules
that you are
exothermic planar?
reactions
consider to becan be made to occur readily.
correct).
1 BCl3 A to D should be selected
The The
responses on the basisand
of has been found in lobsters and seaweed
technetium–99 isotope (99Tc) is radioactive
33 adjacent
Which
2 NHstatements
3
about
to nuclear fuel the properties
reprocessing plants.of a catalyst are correct?
A B C D
13 A
Which PHcatalyst
statements
3 increases the
are correct average
about an atom of 99Tc?
kinetic energy of the reacting particles.
1, 2 and 3 1 and 2 2 and 3 1 only
2 ItAhas
1 catalyst increases
13 more
are
neutronsthe
thanrate of the reverse
protons.
only are
reaction.
only are is
correct correct correct o correct
33 23Boron
ItAhasis 43
a non-metallic
catalyst protons. element
has no effect on thewhich is placed
enthalpy changeabove
!H ofaluminium in Group III of the Periodic
the reaction.
Table. It forms a compound with nitrogen known as boron nitride which has a graphite structure.
!3 It has 99 nucleons.
Which of the following conclusions can be drawn from this information? [S'07 P1 Q31]
32 Which of the following solids contain more than one type of chemical bond?
4 On
31 1 aThe
scaleempirical
in whichformula of boron
the mass of a 12nitride
C atomisisBN.
12 the relative molecular mass of a particular
1 brass
sample of (an alloy is
chlorine of 72.
copper and zinc)
2 2004
! UCLES The boron and nitride atoms are likely to be arranged alternately in a hexagonal pattern.
9701/01/M/J/04 [Turn over
2 graphite
Which properties
3 Boron ofhas
nitride the atoms
a layerinstructure
this sample arevan
with always the same?
der Waals’ forces between the layers.
3 ice
1 radius
2 nucleon number
33 Many crude oils contain sulphur as H2S. During refining, by the Claus process, the H2S is
! converted
3 isotopicinto solid sulphur, which is then removed.
mass
reaction I 2H2S(g) + 3O2(g) → 2H2O(l) + 2SO2(g) [S'09 P1 Q31]

32 An ideal gas obeys the gas laws under all conditions of temperature and pressure.
reaction II 2H2S(g) + SO2(g) → 2H2O(l) + 3S(s)
Which of the following are true for an ideal gas?
Which statements about the Claus process are correct?
1 The molecules have negligible volume.
1 H2S is oxidised in reaction I.
2 There are no forces of attraction between molecules.
2 SO2 oxidises H2S in reaction II.
3 The molecules have an average kinetic energy which is proportional to its absolute
3 SO2 behaves as a catalyst.
temperature.

33UCLES
© For2007
which reactions does the value of ∆Ho represent both a standard enthalpy change of
9701/01/M/J/07
combustion and a standard enthalpy change of formation?
Decide
2 whether
as part each of the statements is or is not correct (you may find it helpful to put a tick against
of a cation
3 in an oxidation state of +5
42
532 The phosphide ion 31 P 3– and sulfide ion 3212 13
2–
A 15 B 16 S have the same number of which sub-atomic
C D
particles? Section B
1, 2 and 3 1 and 2 Section2 andB3 1 only
1 neutrons
For each arequestions in thisonly
of the are one or more
section, only
of are
the three numberedisstatements 1 to 3 may
For each ofcorrect
be correct.
the questions in this section, one or more
correct of the three numbered
correct correct statements 1 to 3 may
2 electrons
be correct.
Decide3 whether
No other protonseach of
combination of the statements
statements is oras
is used is not correct (you may find it helpful to put a tick against
Decide
the whether
statements each
that youof the statements
consider is or aiscorrect
to be correct).
response.
not correct (you may find it helpful to put a tick against
the statements that you consider to be correct). [S'12 P12 Q32]
633 responses
The
31
Which substances
The 1H3+ ion A to
was
have abe
D should giant structure?
selected
first characterised onJ.the
by J. basis of over a century ago. 6Li is a rare isotope of
Thomson
lithium forms the 6Li+ ion.
whichoxide
1 calcium
A B C D
Which
2 A
statements are correct?
calcium B C D
1, 2 and 3 1 and 2 2 and 3 1 only
13 Both1, 2are
baked claycontain
and
ions 3found in only
thecrockeryare
1 and
same 2
number only2 are
of protons. and 3 is 1 only
correct
are correct
only are correct
only are correctis
2 Both ions contain the same
correct number of electrons.correct
correct correct
No other combination
3 Both of statements
ions contain the sameisnumber
used as
ofaneutrons.
correct response.

No other combination of statements is used as a correct response. [S'04 P13 Q31]
7 In
31
32 The 2011 an international
diagram group
represents the of scientists
Boltzmann agreed
distribution to add two
of molecular new elements
energies to temperature.
at a given the Periodic
Table. Both elements had been made artificially and were called ununquadium (Uuq) and
31 ununhexium that contains both Br2 and Cl 2 , a process takes place that produces BrO3 – ions.
In a solution(Uuh).
The process is represented by the following equations.

Uuq
13 Uuh
equation 1 2 + Hnumber
Brproton 2 O → HBr + 114 HBrO
number Section B 116
of molecules 3HBrO
© UCLES 2012 equation 2 nucleon+ number
Cl 2 → –
2Cl 289 –
+ Br2 + 3H+
+ BrO3 292
9701/13/O/N/12 [Turn over
For each of the questions in this section, one or more of the three numbered statements 1 to 3 may
be correct.
Whichstatements
Which statementsabout
aboutthese
these reactions
elements areare correct?
correct?
11 whether
Decide Chlorine
One atom is
ofreduced
each of the
Uuh in equation
hasstatements
one is2.or is than
more neutron not correct
one atom(you may find it helpful to put a tick against
of Uuq.
22 One Uuq2–ision
Bromine has theinsame
oxidised both number
equation and energy
of 1electrons as one2.atom of Uuh.
equation
The 3
responses A+toionD should beboth
selected on
of the basis of Uuq– ion.
3 One can be explained using such a Boltzmann
Uuh
Bromine is has
reducedthe same number electrons as one2.
Which of the factors that in
affect equation
the rate of 1a and equation
reaction
distribution? [S'14 P13 Q31]
A B C D
8 P
32
32 and
Which
1 Qstatements
are two
increasing theliquid compounds
are correct
concentration when with r values.
similartoMthe
referring
of reactants Molecules
isotopes of Pelement?
of a single attract each other by
hydrogen bonds.
1, 2 and 3 Molecules of Q attract
1 and 2 each other by van
2 and 3der Waals’ forces
1 only.
only
2 increasing
1 The are the temperature
isotopes have different only are
masses. only are is
How docorrect
the properties of P and Q differ?
correct correct correct
3
2 the
Theaddition
isotopes of have
a catalyst
different numbers of nucleons.
1 P has higher surface tension than Q.
3 The
No other
2
isotopesof
combination have differentischemical
statements used asreactions.
P has a higher boiling point than Q.
a correct response.

[S'14 P13 Q32]

3 P is less viscous than Q.
9 Use of the Data Booklet is relevant to this
© UCLES 2013
31 9701/13/O/N/13
question.
Which statements about the phosphide ion, 31P3–, and the chloride ion, 35Cl –, are correct?
1 They have the same number of electrons.

2 They have the same number of neutrons.
3 They have the same number of protons.
[S'15 P12 Q31]

© UCLES 2014 9701/13/M/J/14
32 Why does aluminium chloride, Al2Cl6, sublime at the relatively low temperature of 180 °C?
1 The intermolecular forces between the Al 2Cl 6 molecules are weak.

2 The co-ordinate bonds between aluminium and chlorine are weak.
3 The covalent bonds between aluminium and chlorine are weak.
correct correct correct correct
For each of the questions in this section, one or more 10 of the three numbered statements 1 to 3 may
be correct.
No other combination of statements is usedSection
43 B
as a correct response.
the each
For statements
of the that you consider
questions in this to be correct).
section, one or more of the three numbered statements 1 to 3 may
10 correct.
be
31 X is a particle with 18 electrons and 20 neutrons.
Decide
Whatwhether
couldeach of symbol
be the the statements
of X? is or is not correct (you may find it helpful to put a tick against
the statementsAthat you consider toBbe correct). C D
38
1 Ar
1, 2 and
A to3 D should be1selected
and 2 on the basis
2 and
of 3 1 only
18
The responses
40 are
2+ only are only are is
2 20 Ca
A B C D
39 +
No !other 19
1,K2 and 3 of statements
1 and 2 2 and 3 1 only
3
combination is used as a correct response.
[S'16 P1 Q31]
11
31 What
32 A sample of boron
are basic contains aluminium
assumptions as the
of the kinetic onlyas
theory impurity.
appliedAtomass spectrum
an ideal gas? of the mixture
shows three lines corresponding to three ions, X+, Y+ and Z+.
1 Gas particles are in continuous random motion.
Use 2
of the Data may be ion
Bookletexperience
appropriate X+
for some Y+
questions.Z+
Gas particles no intermolecular forces.
m/e 10 11 27
3 The volume of each gas particle is zero.
31 For complete combustion, 1 percentage
mol of an organic
15.52compound
74.48 X10.00
requires 2.5 mol of O2.
abundance
33 Which
Brominecompounds
reacts withcould be X?
water.
Which statements are correct?
1 C2H5OH
Br2 + H2O HOBr + HBr
1 There are more electrons in Z+ than in X+.
2 C2H2
2 The
Which Ar of boron
oxidation in the
states ofsample
bromineis 10.83 to four significant
are present figures. mixture?
in the equilibrium
3 CH3CHO
13 +3There are more protons in Y+ than in X+.
32
12 In2 which
0 pairs do both species have the same number of electrons?
32 Which elements can form π bonds in their compounds?
13 35
–1Cl and 37Cl
1 carbon
2 35Cl – and 40Ar
2 oxygen
3 40Ar and 40K+
3 nitrogen [S'18 P12 Q32]
33 For which reactions does the value of ∆H o represent both a standard enthalpy change of
33 combustion
For which enthalpy changes enthalpy
and a standard is the value of ∆Hofalways
change negative?
formation?
11 2016
© UCLES combustion
C(s) + O (g) 2 → CO2(g) 9701/11/M/J/16 [Turn over
2 hydration
2 2C(s) + O2(g) → 2CO(g)
3 solution
3 CO(g) + 21 O2(g) → CO2(g)
© UCLES 2016 9701/11/O/N/16
© UCLES 2018 9701/12/M/J/18

44
Atomic Structure
2
WS 12 For
2 For
Examiner’s
Examiner’s
Use
Use
1 11 (a)
(a) Define
Define an
an isotope
isotope in
in terms
terms of
of its
its sub-atomic
sub-atomic particles.
particles.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
[1]
[1]
(b)
(b) In
In aa mass
mass spectrometer
spectrometer some
some hydrogen
hydrogen chloride molecules will
chloride molecules will split
split into
into atoms.
atoms. The
The
mass spectrum of HCl is given. Chlorine has two isotopes. The hydrogen involved here
is the isotope 111H only.
1
100
80
60
relative
abundance
40
20
0
35 40
m /e
(i) What particle is responsible for the peak at mass 35? .............................................
(ii) What particle is responsible for the peak at mass 38? .............................................
[2]
(c) Use the relative heights of the peaks to determine the proportions of the two isotopes of
(c)
chlorine. Explain simply how you obtained your answer.
[2]
(d) Use your answer to (c) to explain why chlorine has a relative atomic mass of 35.5.
(d)
[1]
[1]
[Total : 6]
[Total : 6]
9701/2/M/J/03
9701/2/M/J/03
45 [2]
(d) Use your answer to (c) to explain why chlorine has a relative atomic mass of 35.5.
2
[1]
Answer all the questions in the space provided.

[S'03 P1 Q01] For
[Total : 6] Examiner’s
2 1 Iron and cobalt are adjacent elements in the Periodic Table. Iron has three main naturally Use
9701/2/M/J/03
occurring isotopes, cobalt has one.
(a) Explain the meaning of the term isotope.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................... [2]
(b) The most common isotope of iron is 56Fe; the only naturally occurring isotope of cobalt
is 59Co.
Use the Data Booklet to complete the table below to show the atomic structure of 56Fe
and of 59Co.
number of
isotope protons neutrons electrons
56Fe
59Co
[3]
(c) A sample of iron has the following isotopic composition by mass.
isotope mass 54 56 57
% by mass 5.84 91.68 2.17
(i) Define the term relative atomic mass.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) By using the data above, calculate the relative atomic mass of iron to three
significant figures.
..................................................................................................................................
46
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) By using the data above, calculate the relative atomic mass of iron to three
significant figures.
[5]

[S'05 P1 Q01]
[Total: 10]
© UCLES 2005 9701/02/M/J/05

2
Answer all the questions in the spaces provided. For

47 Examiner’s
Use
3 1 In the 19th and 20th centuries, scientists established the atomic theory and showed that
three sub-atomic particles, electron, neutron and proton, exist. The masses and charges of
these three particles were subsequently determined.
When separate beams of electrons, neutrons or protons are passed through an electric field
in the apparatus below, they behave differently.
+ –
beam of particles
(a) (i) Which of these three particles will be deflected the most by the electric field?
.........................................
(ii) In which direction will this particle be deflected?
..................................................................................................................................
(iii) Explain your answer.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[4]
(b) (i) Define the term proton number.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) Why is the proton number of an atom of an element usually different from the
nucleon number of an atom of the element?
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[2]
© UCLES 2006 9701/02/O/N/06

48 3
(c) Protons and neutrons have been used in nuclear reactions which result in the formation For
of artificial elements. In such processes, protons or neutrons are accelerated to high Examiner’s
speeds and then fired like ‘bullets’ at the nucleus of an atom of an element. Use
Suggest why neutrons are more effective than protons as ‘nuclear bullets’.
..........................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................... [2]
(d) In some cases, when neutrons are fired at atoms of an element, the neutrons become
part of the nucleus of those atoms.
What effect does the presence of an extra neutron have on the chemical properties of
the new atoms formed? Explain your answer.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................... [2]
[Total: 10]

[W'06 P2 Q01]

2
49
Answer all the questions in the spaces provided. For
Examiner’s
4 1 Magnesium, Mg, and radium, Ra, are elements in Group II of the Periodic Table. Use
Magnesium has three isotopes.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................... [2]
A sample of magnesium has the following isotopic composition by mass.
% by mass 78.60 10.11 11.29
(b) Calculate the relative atomic mass, Ar, of magnesium to four significant figures.
Ar = ………………
3 [2]
Radium, proton number 88, and uranium, proton number 92, are radioactive elements. For
Examiner’s
The isotope 226Ra is produced by the radioactive decay of the uranium isotope 238U. Use
(c) Complete the table below to show the atomic structures of the isotopes 226Ra and
238U.
number of
isotopes protons neutrons electrons

226Ra
238U
[3]
(d) Radium, like other Group II elements, forms a number of ionic compounds.
(i) What is the formula of the radium cation?
© UCLES 2009 ……………… 9701/21/O/N/09
(ii) Use the Data Booklet to suggest a value for the energy required to form one mole of
the gaseous radium cation you have given in (i) from one mole of gaseous radium
Bilal Hameed atoms. Explain your answer. Atomic Structure 12
..................................................................................................................................
226Ra
238U
50 [3]
(d) Radium, like other Group II elements, forms a number of ionic compounds.
(i) What is the formula of the radium cation?
………………
(ii) Use the Data Booklet to suggest a value for the energy required to form one mole of
the gaseous radium cation you have given in (i) from one mole of gaseous radium
atoms. Explain your answer.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
2
............................................................................................................................. [3]

Answer all the questions in the space provided. For

[W'09 P2 Q01]
[Total: 10] Examiner’s
51 The element magnesium, Mg, proton number 12, is a metal which is used in many alloys Use
which are strong and light.
Magnesium has several naturally occurring isotopes.
(a) What is meant by the term isotope?
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................... [2]
(b) Complete the table below for two of the isotopes of magnesium.
number of number of number of

isotope
protons neutrons electrons
24Mg
26Mg
[2]
A sample of magnesium had the following isotopic composition:

© UCLES
24 2009 9701/21/O/N/09
Mg, 78.60%; 25Mg, 10.11%; 26Mg, 11.29%. [Turn over
(c) Calculate the relative atomic mass, Ar, of magnesium in the sample.
Express your answer to an appropriate number of significant figures.
[2]

..........................................................................................................................................
51
...................................................................................................................................... [2]
(b) Complete the table below for two of the isotopes of magnesium.
number of number of number of

isotope
protons neutrons electrons
24Mg
26Mg
[2]
A sample of magnesium had the following isotopic composition:

24Mg,78.60%; 25Mg, 10.11%; 26Mg, 11.29%.
(c) Calculate the relative atomic mass, Ar, of magnesium in the sample.
Express your answer to an appropriate number of significant figures.
2
[2]

Answer all the questions in the space provided. [W'10 P23 Q01] For
Examiner’s
6 1 Sulfur, S, and polonium, Po, are both elements in Group VI of the Periodic Table. Use
Sulfur has three isotopes.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................... [2]
(b) A sample of sulfur has the following isotopic composition by mass.

© UCLES 2010 9701/23/O/N/10
% by mass 95.00 0.77 4.23
Calculate the relative atomic mass, Ar, of sulfur to two decimal places.
Ar = ...............
[2]
(c) Isotopes of polonium, proton number 84, are produced by the radioactive
Bilal Hameed decay of12
Atomic Structure
several elements including thorium, Th, proton number 90.
213 232
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
52
......................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................... [2]
[2]
(b)
(b) A
A sample
sample of
of sulfur
sulfur has
has the
the following isotopic composition
following isotopic composition by
by mass.
mass.
% by mass 95.00 0.77 4.23
Calculate the relative atomic mass, Ar, of sulfur to two decimal places.
places.
r
...............
Arr = ...............
[2]
[2]
(c)
(c) Isotopes of polonium, proton number 84, are produced by the radioactive
radioactive decay
decay of
of
several elements including thorium, Th, proton number 90.
The isotope 213Po is produced from the thorium isotope 232Th.
213Po and 232

isotopes 213
Complete the table below to show the atomic structures of the isotopes Po and 232Th.
Th.
number of
isotope protons neutrons electrons

213Po
232Th
[3]
[3]
© UCLES
© UCLES 2011
2011 9701/23/O/N/11

53 3
Radiochemical reactions, such as nuclear fission and radioactive decay of isotopes, can be For
represented by equations in which the nucleon (mass) numbers must balance and the proton Examiner’s
numbers must also balance. Use
For example, the nuclear fission of uranium-235, 235

92 U, by collision with a neutron,
1
0n,
produces strontium-90, xenon-143 and three neutrons.
235 1 90 143 1
92 U + 0n 38Sr + 54 Xe + 3 0n
In this equation, the nucleon (mass) numbers balance because: 235 + 1 = 90 + 143 + (3x1).
The proton numbers also balance because: 92 + 0 = 38 + 54 + (3x0).

232
(d) In the first stage of the radioactive decay of 90 Th, the products are an isotope of
element E and an alpha-particle, 42 He.
(i) By considering nucleon and proton numbers only, construct a balanced equation
for the formation of the isotope of E in this reaction.
232 4
90 Th ................. + 2
He
Show clearly the nucleon number and proton number of the isotope of E.
nucleon number of the isotope of E ...........
proton number of the isotope of E .............
(ii) Hence state the symbol of the element E.

2
............ .................................................................................................................
Answer all the questions in the spaces provided. [3]

[W'11 P23 Q01]

[Total: 10]
7 1 (a) Explain what is meant by the term nucleon number.
....................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................. [1]
(b) Bromine exists naturally as a mixture of two stable isotopes, 79Br and 81Br, with relative isotopic
masses of 78.92 and 80.92 respectively.
(i) Define the term relative isotopic mass.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(ii) Using the relative atomic mass of bromine, 79.90, calculate the relative isotopic abundances
of 79Br and 81Br.

.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
254
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
Answer all the questions in the spaces provided.
(ii) Using the relative atomic mass of bromine, 79.90, calculate the relative isotopic abundances
of 79Br and 81Br.
1 (a) Successive ionisation energies for the elements magnesium to barium are given in the table.
1st ionisation 2nd ionisation 3rd ionisation

element
energy / kJ mol–1 energy / kJ mol–1 energy / kJ mol–1
Mg 736 1450 7740

Ca 590 1150 4940
Sr 548 1060 4120
Ba 502 966 3390
[3]
(i) Explain why the first ionisation energies decrease down the group.
(c) Bromine reacts with the element A to form a compound with empirical formula ABr3. The
.............................................................................................................................................
percentage composition by mass of ABr3 is A, 4.31; Br, 95.69.
.............................................................................................................................................
Calculate the relative atomic mass, Ar, of A.
Give your answer to three significant figures.
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [3]
(ii) Explain why, for each element, there is a large increase between the 2nd and 3rd ionisation
energies.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
Ar of A = .......................[2][3]
.......................................................................................................................................
[S'14 P22 Q01]

8 (b) A sample of strontium, atomic number 38, gave the mass spectrum shown. The percentage
abundances are given above each peak.
© UCLES 2014 9701/22/M/J/14
100
82.58
percentage
abundance
9.86 7.00
0.56
0
80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
atomic mass units
© UCLES 2014 9701/21/O/N/14

(i) Complete the full electronic configuration of strontium.
55
1s2 2s2 2p6 ................................................................................................................... [1]
(ii) Explain why there are four different peaks in the mass spectrum of strontium.
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
(iii) Calculate the atomic mass, Ar, of this sample of strontium.

Give your answer to three significant figures.
Ar = ............................. [2]

[W'14 P22 Q01]

(c) A compound of barium, A, is used in fireworks as an oxidising agent and to produce a green
colour.
(i) Explain, in terms of electron transfer, what is meant by the term oxidising agent.
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
(ii) A has the following percentage composition by mass: Ba, 45.1; Cl , 23.4; O, 31.5.
Calculate the empirical formula of A.
empirical formula of A ........................................... [3]

2

56
9 1 (a) Chemists recognise that atoms are made of three types of particle.
Complete the following table with their names and properties.
name of particle relative mass relative charge
1/1836
[3]
(b) The relative atomic mass of an element can be determined using data from its mass spectrum.
The mass spectrum of element X is shown, with the percentage abundance of each isotope
labelled.
60
49.61
50
40
percentage
abundance 30
23.77
20
10 9.37 7.63 8.73
0.89
0
73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83
m/e
(i) Define the terms relative atomic mass and isotope.
relative atomic mass ...........................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
isotope ................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
[3]
© UCLES 2015 9701/21/M/J/15

573
(ii) Use the data in the mass spectrum to calculate the relative atomic mass, Ar, of X.
Give your answer to two decimal places and suggest the identity of X.
Ar of X ....................................
identity of X ....................................
[2]
(c) The element tellurium, Te, reacts with chlorine to form a single solid product, with a relative
formula mass of 270. The product contains 52.6% chlorine by mass.
(i) Calculate the molecular formula of this chloride.
molecular formula .................................... [3]
[M'15 P21 Q01]

(ii) This chloride melts at 224 °C and reacts vigorously with water.
State the type of bonding and structure present in this chloride and explain your reasoning.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(iii) Suggest an equation for the reaction of this chloride with water.
....................................................................................................................................... [1]

2

58
10 1 (a) Chemists recognise that atoms are made of three types of particle.
Complete the following table with their names and properties.
name of particle relative mass relative charge
+1
1/1836
[3]
(b) Most elements exist naturally as a mixture of isotopes, each with their own relative isotopic
mass. The mass spectrum of an element reveals the abundances of these isotopes, which can
be used to calculate the relative atomic mass of the element.
Magnesium has three stable isotopes. Information about two of these isotopes is given.
relative percentage
isotope
isotopic mass abundance
24
Mg 24.0 79.0
26
Mg 26.0 11.0
(i) Define the term relative isotopic mass.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(ii) The relative atomic mass of magnesium is 24.3.
Calculate the percentage abundance and hence the relative isotopic mass of the third
isotope of magnesium. Give your answer to three significant figures
percentage abundance = .................................
isotopic mass = .................................

[3]
© UCLES 2015 9701/22/M/J/15

.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
59
(c) Neon has three stable isotopes.
isotope mass number percentage abundance
1 9.25
2 20 90.48
3 21 0.27
(i) Define the term relative atomic mass.
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(ii) Use the relative atomic mass of neon, 20.2, to calculate the mass number of isotope 1.
mass number = ................................. [2]

[S'15 P23 Q01]
© UCLES 2015 9701/23/M/J/15

2

60
11 1 (a) Complete the table to show the composition and identity of some atoms and ions.
name of nucleon atomic number of number of number of overall

element number number protons neutrons electrons charge
lithium 6 3 +1
............. ............. .............
oxygen 9 10
............. ............. ............. .............
54 26 26 24
............. ............. .............
17 18 0
............. ............. ............. .............
[4]
(b) Beams of protons, neutrons and electrons behave differently in an electric field due to their
differing properties.
The diagram shows the path of a beam of electrons in an electric field.
Add and label lines to represent the paths of beams of protons and neutrons in the same field.
electron beam
[3]
© UCLES 2016 9701/21/M/J/16

61
4
(d) A sample of strontium exists as a mixture of four isotopes. Information about three of these
isotopes is given in the table.
mass number 86 87 88
abundance 9.86% 7.00% 82.58%
(i) Calculate the abundance of the fourth isotope.
abundance = ............................. % [1]
(ii) The relative atomic mass of this sample of strontium is 87.71.
Calculate the mass number of the fourth isotope.
mass number = ............................. [2]

[S'16[Total:
P21 Q01]
16]
© UCLES 2016 9701/21/M/J/16

62
3
12 (c) A sample of oxygen exists as a mixture of three isotopes. Information about two of these
isotopes is given in the table.
mass number 16 17
abundance 99.76% 0.04%
(i) Calculate the abundance of the third isotope.
abundance = ............................. % [1]
(ii) The relative atomic mass of this sample of oxygen is 16.0044.
Calculate the mass number of the third isotope. You must show your working.
mass number = ............................. [2]

[S'16[Total:
P22 Q01]
11]

5 63
13(iii) A naturally occurring sample of cerium contains only four isotopes. Data for three of the
isotopes are shown in the table.
isotope 136
Ce 138
Ce 140
Ce 142
Ce
relative to be
135.907 137.906 139.905
isotopic mass calculated
percentage to be
0.185 0.251 88.450
abundance calculated
The Ar of the sample is 140.116.
Use these data to calculate the relative isotopic mass of the fourth isotope in this sample
of cerium.
Give your answer to three decimal places.
relative isotopic mass = .............................. [3]

[M'17 P2 Q01]
[Total: 17]
Bilal
© UCLES Hameed
2017 9701/22/F/M/17 Atomic[Turn
Structure
over12
2

64
14
1 The composition of atoms and ions can be determined from knowledge of atomic number, nucleon
number and charge.
(a) Complete the table.
atomic nucleon number of number of number of

symbol
number number electrons protons neutrons
3Li
6 +
3 2
23 26 32
[2]
:
(b) Boron occurs naturally as a mixture of two stable isotopes, 10B and 11B. The relative isotopic
masses and percentage abundances are shown.
isotope relative isotopic mass abundance / %

10
B 10.0129 19.78
11
B to be calculated 80.22
(i) De ne t e ter relative isotopic mass.
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(ii) Calculate the relative isotopic mass of 11B.
Give your answer to six signi cant gures. o our or ing.
[2]
[Total: 6]
© UCLES 2017 9701/22/M/J/17

on the basis of results obtained from an experiment using gold metal foil.
2
(a) Complete the table with information for two of the particles in an atom of
197
Au.
65
relative relative location total number in
15
1 particle
The model of the nuclear atom was first proposed by Ernest Rutherford. He developed this model
mass charge within atom an atom of 197Au
on the basis of results obtained from an experiment using gold metal foil.
electron 0.0005 –1 79
(a) Complete the table with information for two of the particles in an atom of 197Au.
neutron nucleus
relative relative location total number in
particle
mass charge within atom an atom of 197Au [4]
electron 0.0005 –1 79
(b) State the type of bonding in gold.
neutron nucleus
.............................................................................................................................................. [1]
[4]
(c) A sample of gold found in the earth consists of only one isotope.
(b) S
tate the type of bonding in gold.
(i) Explain what is meant by the term isotopes.
.............................................................................................................................................. [1]
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(c) A sample of gold found in the earth consists of only one isotope.
.......................................................................................................................................
(i) E xplain what is meant by the term isotopes. [2]
(ii) A
.............................................................................................................................................
different sample of gold contains more than one isotope.
.............................................................................................................................................
S uggest why this different sample of gold has the same chemical properties as the sample
found in the earth.
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
.............................................................................................................................................
(ii) A
different sample of gold contains more than one isotope.
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
uggest why this different sample of gold has the same chemical properties as the sample
S
found in the earth.
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
© UCLES 2018 9701/22/O/N/18
© UCLES 2018 9701/22/O/N/18

66
3
(d) Tumbaga is an alloy of copper and gold. A sample of tumbaga was analysed. The mass
spectrum of the sample is shown.
56.36
percentage
abundance 25.14
x
0
63 65 197
m/e
(i) Calculate the percentage abundance of gold, x, in the sample of tumbaga.
x = .............................. % [1]
(ii) C alculate the relative atomic mass, Ar , of the copper present in this sample.
Give your answer to two decimal places.
Ar (Cu) = .............................. [2]

[W'18 P22 Q01]
[Total: 11]

67
2 Atomic structure
2.3 Electrons: energy levels, atomic orbitals, ionisation energy
Electronic Configuration 
Electronic Configuration
relative charges and relative masses
b) deduce the behaviour of beams of protons, neutrons and electrons in
electric fields
68
c) describe the distribution of mass and charge within an atom
d) deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons present in both
2 Atomic structure
This The
2.2 topicnucleus
describes the type,a)number
of the andthe
describe distribution of the
contribution of fundamental particles to
protons and neutrons which make
atomic up an
nuclei in
atomatom
and the impact of this on some atomic properties.
terms of proton number and nucleon number
Learning
neutronsoutcomes
present
2.1 Particles in the atom a) identify and describe protons, neutrons and electrons in terms of their
2.3 Electrons: energy relative charges and relative masses
a) describe the number and relative energies of the s, p and d orbitals for
levels, atomic b) the
deduce the behaviour
principal of beams1,
quantum numbers of2protons, neutrons
and 3 and also theand
4s electrons in
and 4p orbitals
orbitals, ionisation electric fields
b) describe and sketch the shapes of s and p orbitals
energy, electron c) describe the distribution of mass and charge within an atom
affinity d) number
deduce theandnumbers of protons,
charge, using neutrons 1s
the convention and
2 electrons
2s22p6 , etc.present in both
2.2 The nucleus of the a) describe the contribution of protons and neutrons to atomic nuclei in
atom terms of proton number and nucleon number
neutrons present
g) explain and use the term electron affinity
2.3 Electrons: energy a) describe the number and relative energies of the s, p and d orbitals for
levels, atomic the principal quantum numbers 1, 2 and 3 and also the 4s and 4p orbitals
orbitals, ionisation b) describe and sketch the shapes of s and p orbitals
  energy, electron
affinity
number and charge, using the convention 1s22s22p6 , etc.
18 www.cie.org.uk/alevel g) explain and use the term electron affinity Back to contents page
18 www.cie.org.uk/alevel Back to contents page

69
1
2. 1 Disclaimer
A complete discussion of the experimental evidence for the modern
theory of atomic structure is beyond the scope of the CIE A Level
Syllabus.
In this chapter only the results of the theoretical treatment will be

described. These results will have to be memorized as “rules of the
game,” but they will be used so extensively throughout the general
chemistry course that the notation used will soon become familiar.
2. 2 Electron Arrangement
The electronic configuration describes the arrangement of electrons in
atoms.
An atom’s electrons are arranged outside the nucleus in energy levels (or
shells).
Each shell or energy level holds a certain maximum number of electrons.
The energy of levels becomes greater as they go further from the nucleus
and electrons fill energy levels in order.
2. 3 Ionisation energy
Ionisation energy is a measure of the energy needed to remove an electron
from a gaseous atom or ion. It measures how strongly an atom or ion holds
on to its electrons.
+
Attraction between the nucleus and an electron
The greater the pull of the nucleus, the harder it will be to pull an electron
away from an atom.
Bilal
Bilal Hameed
Hameed Electronic configuration Electronic Configuration
70
2
2. 4 First ionisation energy

Ionisation energies give evidence for the arrangement of electrons in atoms
in shells and sub-shells.
The first ionisation energy for an element is the energy needed to remove
one mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms.
Na (g) ➝ Na+(g) + e- ∆H i1 = 496 kJ mol-1
Ca (g) ➝ Ca+(g) + e- ∆H i1 = 590 kJ mol-1
F (g) ➝ F+(g) + e- ∆H i1 = 1680 kJ mol-1
2. 5 Successive ionisation energies

Successive ionisation energies for the same element measure the energy
to remove a second, third, fourth electron and so on.
Na+(g) ➝ Na2+(g) + e- ∆H i2 = 4563 kJ mol-1
Na2+(g) ➝ Na3+(g) + e- ∆H i3 = 6913 kJ mol-1
It is possible to measure energy changes involving ions which do not

normally appear in chemical reactions.
2. 6 Skill check
Which equation represents the second ionisation energy of an element
X?
A X(g) ➝ X2+(g) + 2e-
B X+(g) ➝ X2+(g) + e-
C X(g) + 2e- ➝ X2-(g)
D X-(g) + e- ➝ X2-(g)
Electronic configuration Bilal Hameed
Bilal Hameed
71
3
2. 7 Skill check
Write equations to represent the first ionisation of:
A potassium
B argon
C bromine
D fluorine
2. 8 Skill check
The successive ionisation energies kJmol-1 of element X are listed below.
Identify the group in the periodic table in which X occurs.
Ionisation energies of X:
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th

950 1800 2700 4800 6000 12300 15000

After an electron has been removed the rest of them will be more
strongly attracted by the nucleus.
Hence more energy is required to pull the 2nd electron and thus the 2nd
I.E. is greater than the 1st I.E.
Successive ionisation energies are always greater than the previous

one.
Bilal
Bilal Hameed
nucleus. There must be a very great force of attraction
h of successive ionisation between the nucleus and these electrons and there are
mber of electrons removed for no inner electrons to72
shield them. The large increase in
cale (to the base 10) is used ionisation energy between 4the 9th and 10th electrons
ccessive ionisation energies have confirms that the 10th electron is in a shell closer to the
nucleus than the 9th electron.
llowing about sodium from
oved has a low 1st ionisation
d to the rest of the data. It is very 1 electron;
he atom. It is therefore likely to be very easily
ucleus and well shielded by inner 2 electrons; removed
very difficult 8 electrons;
to remove 11+
less easily
removed
nucleus
Figure 3.5 The arrangement of electrons in an atom of sodium can be

deduced from the values of successive ionisation energies.
Check-up
2. 11 Evidence of energy levels
3 a The successive ionisation energies of
The arrangement of electrons in an atom of any element can be deduced
Electronic structure boron are shown in Table 3.3.
from the values of successive ionisation energies.
Theadvertising
In neon successivesigns, gaseousIonisation 1st 2nd 3rd 4th clearly.
I.E of sodium
neon 5th
illustratebombarded
atoms are continually the changeby
electrons. This produces positive neon ions, which then reform as neon atoms.
Ionisation 799 2420 3660 25 000 32 800
This is what happens when scientists measure ionisation energies.
Scientists can also determine ionisation energies from the emission spectra
energy /
of atoms. Using data from spectra, it is possible to measure the energy needed
to remove electrons from ions with
electron −12 increasing positive charges. A succession
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 of ionisation 1
energies, represented
removed kJ mol
by the3symbols4 ∆Hi1, ∆H
5 8 6 9 10 7
i2, ∆Hi3 and so on,
11
is obtained. For example:
mber of electrons removed
Na(g)ionisation
→ Na+(g) + e– 500 first ionisation energy, ∆H = +496 kJ mol–1
energy Table– 3.34600 6900 9500 13400 i1 16600
Successive 20100
ionisation energies of 25500
boron. 28900 141000 158000
Na+(g) → Na2+(g) +e second ionisation energy, ∆Hi2 = +4563 kJ mol
–1
m (log10) ofDefinitions
ionisation energy of sodium Na2+(g) → Na3+(g) + e– third ionisation energy, ∆Hi3 = +6913 kJ mol–1 continued
s removed. The first ionisation energy of an There are 11 electrons in a sodium atom, so there are 11 successive ionisation
element is the energy needed to energies for this element.
remove one electron from each atom The successive ionisation energies of an element are all endothermic and
in one mole of gaseous atoms.
they get bigger and bigger. This is not surprising because, having removed one
A successive ionisation energy of electron, it is more difficult to remove a second electron from the positive ion
an element measures the energy formed.
needed to remove a second, third or
The graph in Figure 5.2 shows a logarithmic plot of the successive
fourth electron and so on from one
mole of gaseous ions of the element
ionisation energies of sodium against the number of electrons removed. This
with the appropriate positive charge. provides evidence to support the theory that electrons in an atom are
arranged in a series of levels or shells around the nucleus. The logarithmic
plot allows an extremely wide range of ionisation energies – from 496 kJ mol–1
2. 12 Ionisation energies of sodium
to 159 080 kJ mol–1 – to be shown on the same graph.
Figure 5.2 !
Log (ionisation energy) plotted against
the number of electrons removed for
sodium.
The graph shows shows

Log ionisation energy
successive ionisation energies

against the number of
Note electrons removed for sodium.
The shells of electrons at fixed or
specific levels are sometimes called
quantum shells, because the word
‘quantum’ is used to describe
something related to a fixed amount
or fixed level.
0 5 10
Highest energy Number of electrons removed
level – electron
easily removed
Notice in Figure 5.2 the big jumps in value between the first and second
Intermediate
energy level –
ionisation energies and again between the ninth and tenth ionisation
electrons harder energies. This suggests that sodium atoms have one electron in an outer
to remove shell or energy level furthest from the nucleus. This outer electron is easily
removed because it is furthest from the nucleus and shielded from the full
Lowest energy attraction of the positive nucleus by 10 inner electrons.
Electronic level Configuration
– electrons Electronic
hardest to remove
configuration
Below this outer single electron, sodium atoms seem to have eight electrons Bilal Hameed
Bilal Hameed
in a second shell – all at roughly the same energy level. These eight electrons
Figure 5.3 " are closer to the nucleus than the single outer electron and only have two
Energy levels of electrons in a sodium atom. inner electrons shielding them from the positive nucleus.
60
73
5

There is a big difference between some successive ionisation energies.
For sodium the first big difference occurs between the 1st and 2nd
ionisation energies.
These large changes indicate that for the second of these two
ionisation energies, the electron being removed is from a shell closer to
the nucleus.

electron
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
removed
ionisation
500 4600 6900 9500 13400 16600 20100 25500 28900 141000 158000
energy
There is a big jump in the value of the second ionisation energy. This
suggests that the second electron is in a shell closer to the nucleus
than the first electron.
Taken together, the 1st and 2nd ionisation energies suggest that sodium
has one electron in its outer shell.

electron
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
removed
ionisation
500 4600 6900 9500 13400 16600 20100 25500 28900 141000 158000
energy
From the second to the ninth electrons removed there is only a gradual
change in successive ionisation energies. This suggests that all these
eight electrons are in the same shell.
There is a big jump in the value of the 10th ionisation energy. This
suggests that the 10th electron is in a shell closer to the nucleus than
the 9th electron.
Bilal
Bilal Hameed
2 The structure of the atom
Ionisation energies are used to probe electronic configurations in two ways:
● successive ionisation energies for the same atom

●
74
first ionisation energies for different atoms.
We shall look at each in turn.
6
Successive ionisation energies
We can look at an atom of a particular element, and measure the energy required to
remove each of its electrons, one by one:
X(g) → X+(g) + e− ∆ H = IE1

X+(g) → X2+(g) + e− ∆ H = IE2
X2+(g) → X3+(g) + e− ∆ H = IE3 etc.
These successive ionisation energies show clearly the arrangement of electrons
2. 16 Ionisation energies of magnesium

in shells around the nucleus. If we take the magnesium atom as an example, and
measure the energy required to remove successively the first electron, the second, the
third, and so on, we obtain the plot shown in Figure 2.29.
Figure 2.29 Graph of the twelve ionisation

energies of magnesium against electron
200 000
number. The electronic configuration of
magnesium is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2. first
shell
180 000
160 000
140 000
ionisation energy/kJ mol–1

120 000
100 000
80 000
60 000
40 000
second
shell
20 000
third
shell
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
number of electrons removed
Successive ionisation energies are bound to increase because the remaining electrons
are closer to, and less shielded from, the nucleus. But a larger increase occurs when
the third electron is removed. This is because once the two electrons in the outer
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY (third) shell have been removed, the next has to be stripped from a shell that is very
muchCam/Chem
02_29 nearer to AS&A2
the nucleus (the second shell). A similar, but much more enormous,
jump in ionisation energy occurs when the eleventh electron is removed. This has
Barking
to comeDog Art the first, innermost shell, right next to the nucleus. These two large
from
jumps in the series of successive ionisation energies are very good evidence that the
The jumps in successive
electrons in the magnesium ionisation energies
atom exist in threeare moreshells.
different apparent if we plot the
logarithm of the ionisation energy against proton number, as in Figure 2.30.37(Taking
the logarithm is a scaling device that has the effect of decreasing the differences
between adjacent values for the larger ionisation energies, so the jumps between the
2. 17 Ionisation energies of magnesium

181333_02_AS_Chem_BP_020-043.indd 37
Figure 2.30 Graph of logarithms of the

shells become more obvious.) 15/10/14 12:19 PM
twelve ionisation energies of magnesium 5.5

against electron number 1s
2s
4.5
2p
log (IE)
3.5
3s
3
2.5
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
number of electrons removed
Worked example
Graphs02_30
ofCam/Chem
successiveAS&A2
ionisation energy give us information about
The first five successive ionisation energies of element X are 631, 1235, 2389, 7089 and
how many 8844 electrons
kJ mol
Barking .
Dog Art are in a particular energy level. Consider the graph
−1
How many electrons are in the outer shell of element X?

for silicon shown in Figure 2.35. There is a large jump in the ionisation
Answer
energy graph between
The differences thesuccessive
between the fourth andenergies
ionisation the arefifth ionisation energies, which
as follows:
−1
2 − 1: 1235 − 631 = 604 kJ mol
Now try this suggests that3 − 2:these electrons
2389 − 1235 are removed from different main energy
= 1154 kJ mol −1
−1
4 − 3: 7089 − 2389 = 4700 kJ mol
levels. It can
Decide which group element Y is in,
5 − 4:therefore
8844 − 7089 =be 1755deduced that silicon has four electrons in its
2. 18 Ionisation energiesbetween the third and of
is in silicon
−1
based on the following successive kJ mol
ionisation energies:
outer main The
energy level
largest jump comes
(shell)
has three electrons in its outer shell.
and group
the fourth
4 of the periodic table.
ionisation energies, therefore X
590, 1145, 4912, 6474, 8144 kJ mol−1
First ionisation energies

The second way that ionisation energies show us the details of electronic configuration
is to look at how the first ionisation energies of elements vary with proton number.
Figure 2.31 is a plot for the first 40 elements.
This graph shows us the following.
1 All ionisation energies are strongly endothermic – it takes energy to separate an
electron from an atom.
2 As we go down a particular group, for example from helium to neon to argon, or
from lithium to sodium to potassium, ionisation energies decrease. The larger the
atom, the easier it is to separate an electron from it.
38
181333_02_AS_Chem_BP_020-043.indd 38 15/10/14 12:19 PM
If a graph of ionisation energy (rather than log10 ionisation energy) is

plotted for the removal of the first few electrons from a silicon atom, more
features can be seen on the graph (Figure 2.36). It can be seen that there
is a larger jump in the ionisation energy between the second and third
Electronic configuration
ionisation energies. Bilal Hameed
Bilal Hameed
2 2 6 2 2
The full electronic configuration for silicon is 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p . The first
two electrons are removed from the 3p sub-level (subshell), whereas the
strongly than a neutral atom does. More energy is therefore required to
remove the electron from a positive ion.
2 Once an electron has been removed from an atom, there is less
repulsion between the remaining electrons. They are therefore pulled
in closer to the nucleus (Figure 2.33). If they are closer75
to the nucleus,
7
they are more strongly attracted and more difficult to remove.
This graph shows the energy required to remove each electron in turn
from a gaseous potassium atom.
2. 19 Ionisation energies of potassium
A log scale is being used here to allow all data are presented be used by scientists to support
the data to be plotted on one graph, but their theories? Can you find examples where the
although on one level this has made the data scale on a graph has been chosen to exaggerate a
to interpret and supported the explanations that particular trend – is scientific knowledge objective
een given, it has also distorted the data. The or is it a matter of interpretation and presentation?
nce between the first and second ionisation The arguments for and against human-made
2. 20 Skill check
es of potassium is about 2600 kJ mol−1, but the climate change are a classic example of where the
nce between the 18th and 19th ionisations interpretation and presentation of data are key in
es is over 30 000 kJ mol−1Write
! How an
can equation
the way to represent the 5thopinion.
influencing public ionisation energy of Fluorine.
he log10 of these numbers The simple electronic configuration of potassium is 2,8,8,1, and this
he range. The first can be deduced directly from the graph above. The large jumps in the
n energy of potassium is graph occur between main energy levels (shells).
ol−1, whereas the 19th is
J mol−1. It would be very
o plot these values on a
ph.
2. 21 Skill check
What group is X in?
Bilal
Bilal Hameed
76
8
2. 22 Skill check
The first ionisation energies of four consecutive elements in the Periodic table
are:
Sodium = 494 kJ mol-1
Magnesium = 736 kJ mol-1
Aluminium = 577 kJ mol-1
Silicon = 786 kJ mol-1
a Explain the general increase in ionisation energies from Sodium to Silicon.
b Explain why Aluminium has a lower first ionisation energy than Magnesium.
2. 23 Skill check
The first six ionisation energies of an element are, or 1090, 2250, 4610,
6220, 37,800, and 47,300kJ mol-1. Which group in the Periodic Table does
this element belong to? Explain your decision.
2. 24 Skill check
The successive ionisation energies ΔHi, of an element X are shown in the
table below. Which group in the Periodic Table does X belong to?
Number of electrons removed
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
∆Hi / kJ mol-1 1000 2260 3390 4540 7010 8500 27100 31670 36580 43140
Bilal Hameed
77
9

We can use successive ionisation energies in this way to confirm:
• The simple electronic configuration of elements.
• The number of electrons in the outer shell of an element and hence

the group to which the element belongs.
The successive ionisation energies for an element rise and there are big
jumps in value each time electrons start to be removed from the next
shell in towards the nucleus.
2. 26 Ionisation energies of oxygen

electron removed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
ionisation energy 1310 3390 5320 7450 11000 13300 71300 84100
Large increases can be used to predict the group of any element. The
electron configuration of oxygen is 2,6.
Since the large change is after the removal of 6 electrons, it signifies

that there are 6 electrons in the shell farthest from the nucleus.
Therefore, Oxygen is in Group VI.
2. 27 Successive Ionisation energies

ELECTRONS REMOVED
Element 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 H 1310
2 He 2370 5250
3 Li 519 7300 11800
4 Be 900 1760 14850 21000
5 B 799 2420 3660 25000 32800
6 C 1090 2350 4620 6220 37800 47300
7 N 1400 2860 4580 7480 9450 53300 64400
8 O 1310 3390 5320 7450 11000 13300 71300 84100
9 F 1680 3370 6040 8410 11000 15200 17900 92000 106000
10 Ne 2080 3950 6150 9290 12200 15200 20000 23000 117000 131400
11 Na 494 4560 6940 9540 13400 16600 20100 25500 28900 141000 158700
Bilal
Bilal Hameed
78
10
2. 28 Skill check
The successive ionisation energies, in kJ mol–1, of different elements are
given below. Which groups are the following elements in?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A 799 2420 3660 25000
B 736 1450 7740 10500
C 418 3070 4600 5860
D 870 1800 3000 3600 5800 7000 13200
E 950 1800 2700 4800 6000 12300
2. 29 Skill check
The successive ionisation energies of beryllium are 900, 1757,
14,849 and 21,007 kJ mol-1.
A What is the atomic number of beryllium?
B Why do successive ionisation energies of beryllium always get
more endothermic?
C To which group of the Periodic Table does this element belong?
2. 30 Shells (energy levels)
The principal energy levels are n=1
designated n = 1, 2, 3, and so forth.
The energy levels are not equally

spaced.
The energy gap between successive n=2

levels gets increasingly smaller as the n=3
levels move further from the nucleus. n=4
Bilal Hameed
79
11
2. 31 Sub-levels (sub-shells)
Electron shells are numbered 1,2,3 etc. These numbers are known as the
principle quantum numbers.
Each energy level (shell) consists of a number of sub-levels (sub-shells),

labeled s, p, d, or f.
Energy Level Number of sub-levels Name of sub-levels
1 1 s
2 2 s, p
3 3 s, p, d
4 4 s, p, d, f
PRINCIPAL
SUB LEVELS
ENERGY
LEVELS
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS
3
i Why is there a large increase between b Draw a sketch graph to show the
the third and fourth ionisation energies? log10 values of the first four successive
ii Explain how these figures confirm that ionisation energies of a Group II element.
the electronic structure of boron is 2, 3.
2
b For the element aluminium (Z = 13), draw
a sketch graph to predict the log10 of the 3.3 Sub-shells and atomic
successive ionisation energies (y-axis) against
the number of electrons removed (x-axis). orbitals 1
Quantum sub-shells
We can use successive ionisation energies in this way to: The principal quantum shells, apart from the first, are
• predict or confirm the simple electronic configuration split into sub-shells (sub-levels). Each principal quantum
of elements shell contains a different number of sub-shells. The sub-
• confirm the number of electrons in the outer shell shells are distinguished by the letters s, p or d. There are
of an element and hence the group to which the also f sub-shells for elements with more than 57 electrons.
element belongs. Figure 3.6 shows the sub-shells for the first four principal
quantum levels. In any principal quantum shell, the
Worked example energy of the electrons in the sub-shells increases in the
order s < p < d.
1 The successive ionisation energies, ∆Hi, of an
element X are shown in Table 3.4. Which group
in the Periodic Table does X belong to?
We look for a large jump in the value of the 4d
5s
ionisation energy. This occurs between the
removal of the 6th and 7th electrons. So, six n =4 4p
electrons have been removed comparatively 3d
easily. The removal of the 7th electron requires 4s
about three times the energy required to remove
Increasing energy
n =3 3p
the 6th electron. So, there must be six electrons
in the outer shell of X. So, element X must be
3s
in Group VI of the Periodic Table.
2p
Check-up n =2
2s
4 a The first six ionisation energies of an
element are 1090, 2350, 4610, 6220,
37 800 and 47 300 kJ mol−1. Which group n =1 1s
in the Periodic Table does this element
principal quantum sub-shell
belong to? Explain your decision. shell
continued
Figure 3.6 The sub-shells for the first four principal quantum shells.
Number of electrons removed

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
∆Hi / 1000 2260 3390 4540 7010 8500 27 100 31 670 36 580 43 140
kJ mol−1
Bilal
Bilal Hameed
Hameed
Table 3.4 The successive ionisation energies of an element X. For Worked example 1.
Electronic configuration Electronic Configuration
3 Electrons in atoms 37
80
12
2. 34 Sub-levels
Each sub-level can hold a certain maximum number of electrons.
Type of sub-level Maximum # of electrons
s 2
p 6
d 10
f 14
2. 35 Orbitals
An atomic orbital is a region of space around the nucleus of an atom
which can be occupied by one or two electrons only.
Each sub-level contains a fixed number of orbitals that contain

electrons.
Type of sub-level Maximum # of electrons Number of orbitals
s 2 1
p 6 3
d 10 5
f 14 7
2. 36 Orbitals
Electrons are viewed as charged clouds and the region, which
encloses almost all the charge cloud, is the orbital.
The region in space where the probability of finding an electron in

maximum is called the orbital.
The boundary surface encloses the region where the probability of

finding an electron is high.
The orbitals are of different three-dimensional shapes and are named s,

p, d, f etc.
Bilal Hameed
81
13
2 . 2 E L E C T R O N C O N F I G U R AT I O N
2. 37 Orbitals
● could perhaps be at the airport

● might even have gone home to South Africa!
If the class went looking for the teacher they would most likely start looking in
the most probable locations The cluster
closest of dotsBut
to the classroom. show
at 8.15the
am they do
not know with any degree ofprobability of finding
certainty precisely where thean electron
teacher is. at
A three-dimensional graph could be drawn
different with a clusterfrom
distances of dotsthe
showing areas
nucleus.
where there is a high probability of finding him. This is the idea of an orbital. A
boundary surface could be drawn around this cluster of dots to define a region
of space where there is a 99% chance of finding the teacher. This might be the
school perimeter, or Quito where he lives.
If you were also asked to measure the distance from the classroom to the
exact location where the teacher is you could not do this at 8.15 am, as you do
not know his exact location with absolute certainty. Figure 8 An orbital is a three-dimensional
graph with a cluster of dots showing the
What aspects of quantum mechanics does this analogy capture? probability of finding the electron at different
distances from the nucleus
he s atomic orbital
An s orbital is spherically symmetrical. The sphere represents a
oundary surface, meaning that within the sphere there is a 99% y
hance or probability of finding an electron (figure 9).
2. 38 Shells, sub shells and orbitals
he p atomic orbital
A p orbital is dumbbell shaped. There are three p atomic orbitals, px, py,
Energy Level Type of sub- Number of orbitals Maximum # of electrons
nd pz, all with boundary surfaces conveying probable electron density
level
1 s
ointing in different directions along the three respective Cartesian 1 2
x
xes, x, y, and z (figure 10). 2 s 1 2
nergy levels, sublevels, orbitals, and electron

p spin 3 6
s described
he Bohr model introduced the idea of3 a main energy level, 1 2
y n, which is called the principal quantum number. pThis can have 3
z
6
ositive integer values 1, 2, 3, etc. In the quantum mechanical model, as n
ncreases, the mean position of an electron is further from d the nucleus. The 5 10
Figure 9 The s atomic orbital is spherically
nergies of the orbitals also increase as4n increases. Each main
s energy level 1 symmetrical 2
r shell can hold a maximum number of electrons given by 2n2. So the
p 3 6
lectron capacity for n = 1 is 2, for n = 2 is 8, for n = 3 is 18. That is why
we have two elements in the first row of the periodic table, d eight elements 5 10
n the second, etc. y y y
he energy levels are split up into sublevels, of which there are four
ommon types: s, p, d, and f. Each sublevel contains a number of
x x x
rbitals, each of which can hold a maximum of 2 electrons (table 2). z z z
px pz py
Sublevel Number of orbitals in Maximum number of
sublevel electrons in sublevel Figure 10 The three p atomic orbitals are
s 1 2 dumbbell shaped, aligned along the x, y, and
p 3 2. 39 “s” orbital 6
z axes
d 5 10
f 7 The s orbital is spherically
14 shaped. There is
only levels
Table 2 Sublevels of the main energy oneinstheorbital
quantumfor eachmodel
mechanical shell.
The 2s orbital in the second principal 57

quantum shell has the same shape as 
the 1s orbital in the first quantum shell.
They are both spherical, but electrons in the

2s orbital have more energy than electrons
in the 1s orbital.
Bilal
Bilal Hameed
For example, Selenium (Se) is in period 4 and 4 along in the p block;
Note: all atoms in the same group 82 therefore the last part of the electronic configuration is 4p4. The full
(vertical column) in the periodic 14
electronic configuration can be worked out from following the arrows:
table have the same outer shell H He 1s2
electronic configuration. For Li Be 2s2 B Ne 2p6
example, all the elements in group Na Mg 3s2
Al Ar 3p6
6 (like Se) have the outer shell K Ca 4s2 Sc Zn 3d10 Ga Se 4p4
electronic configuration ns2np4.
2. 40 “p” orbital
n is the period number.
(remember to go down 1 in the d block)
Therefore the electronic configuration is: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p4.
Figure 2.23 shows an alternative way of remembering the order in
For each shell (except the first), there aresub-levels
which three pareorbitals.
filled.
13 Give the full electronic configurations of the following atoms:

a N b Ar c V
d Sr e Te
Electrons in atoms occupy atomic orbitals.
An orbital is a region of space in which there is a high probability

of finding an electron. It represents a discrete energy level.
Figurecan
An orbital 2.28 shows
contain a the orbitals that make up the 2s and 2p sub-levels in
There are four different types of atomic orbital: s p d f
the second main energy level. The first shell (maximum number of electrons 2) consists of a 1s orbital
maximum of two electrons.
and this makes up the entire 1s sub-level. This is spherical in shape (Figure
2.24a).
The 1s orbital is centred on the nucleus (Figure 2.24b). The electron
is moving all the time and the intensity of the colour here represents the
2. 41 The first two shells Figure 2.28 shows the orbitals
probability thatelectron
of finding the makeat up the distance
a certain 2s andfrom 2p the
sub-levels
nucleus. in
the second main energy The darkerlevel.
the colour the greater the probability of the electron being at
that point. This represents the electron density.
The electron can be found anywhere in this region of space (except the
nucleus – at the centre of the orbital) but it is most likely to be found at a
certain distance from the nucleus.
The second main energy level (maximum number of electrons 8) is
made up of the 2s sub-level and the 2p sub-level. The 2s sub-level just
consists of the 2s orbital, whereas the 2p sub-level is made up of three 2p
orbitals. The
The third shell (maximum 18 electrons) 2s orbital
consists (like3s,
of the all 3p
other
and s orbitals)
3d is spherical in shape and
bigger
sub-levels. The 3s sub-level is just the than the the
3s orbital; 1s orbital (Figure 2.25).
3p sub-level consists
p orbitals have a ‘dumb-bell’ shape (Figure 2.26). Three p orbitals make
of three 3p orbitals; and the 3d sub-level is made up of five 3d orbitals.
up the 2p sub-level. These point at 90° to each other and are named
One of the five 3d orbitals is shown in Figure 2.29.
appropriately as px, py, pz (Figure 2.27). The px orbital points along the
The fourth shell (maximum 32 xelectrons) consists
axis. The three of oneall4s,have
2p orbitals three
the4p,
same energy – they are described
five 4d and seven 4f orbitals. Theasseven 4f orbitals make up the 4f sub-
degenerate.
level. One of the f orbitals is shown in Figure 2.30.
The third
Within any sub-shell all shell (maximum
the orbitals 18same
have the electrons)
energy consists
(they of the 3s, 3p and 3d
are degenerate),
sub-levels. The 3s sub-level is just the 3s orbital;the
e.g. the three 2p orbitals are degenerate and the 3p sub-level consists
five 3d orbitals are degenerate.
of three 3p orbitals; and the 3d sub-level is made up of five 3d orbitals.
The numberOne of the
of orbitals five energy
in each 3d orbitals
level is isshown
shown in Figure
in Table 2.4. 2.29.
The
2. 42 Electronic configuration fourth shell (maximum 32 electrons) consists of one 4s, three 4p,
fivediagrams
The 4d andofseven
atomic4f that The seven
orbitals.
orbitals 4f orbitals
for more complex make upWhat
atoms. the implications
4f sub- does this
Electrons are distributed
level.inOne
we have different
seen of theenergy
here are derivedlevels
from
f orbitals in the atom
is shown of the2.30.
have
in Figure for element.
the limit of scientifi c knowledge? When we

mathematical functions that are solutions describe more complex atoms in terms of orbitals,
The order intowhich they fill up
the Schrödinger the sub-levels
equation. Exact solutions of the by stability.
is governed
just extending the results from the
we are actually
Within any sub-shell all the orbitals
Schrödinger equation are only possible for a system
have the same energy (they
hydrogen atom and gaining an approximate view of
When electrons fill up the orbitals having the
degenerate), least
theenergy they attain are degenerate and the
involving oneare
electron, e.g.
i.e. the hydrogen atom. three
It is 2p orbitals
the properties of electrons in atoms.
maximum stability.
five
not possible to 3d exact
derive orbitals are degenerate.
mathematical solutions
There are three principles that describe how electrons fill up in orbitals.
The number of orbitals in each energy level is shown in Table 2.4.

Aufbau Principle: Electrons enter the orbital that is available with the lowest
energy. The orbitals are arranged in the order of increasing energy and the
Thenumber
electrons are added until the proper diagramsof of atomic for
electrons orbitals that
the element for more complex atoms. W
have been accommodated we have seen here are derived from have for the limit of scient
mathematical functions that are solutions describe more complex at
to the Schrödinger equation. Exact solutions of the we are actually just extend
Schrödinger equation are only possible for a system hydrogen atom and gainin
involving one electron, i.e. the hydrogen atom. It is the properties of electrons
not possible to derive exact mathematical solutions
Bilal Hameed
83
15
2. 43 Electronic configuration
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle: No orbital can accommodate more than
two electrons. If there are two electrons in an orbital, they must have
opposite spin.
Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity: When there are a number of

orbitals of equal energy, electrons first fill them up individually and then
get paired. By filling up individually, mutual repulsion between electrons
is avoided and thereby maximum stability is achieved.
2 ATOMIC STRUC T U R E
For convenience, an “arrow-in-box” notation called an orbital

Useful resource
diagram is used to represent the electrons in these atomic orbitals
The “Orbitron” website, (figure 11). We shall use orbital diagrams to represent electron
developed by Professor Mark
2. 44 Electron spin Winter at the University of
configurations.
Sheffield, UK is an excellent s sublevel (one box representing an s orbital)

Electrons are all identical. The only
resource way ofthedistinguishing
for exploring them is by
describing how their energies
shapes ofand spatial
the various distributions differ.
atomic
orbitals. It also provides
Thus an electron in a 1s information
orbital is on different from an electron in a 2s orbital
the associated
sophisticated mathematical
because it occupies a different region of space closerp to the(three
sublevel nucleus,
boxes representing the three p orbitals px, py, and pz)
wavefunctions.
causing it to have less potential energy.
http://winter.group.shef.ac.uk/
orbitron/
An electron in a 2px orbital differs from an electron in a 2py orbital
because although they have exactly the same potential energy,
d sublevel theyrepresenting the five d orbitals)
(five boxes
occupy different regions of space.
f sublevel (seven boxes representing the seven f orbitals)
2. 45 Electron spin Figure 11 Orbital diagrams are used to represent the electron configurations for atoms.
Arrows are drawn in the boxes to represent electrons, a maximum of 2 electrons in each
box (orbital)
There can only be two electrons in each orbital, and they must have
opposite directions of spin. Two electrons in the same orbital have opposite values of the spin
N S magnetic quantum number, ms. The sign of ms ( + __12 or - __12 )
indicates the orientation of the magnetic field generated by the
electron. A pair of electrons in an orbital behaves as two magnets
facing in opposite directions and therefore is commonly represented
by two arrows in a box (figure 12).
Quantum numbers
In this mathematical model of the electronic structure of the atom there are
four quantum numbers. The first is the principal quantum number, n, which
S N
represents the energy level. The second quantum number, the azimuthal
N S quantum number, l, describes the sublevel, and the third quantum
number, the magnetic quantum number, ml, the atomic orbital. The fourth
quantum number, the spin magnetic quantum number, ms, describes the
magnet analogy spatial orientation of the electron spin. Quantum numbers are not formally
examined in the IB Chemistry Diploma, but you need to know the principles
of energy levels, sublevels, atomic orbitals, and electron spin.
S N
half-arrows representing You might think of the four quantum numbers as an electronic postal
electrons of opposite spin address. The country represents the energy level, the province the
in an orbital
Bilal
Bilal Hameed
Hameed Electronic configuration
sublevels, the Electronic
town the orbitals, and the Configuration
street number or postal code the
spin of the electron.
Figure 12 Electron spin is represented by
arrows in orbital diagrams
Figure 11 Orbital diagrams are used to represent the electron configurations for atoms.
Arrows are drawn in the boxes to represent electrons, a maximum of 2 electrons in each
box (orbital)
84
16
Two electrons in the same orbital have opposite values of the spin
N S magnetic quantum number, ms. The sign of ms ( + __12 or - __12 )
indicates the orientation of the magnetic field generated by the
electron. A pair of electrons in an orbital behaves as two magnets
facing in opposite directions and therefore is commonly represented
2. 46 Electron spin by two arrows in a box (figure 12).
For convenience, an “electrons-in-boxes” notation Quantum

is used numbers
to
In this mathematical model of the electronic structure of the atom there are
represent the electrons in these atomic orbitals:
four quantum
10 Arrange the following in order
numbers. of: is the principal quantum
The first 12 Draw an energy
number, level dia
n, which
S N a increasing
representsenergy
the energy level. The second quantum number, four
theenergy levels in a hy
azimuthal
N S b decreasing wavelength
quantum number, l, describes the sublevel, and the thirdwithquantuman arrow on this dia
ultraviolet
number, radiation infrared
the magnetic quantum radiation
number, transition
ml, the atomic orbital. The that would giv
fourth
s sub-level p sub-level d sub-level
microwaves
quantum orange
number, light
the spin magneticgreen lightnumber, mas, adescribes
quantum line in thetheultraviole
magnet analogy spatialhow
orientation
11 Describe a line inofthe
theLyman
electronseries
spin.ofQuantum
the numbersb are not in
a line formally
the visible reg
examined
hydrogen atominspectrum
the IB Chemistry
arises. Diploma, but you need to know the principles
c a line in the infrared r
Each box represents one orbital:
S N
of energy levels, sublevels, atomic orbitals, and electron spin.
half-arrows representing You might think of the four quantum numbers as an electronic postal
electrons of opposite spin address. The country represents the energy level, the province the
in an orbital
sublevels, the town the orbitals, and the street number or postal code the
spin
Determine of full
the the electron.
electronic
Figure 12 Electron
an orbital withspinelectrons
is represented
inbyopposite spins
arrows in orbital diagrams configuration of an atom with
up to 54 electrons
58 Understand what is meant by The emission spectra of atoms with more than
an orbital and a subshell (sub evidence, such as ionisation energy data (see be
energy level) simple treatment of considering that electrons
energy levels is a useful first approximation but
2. 47 Order of filling orbitals Each main energy level in an atom is made up

(subshells). The first main energy level consists s
second main energy level is split into the 2s sub
The principal energy levels
The sub-levels in each main energy level up to
(shells) get closer together as you
get further from the nucleus. This
results in an overlap of sublevels.
Within any main energy level (shell) the ord

(subshells) is always s < p < d < f, but there are
orders between sub-levels in different energy lev
the subshells are shown in Figure 2.21.
The Aufbau principle is simply the name given

out the electronic configuration of an atom.
2. 48 Order of filling orbitals
The first example of this 4
4p
overlap occurs when the 4s 3d
orbital is filled before the 3d 4s
3 3p
orbital
3s
2p
2
2s
1 1s
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2. 49 The ‘AUFBAU’ principal

The following sequence will show the
‘building up’ of the electronic structures of
4 the first 36 elements in the periodic table.
4p
3d
4s Electrons are shown as half-headed
3 3p arrows and can spin in one of two
3s directions.
2p Orbitals are color-coded as below:
2
2s
s orbitals
1 1s
p orbitals
d orbitals
2. 50 Hydrogen
1s1
Hydrogen atoms have one

4
4p
3d
electron. This goes into a vacant
4s orbital in the lowest available
3 3p
3s energy level.
2p
2
2s
1 1s
2. 51 Helium
1s2
Every orbital can contain 2

4
4p
3d
electrons, provided the electrons
4s are spinning in opposite directions.
3 3p
3s The two electrons in a helium atom
both go in the 1s orbital.
2p
2
2s
1 1s
Bilal
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18
2. 52 Lithium
1s2 2s1
1s orbitals can hold a maximum of

4
4p
two electrons so the third electron in
3d
4s a lithium atom must go into the next
3 3p
available orbital of higher energy.
3s
This will be further from the nucleus
2
2p in the second principal energy level.
2s
The second principal level has two
1 1s types of orbital (s and p). An s
orbital is lower in energy than a p.
2. 53 Beryllium
1s2 2s2
Beryllium atoms have four

4
4p
3d
electrons so the fourth electron
4s pairs up in the 2s orbital. The 2s
3 3p
3s sub level is now full.
2p
2
2s
1 1s
2. 54 Boron
1s2 2s2 2p1
As the 2s sub level is now full, the

4
4p
3d
fifth electron goes into one of the
4s three p orbitals in the 2p sub level.
3 3p
3s
The 2p orbitals are slightly higher in
2p energy than the 2s orbital.
2
2s
1 1s
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19
2. 55 Carbon
1s2 2s2 2p2
The next electron in doesn’t pair

4
4p
3d
up with the one already there. This
4s would give rise to repulsion
3 3p
3s between the similarly charged
species. Instead, it goes into
2p
2
2s
another p orbital which means
less repulsion, lower energy and
1 1s
more stability.
2. 56 Nitrogen
1s2 2s2 2p3
The next electron will not pair up

4
4p
but goes into a vacant p orbital. All
3d
4s three electrons are now unpaired.
3 3p
3s
This gives less repulsion, lower
energy and therefore more
2p
2 stability.
2s
1 1s
2. 57 Oxygen
1s2 2s2 2p4
With all three orbitals half-filled,

4
4p
3d
the eighth electron in an oxygen
4s atom must now pair up with one
3 3p
3s of the electrons already there.
2p
2
2s
1 1s
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20
2. 58 Fluorine
1s2 2s2 2p5
The electrons continue to pair up

4
4p
3d
with those in the half-filled orbitals.
4s
3 3p
3s
2p
2
2s
1 1s
2. 59 Neon
1s2 2s2 2p6
The electrons continue to pair up

4
4p
3d
with those in the half-filled orbitals.
4s The 2p orbitals are now completely
3 3p
3s filled and so is the second principal
energy level.
2p
2
2s In the older system of describing
electronic configurations, this
1 1s
would have been written as 2,8.
2. 60 Sodium to argon
Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
Si 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
P 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
S 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
Ar 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
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2. 61 Potassium
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
Because the principal energy levels

4
4p
get closer together as you go
3d
4s further from the nucleus coupled
3 3p
3s
with the splitting into sub energy
levels, the 4s orbital is of a LOWER
2p
2 ENERGY than the 3d orbitals so it
2s
gets filled first.
1 1s
2. 62 Calcium
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
As expected, the next electron

4
4p
3d pairs up to complete a filled 4s
4s
3 3p orbital.
3s
2p
2
2s
1 1s
2. 63 Elements with proton numbers 1 to 10
Bilal
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2. 64 Elements with proton numbers 11 to 20
2. 65 Skill check
Copy and complete the following information for the quantum shell with
principal quantum number 3.
A total number of sub-shells
B total number of orbitals
C number of different types of orbital
D maximum number of electrons in the shell
2. 66 Skill check
An atom has eight electrons. Which diagram shows the electronic configuration of
this atom in its lowest energy state?
Electronic Configuration Bilal Hameed
Bilal Hameed
of the following elements:
a) Phosphorus: [Ne]…
b) Cobalt: [Ar]… 91
23
6 Write the full electron configuration of an
excited sodium atom.
hat are
2. 677 FillSkill check
in the outer electrons of a phosphorus
toms. atom
Fill in the inelectrons
outer the boxes below. atom in the boxes below.
of a phosphorus
3s 3p
me
8 Explain, with an example, the meaning of the
term periodicity.
ss of 9 Consider atoms of boron, magnesium and
er. bromine. In which is the effective nuclear charge
is 63.5. the largest and in which is it the smallest?
the two
ic masses 10 List the particles Cl, Cl− and K+ in order of
increasing radius.
11 Explain why the first ionisation energies of the
ow were 2. 68noble
Skillgases
checkdecrease from helium to krypton.
The
12 the
Give successive
electron orbital ionisation
configurationenergies of anstate
for the ground element,
of the
following atoms or ions:
X, are given in the table. To which group of the
AN periodic table does element X belong?
Ionisation energy/kJ mol−
B O2- 1
Ionisation
C Ca2+ 1st 1 000
D Al3+ 2nd 2 260
licon to
E P3- 3rd 3 390
4th 4 540
bers
5th 6 990
ple of
6th 8 490
7th 27 100
2. 70 8th
Skill check 31 700
9th 36 600
Name all element in the third period (row) of the periodic table
10th 43 100
with the following:
 
13 Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages
a three valence electrons 
of3pESI
b four and TOF mass spectrometers.
electrons 
c six 3p electrons 
14d twoBy3s considering the3prelative
electrons and no electronseffectiveness of s, p
and d electrons in shielding the nucleus, suggest
m/z why the difference between the atomic radii
of fluorine and chlorine is 50 pm whereas that
the between chlorine and bromine is only 15 pm.
Questions 35
Bilal
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2. 70 Skill check
Name all element in the third period (row) of the periodic table
with the following:
 
a three valence electrons 
b four 3p electrons 
c six 3p electrons 
d two 3s electrons and no 3p electrons
2. 71 Exceptions in transition elements

Though the s orbital is at lower energy level than the d of the penultimate
shell, after the filling of the d sub-level, the order changes.
The d electrons, because of the shape of the d orbital, penetrate into the
region of space between the nucleus and the s orbital and repel the s
electrons and push them to higher energy level.
Before filling: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
After filling: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3dx 4s2
2. 72 Exceptions in transition elements

Thus the electronic configuration of iron is
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2
and not
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6
Remember: 3d is higher than 4s in terms of energy levels!
Bilal Hameed
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25
2. 73 Scandium
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2
With the lower energy 4s orbital

4
4p
3d
filled, the next electrons can now fill
4s the 3d orbitals. There are five d
3 3p
3s orbitals. They are filled according to
Hund’s Rule.
2p
2
2s
1 1s
2. 74 Titanium
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2
The 3d orbitals are filled according

4
4p
3d
to Hund’s rule so the next electron
4s doesn’t pair up but goes into an
3 3p
3s empty orbital in the same sub level.
2p
2
2s
1 1s
2. 75 Vanadium
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s2
The 3d orbitals are filled according

4
4p
3d
to Hund’s rule so the next electron
4s doesn’t pair up but goes into an
3 3p
3s empty orbital in the same sub level.
2p
2
2s
1 1s
Bilal
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26
2. 76 Chromium
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1
One would expect the configuration

4
4p of chromium atoms to end in 3d4
3d
4s 4s2.
3 3p
3s
To achieve a more stable
arrangement of lower energy, one of
2p
2 the 4s electrons is promoted into
2s
the 3d to give six unpaired
1 1s electrons with lower repulsion.
2. 77 Manganese
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s2
The new electron goes into the 4s

4
4p
3d
to restore its filled state.
4s
3 3p
3s
2p
2
2s
1 1s
2. 78 Iron
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2
Orbitals are filled according to

4
4p
3d
Hund’s Rule. They continue to pair
4s up.
3 3p
3s
2p
2
2s
1 1s
Bilal Hameed
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27
2. 79 Cobalt
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s2

4
4p
3d
4s up.
3 3p
3s
2p
2
2s
1 1s
2. 80 Nickel
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8 4s2

4
4p
3d
4s up.
3 3p
3s
2p
2
2s
1 1s
2. 81 Copper
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
One would expect the

4
4p
3d
configuration of chromium atoms
4s to end in 3d9 4s2.
3 3p
3s To achieve a more stable
arrangement of lower energy, one
2p
2
2s of the 4s electrons is promoted into
the 3d.
1 1s
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28
2. 82 Zinc
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2
The electron goes into the 4s to

4
4p
3d
restore its filled state and complete
4s the 3d and 4s orbital filling.
3 3p
3s
2p
2
2s
1 1s
2. 83 Gallium to krypton
The 4p orbitals are filled in exactly the same way as those in the 2p and 3p sub levels:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2
Ga - 4p1
Ge - 4p2
As - 4p3
Se - 4p4
Br - 4p5
Kr - 4p6
2. 84 Electronic configuration of ions

Metallic elements, belonging to Group I, II and III form positively charged
ions by losing electrons in their outermost shell, so that the ions may be
iso-electronic with the preceding noble gas.
SODIUM Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Na+ 1s2 2s2 2p6

(1 electron removed from the 3s orbital)
Bilal Hameed
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2. 85 Electronic configuration of ions

Non-metallic elements belonging to Group V, VI and VII form negative
ions by accepting electrons so that they achieve the noble gas
configuration:
CHLORINE Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
Cl¯ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

(1 electron added to the 3p orbital) 
2. 86 Transition metal ions

When transition metals form ions, electrons are lost first from the
outermost s orbital and then from the penultimate d sub-level.
Electrons in the 4s orbital are removed before any electrons in the

3d orbitals.
TITANIUM Ti 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2
Ti+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s1
Ti2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2
Ti3+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1
Ti4+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6`
2. 87 Skill check
Write electronic configurations for the following ions:
a Al3+ d Cu2+
b O2- e Cu+
c Fe3+
Bilal
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98
30
2. 88 Skill check
Write the electron configuration for each ion.
a O2-
b Br-
c Sr2+
d Co3+  
2. 89 Skill check
Write the electron configuration for each ion.
a O2-
b Br-
c Sr2+
d Co3+
2. 90 Skill check
What is the order of increasing energy of the listed orbitals in the atom of
titanium?
A 3s 3p 3d 4s
B 3s 3p 4s 3d
C 3s 4s 3p 3d
D 4s 3s 3p 3d
Bilal Hameed
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2. 91 Skill check
A simple ion X+ contains eight protons.
What is the electronic configuration of X+?
A 1s2 2s1 2p6
B 1s2 2s2 2p3
C 1s2 2s2 2p5
D 1s2 2s2 2p7
2. 92 Skill check
Write down the electronic configurations of the following ions:
A bromide
B magnesium
C iron(II)
D copper (II)
E iron(III)
2. 93 Skill check
Determine the number of unpaired electrons in each of these atoms:
A phosphorus
B chromium
C oxygen
Bilal
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100
32
2. 94 Skill check
Use the periodic table to determine the element corresponding
to each electron configuration.
A [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p6
B [Ar] 4s2 3d2
C [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p2
D [Kr] 5s2  
2. 95 Periodic table
The modern Periodic Table is arranged such that elements with similar
electronic configuration lie in vertical groups.
Thus elements with electronic configuration ending up as ns1 are put in

one group while those that end up as ns2 are put in another group.
The elements that fill up the s orbital of the highest energy level are said
to belong to the s block, comprising of Groups 1 and 2.
2. 96 Periodic table
The elements that similarly fill up the p orbitals of the highest energy are
said to belong to the p block, which comprises of Groups 13 to 0.
So there are two columns in the s block and six columns in the p block.
The elements that fill up the d sub-level of the penultimate shell are
called the d block elements or the transition element series.
Bilal Hameed
101
33
2. 97 Skill check
Write down the last term of the electronic configuration for the elements in the
table, the sequence for Hydrogen has been entered for you. Label the s, p and
d blocks on the table.
1s
Bilal
BilalHameed
52, 53 and 54,
e isotopes, How 18 1s 3.5 Covalent bonding with third-row
many Nso2s+Dog 2paverage
protons H3s H 3p and mass of one atom
neutrons are there = in each Cof the following H atoms?
elements
Barking 235Art =the 35.5 HFor
aBelow
new
valence-shell
bonds Obond 4they bbrings
form Uis
electrons. anotherrestricted In electron
the by molecule thisinto Allof
overall 100 isamu
valence
ammonia
maximum shell.
(NH ofway. ) there
3eight example, are three
electrons, nitrogen N¬Hhas
because bonds.
every five
3.5 Covalent bonding with third-row 3548
log l(I
Hnot
methane 8possible 2is the
molecule to shortened
92
6 tell which
(see linear
Figure one form,
was
3.14). which
formed H four in the
Na¬ dativeHmost bonds usual arerepresentation:
exactly
52, 4.3%,
eion 53
isotopes,
and 83.8%,
and 54, How 03_13
Worked 1s
many Cam/Chem
so2s example
2 average
2p
protons 3s H
2AS&A2
3p and 4
mass 1 of
neutrons one atom
are there = in each of the H
following atoms?the same. It is
elements
a
newAn
18
Barking
valence-shell
These 8 O
evenbond HDog
involve b brings
shorter
235 H
Art
the
92 U
electrons. form sharing
another In
is: ofthe
electron threemolecule nitrogen
into = 35.5
of
the 100 ammonia amu
electrons
valence Hshell. (NH
with HFor ) there
three example, are
from three
the nitrogen N
hydrogen ¬ H hasbonds. five
Hnot
Answer 3.52 2 to6 tell was Aformed H
r = 35.5in a dative way.
3
52, vely.
4.3%, 53 Calculate
83.8%,
and 54, Worked possible example 2 which 4
1 that
one is,
mic
nsionand
vely.
4.3%,
and
mass
and83.8%,
of
Calculate
a
These
An
atoms.
valence-shell
Chlorine
Unlike
Answer
The Worked 3.8
18 1s 2s
O
Multiple bonding
elements
Barking even
[Ne]consists
8 3.5elements
subscript
H
involve
These Dog b
shorter 2p235
3s2example 3p
H
Art
the
three3sU
electrons.
924 of
gives
form
intwo
3p
sharing
the
additional
theproton is:
1use
In
isotopes,
second ofthe three
thatnumber, electrons
molecule
is, with nitrogen
rowAmass of
r=
= 35.5
bring
of
the
that35.5 ammonia
numbers Chemical
amu
electrons
the
Periodic
is, the number
H (NH
valence
35Table,with
and3of H bonding
) three
shell there
37,those and with
protons.
from
total are in
in the to simple
the
eight.
three
Sorelative
hydrogen
third
for
N ¬ The
oxygen,
molecules
H
abundances
and outer
bonds.
mic
of
nsion
vely.
of
ns the
the
and
mass of
Calculate
atoms.
shell
These
76% An
Chlorine
Unlike
subsequent
number
Answer
The Worked 3.8 Multiple bonding
even isinvolve
and
3.5
subscript
[Ne]
H24%
These
therefore
shorter
consists
elements
of 3s 2 rows
+ example
protons
3p
three
the
gives filled,
respectively.
4 of form
incan =
the
additional
sharing
two the8, with
is:
isotopes,
2with
andsecond
proton of
Calculate
their
thatfor electrons
athree full
number, with
row
d
uranium,
is,
octet
nitrogen
the
orbitals
A mass
of=that bring
ofnumbers
average
the
number
35.5 in Chemical
the
electrons.
electrons
Periodic
is, relative
bonding,
the of
H35Table,
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numberprotons No
with102
andatomic
as bonding
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further
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37,
well
of = mass
and
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92. total
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fromwith
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simple
eight.
the can
chlorine.
relative
s third
forand form.
hydrogen The
oxygen,
molecules
abundances
p and outer
The
orbitals.
DoubleMultiple
3.8 and triplebonding
agram and
.2 mass
(pageof 22) 76%where
shell
remaining
atoms.
subsequent
Chlorine
They
Unlike is
and can [Ne]
N
therefore
These 24%
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therefore
3s
represents 4 ofin filled,
respectively.
of
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can
two form
the five
additional the
use
isotopes,
second filled
their
more a
Calculate
electrons full
electrons d shells
with
than
row octet
the
in
orbitals
frommass
r
four
of inof
average
nitrogen’s
bring
the the
in
numbers
covalent Chemical
electrons. neon
the relative
bonding,
Periodic C
valence
valence
35 atom,
bonds No
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Answer
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Answer
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2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
52,
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e isotopes,
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e isotopes,
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Answer
Similarly,
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03_14anitrogen
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) the
and
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come kinetic
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boron
configuration CO the 2
to2nitrogen are both 3,
Cl so of equalboron will
Answer Answer
2.13ionisation
Experimental
energiesevidence
for
03_15 F elements Cam/Chem must FFAS&A2 combine F Cl ofindioxide Fsuch adifferent
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study our
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), we is
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. δ– the
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details ofwith electronic (3 for configuration
B 3 for 2 N).
δ– Answer
indipole. is a The
to look covalencies at how the boron
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proton will
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Answer Now F covalencies try C this FFAS&A2 F Cland O
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H Cam/Chem
H H FH–the Henergy
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), components
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the electronic configurations of
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in
ngle
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Answer
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Figure
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Answer
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40
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107°
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molecules.
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slightly δ–Sulfur
1
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electrons
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the
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aswith
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possible for
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two
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of
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translational are
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104.5°molecules
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measure
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P O (2 of × the
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5 is × of
made
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of two of how
components and ions
strongly in
– a
these
kinetic
×H chemical particles
energy,= × attract
which and
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electrostatically.
would
2p
O therefore b HCN therefore
Theorbitals.
ion expect
detector
three
covalency expect
Because the
groups ofThe oxygen threepossible
p
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of electrons
electrons 2p
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2,2δ–and orbitals
phosphorus
are aroundin
all
that are
carbon
negatively
the
ofover, all
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to
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arrange 2 for
another we
O)
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two double bonds. 3Itits has two left which formitcan abelone either pair. 3 or There 5. We arewould
1 Figure C This O graph 2two
isisHshowsNF CO us 3the C H
following. (ethyne) H O
Sulfur is2.31
shares aexact plot
of for
valence-shell first 40 elements.
electrons with each of the two oxygen atoms, forming
arrangement 2 5 therefore O“C“O, and the electrons 2are 32 shared as shown in Figure 3.16.
ngle of 109.5°. The1 All two ionisation C“O 2δ– energies 5 are
δ+ strongly endothermic δ+ –the 2δ+
takes energy toinvolve separate an47
Hbonds in carbon dioxide are polar, but because the angle between
them
containing 180°, two or morecancellation atoms, occurs,
however, and there the ismolecule possibility of overall
CO is non-polar.
vibration
and
the 109.5° rotation
kinetic energy as Clwell is in (seeCthe Figure
form
Cl Clδ– of2.7). 107°Both
translational H these forms
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C H δ+
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Henergy. energy 2of
For 104.5°
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measure
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themselves P O (2
expect of ×energy,
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5 ×p of2
into is
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triangular molecules
in carbon of
planar how Chemical
and
to shape.strongly
ions
occupy The in bonding
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a × chemical
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SO molecule in
particles
2p = simple
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orbitals
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example,
therefore ion
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therefore detector
three 2p expect and
groups The 2p of ),
three as
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around from are the one
all
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isgraph
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xH
this shows
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y two
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even
C
are
toin 2electrons
carbon H
following.
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strongly
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Figure
though δ– (ethyne)occurs,
2tetrachloromethane,
dioxide
left
pump
2.7).
the
over,
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Both δ+H which
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of
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Inthe
=more atoms, however, there possibility
Hδ+ 47
03_27 Cam/Chem AS&A2 Cl Cl Clδ– H
another.
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03_11A Now
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triangular
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3.7 Dative
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03_27 Cam/Chem A 2
1can
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3.28).go
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helium
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themselves
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Cam/Chem
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), the
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electrons
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when
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when
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This
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)
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what
23
03_11
Shapes Now
A1Worked Sulfur Cam/Chem try
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3.7 Dative
Barking Dog 2
Workedcan
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03_28
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Cam/Chem
energies difference
example AS&A2
xof the electronic
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isneon experimentally
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a bent molecule. 03_27 Cam/Chem Figure
A
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the
of such
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as potassium,
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03_11
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03_28
the 2
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Sulfur Cam/Chem
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Cam/Chem
Cam/Chem
energies shown
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the however,
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ionisation isthere 2330/09/14 5:52 PM
Worked
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3.7 Dative
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Barking
Kinetic CCl
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03_18 Dog xArt
lithium
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electronic
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decrease. The larger the
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03_28 Worked
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at
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119°,
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Cam/Chem
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no about
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at
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Answer atom,
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03_18
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Figure
5
ofbetween
become
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the
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covalent
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are
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repulsion
3.29
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temperature
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4
left
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the
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and
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there
30/09/14 5:52
5:52PM
PM
δ–
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Predict
temperature
Barking
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Kinetic
Barking CClδ+
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03_18 How
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Cam/Chem
directly BF
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andsection
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on this
4.13).
use in
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argon. the Cl of
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the
Withwe
and carbon
argon,atom
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abbreviate in
3p subshell CCl the
4
30/09/14
30/09/14 5:52
5:52PM
PM
is21/10/14 9:46 AM
C the shape ofproportional
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the temperature (see section 4.13).
nne, have butasnot
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ingas Otemperature
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Figure try Othe energy
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nes Answer
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uoride?
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30/09/14 5:52 PM
is21/10/14 9:46 AM
hich lets
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energy
directly that of canis,the be sulfur
amovement of pair dioxide
three Cl
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different place types.
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nnes have
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Answer
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18,
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and
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isCCl
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subshell the nextis21/10/14 9:46 AM
oms lets
hich can themalso Predict
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Cl C H H
ehave as though 1made
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Answer
Sulfur
But
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isthe
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3.19).
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3.6 The covalency table
15/10/14 12:19 PM
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5:52 PM
3.6 The covalency tableshells

A B C 15/10/14 PM
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15/10/14 12:19 PM
therefore
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asthe electrons into. For many elements, the number isofthe 12:19 PM
single
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15/10/14 12:19 PM
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The
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atomic number
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6 150 has the 9
98 290are
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41018 electrons amount
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11 200
12 400
000 16 600
15 200 20
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92 000
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106 000
117 900 141
131 400 000 158 700
o find mostnucleon stable numberelectronic configuration
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measured 3: Electrons
under standard in700 atoms
BB
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11 of nucleon Na
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magnesium,
The
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494
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3Z4is 560
=
which
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11 one the that
66 940 has
subshells
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150 the 9 9 lowest
540
are
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290 filled amount
13
13
12 400
400
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16
15 600
600
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20 100
100
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23 500
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000 11728
28 900
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158 700
tons Table 10The
11 structure)
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Na proton
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940 has
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290
540 filled
11 elementsamount
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13 200 in the
400 conditions.
15 600
16 200Periodic 000
20Table.
100 The general
23 500
25 000 Chapter
symbol 11728 900 000 for 3: Electrons
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141 400 energy in
158 700is atoms
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number
energy, thehas Z1s,
relative therefore
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first,
subshell because
followed
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11
Table of
depends
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3.2
17
Na Successive
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ionisation
relative
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4 which
560 theThe
energies
energy.
electrons
6 subshells
940 for the
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540
first filled
11 13
elements 400
theby inin theΔHin 16
the 600Periodic 20
i. Its units
100
Table. are kJ mol . 25 500 –1 28 900 141 000 158
ftrons
neutrons
utrons
Table
11 those
lowest 3.2
Na
Hydrogen
d
thatSuccessive
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has 1s,Zis
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filled
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for the first
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540
11weelements
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13 400
and 16 600
Periodic
20
Table.
100 25 500 Chapter 28 900 3: Electrons
141 000 158 in atoms
700
Table depends
Hydrogen
lowest 3.2 Successive onhas
energy, their three
the relative
ionisation
1s, isotopes.
is energy.
thereforeenergies
The The
atomic
filled for subshell
thestructure
first, first with
followed11 elements theby in the Periodic
and The symbol Table. for the 1st ionisation energy is ΔH . Using
Table those
Figure 3.2 that 3.6,carbon,
eSuccessive are
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order Z = 6for
ionisationof the higher
subshells
energies in energy.
in
for terms
the firstAs of we noted
11increasing
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there Table lowest
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those isotopic energy,
symbols symbols thefor 1s,the is therefore the
three three isotopes isotopes
filled number
first,
of of
hydrogen ofhydrogen
electrons
followed are byareinin2theDistance Periodicas
calcium Table.

an ofexample: outer electrons from the 35
QUESTIONenergy
Figure 3.2 that does
3.6,
Successive are
the not successively
orderfollow
ionisationof a the higher
regularsubshells
energies in
pattern energy.
in
for of
terms
the s As
first then
of we
11 p noted
then
increasing
elements d Proton Table.
in the Periodic Symbol Electronic configuration
those shown that in
are Figure
successively 2.8. higher in number
energy. of
As electrons
we noted in 22 Distance
Distance of
of outer
outer Chapter electrons
electrons 3: Electronsfrom
from the
the in atoms 4 35
35
of protons
rotons QUESTION shown
Figure
QUESTION
energy
after argon, in
3.6, Figure
does where the order
not follow 2.8. the of 3p the
a regular subshells
subshell pattern
is in
full. terms
number ofFigure of
s ofthen increasing
3.9
electrons p then
shows d nucleus number
Proton
1st ionisation Symbol
energy: Ca(g) Electronic Ca + configuration
(g) + e –
4
When writing generally about isotopes, chemists alsoalsod 2 Distance
nucleus of outer electrons from the
Proton Symbol Chapter 3:
Electronic Electrons configuration in atoms 35
2Figure
QUESTIONthe2When
energy aorder 3.6,
does
Write the
writing not
equations orderfollow thethat
of
generally athe regularsubshells
about
describe: pattern in
isotopes, terms
of of
schemists
then increasing
p shows
then nucleus
The number
force 1 of attraction between positive andconfiguration
negative
Cambridge
after
Evidence for electronic
argon,
structure
of filling
where International subshells.
3p subshell AS is Level number
full. Figure of electrons
Chemistry 3.9 2 Distance of outer electrons from the 4 35
1
H –1 Chapter 1s3: Electrons in atoms
QUESTION2
energy
2name
after
the
Cambridge
aname
aorder 1s
them
argon,
Write does
Write them
iprincipalthe
of
not
equations
by
where
equations
1st
filling
by follow
omitting omitting
the
ionisation
International the thatthat 3pathe regular the
describe:
subshell
subshells.describe:
energy
1
proton
1theAS
proton
pattern
calcium
Level
number
full. of
ofisnumber Figure sand then3.9
Chemistry
and placing
p shows
placingthen d The nucleus
2
charges
nucleus
ΔH
Proton
number
TheDistance
forcedecreases
force
1
number
i1
of
= 590
of attraction
attraction
of
kJ mol
outer
Symbol
rapidly
H
between
Chapter
between electrons
as the
Chapter
Electronic
positive
distance
3:1 Electrons
positive
1s fromand
2 3: Electrons in atoms
and
between negative
the
negative in them
atoms 4 35
nmber
mom
number QUESTION
atom Cambridge
2after
the
Cambridge
2Ionisation
athe
theaisotopes
argon,
nucleon
order
order
i nucleon
Write
quantum
ii of
iprincipal
Write
number
the
thefilling
of
equations
where
number1st
1st
3rd
equations
of
filling
number
International
energy,
hydrogen
the
ionisation after 1s
that
the subshells.
ionisation
ionisation
4dthecan that1s
3p after
can
subshells.
describe:
subshell
energy
the
energy
energy
∆H
describe:
name.
1 AS
bei called
name.
of
of is full.
calcium
For
Level
ofcalcium
potassium
For Figure
example,
hydrogen-1,
example,
Chemistry 3.9 theshows
Number
the
nhydrogen-2
The
charges
If
nucleus force
increases.
ofcharges
The
a
electrons
2 second
1 decreases
force
of
decreases
of
So, attraction
removed
electron
electrons
attraction
rapidly
rapidly
He
H in as between
is
between
as
removed
shells the
the 1s
Chapter
positive
distance
1s 1
further
distance from
21 3: Electrons
positive
and
and
between
each
away
between negative
ion
fromthem
negative
inthem a
the mole
in atoms
of
isotopes 4fiiiprincipal
quantumofthe hydrogen 1stInternational
ionisation beenergy 4p
called AS of Level
calcium
hydrogen-1,4s Chemistry hydrogen-2 =4 charges
increases. 21 decreases
gaseous So,
1+ electrons
ions, rapidly
Hwe
He in
call asshells
it the
the distance
further
1s 2nd ionisation between
away from them
energy, the ΔHi2.
2 a Write
By firing
and and 4f iii
hydrogen-3.
ii
iii
iii
the
the
hydrogen-3.
high-speed
principal
quantum
number the
the 1st
3rd
3rd
equations
2nd
3rd
2nd
ionisation
ionisation
ionisation
1ionisation
4d
ionisation
ionisation
1s
that
electrons
energy
energy
describe:1
energy
24p at atoms,
energy
energy
energy
of
of
ofof
ofof
potassium
potassium
lithium
calcium3 4sscientists4can
sub-shell
potassium
lithium
Number
n=4 of increases.
nucleus
The
5charges
force
electrons
increases.
nucleus
Again,
toelectrons
the
3
2nucleus.
are
2 decreases
are
ofSo,
6So,
less
less
using
electrons
attraction
removed attracted
electrons rapidly
attracted
calcium
Li
He 7 inas
in
betweentoshells
as
Chapter
the
shells
to an
further
nucleus
positive
1s
1s
theexample:
the
Chapter
2
distance
8nucleus
further
2 2s 3:
3:
1 away
Electrons
than
and
between
away
than
Electrons 9 those
from
those
negative
from
the
them
in atoms
closer
the10atoms
closer
in
n = 4 an ofnucleus
Number are
Elements less in
removed attracted
Groups He in3to tothe nucleus
18 (apart 2s2 from than He)those have outer closer
2 1
Proton 4f iii
iii
iv how
quantum
number the Name 2nd
1st
5th ionisation
ionisation
ionisation
4d (Symbol) energy
energy
energy4p toof of
of lithium
calcium
sulfur.
Electronic charges
■ 3 decreases rapidly
Li as the distance
1s between fromthem
he ∆Hi number
work / kJ mol
out iii
the
–1 the 3rd
2ndmuch
1000 1ionisation
3d energy
ionisation 2has
energy3p of
energy
2260 ofbe 3 4s
supplied
potassium
lithium
3390 3s
sub-shell to4540 4form
n=3
Number of
7010
increases.
5nucleus
to the
electrons 3 are
4nucleus. 6So,
electrons
8500 less
removedelectrons
attracted
a 27 pBe
Li7100
subshell. toshells
the 31
further
8670
nucleus
1s
1s 22 2s2s1 than away
36 9580 those the
10
closer
43 –140
iv 5th ionisation energy of sulfur. to the nucleus.
rical;
he H
ion Proton
■2p by b Helium4f number
iv
ii
The
knocking
iii
the
–1 the
2nd Name
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3rd two 1 4d
ionisation
ionisation
out
3d (Symbol)
electrons.
one
ionisation energyenergy
2
electron
4p of
Both electrons
energy
3p
of
from
of
sulfur.
potassium
3
Electronic
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lithium
4s
configuration
each
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3s is can go into
atom. 4 n
n
=
=
4
the
3 5 Patterns in ionisation energies
increases.
1s nucleus
■
to
■The
the
2nd
3
4
Elements
are
nucleus.
Elements
ionisation
further
6
Elements
electrons
So,less the in
electrons Groups
outer
attracted
in
that
in Groups
a p
energy:
Li
Be7
add
in
subshell.
3
electron
to
3
to
shells
to
electrons
Ca
the
18
18
+
8(apart
(g)
further
shell
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(apart
to
2
2s
is
the
2
1
from
from
from d than Ca
away 9He)
the
He)
subshells
2+ (g)
those
have
fromnucleus,
have
+
are
outer
e10
the
closer
outer
the
called
∆ / kJ mol 1000 2260 3390 4540 7010
Patterns in ionisation
Table energies
8500 27 100 31 670 36 580 43 140
iv the 5th ionisation energy of sulfur. ■
he Proton
i■number b orbital, The
2860kJmol
The 2nd
as Name ionisation
this 1 –1(Symbol)
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electrons. 4 So, 5 ■ The The
■
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electron the 8shell
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nucleus
shell 2 2s is
is 2 from
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from 1
than 9 the
the those nucleus,
nucleus, 10
closer the
the
/19 bThe
Helium iiienergy
–1 the 2nd
has 2nd
potassiumionisation
change
two 3d ionisation (K)
electrons. that energy accompanies
Both
3p of nitrogen
of[Ar]lithium
electrons 1
3sthisiscan process
go n = is
into
n = X.the
3 For 1s7010 to the
■
■ ΔH 4example
nucleus. = 1150 in kJ a27pBe mol 2
1s 2s from 2
rical; Table
he
rical; Table
∆Hi Proton
∆Hcalled
2p
2p
3.4
kJ
■number
3b
mol
Helium
the
3.4orbital,
/202s
The
iv
The
nitrogen
the
2860kJmol
ivelectronic
2860kJmol
successive
2nd
has
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Name 5th 1000 ionisation
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two
thisis
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. The
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electrons.
4590kJmol
structure
3d–1
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The (K)3rd
hold
3rd
2260
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ionisation
Both
.
helium
3p
ionisation
maximum
energies
of
Explain nitrogen
3390
ofElectronic
sulfur.
electrons
is why 2
of
2sisan
configuration
energy
1s4stwo
energy
of the can
.2 anelectrons.
3s1 of
element
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ofelement
4540
into
n = X.
2
the 1s
3 For7010
So, ■ in the Periodic
Worked
Patterns
■
to thelower
The
lower 4
5
Elements
electrons
the 8500
in ionisation
nucleus.
6electronsenergies
i2
Elementsthe
further
thed-block 1.in
ionisation
the
ionisation that Groups
elements.
outer
in elements.
a27pC
add
Be
B
subshell.
100
energy.
subshell.
3 to
electrons
energy.
electron Most18
31 670(apart
ofto
shell
1s 2these
2s the
is2 from
2p d 36
1are
He)
580
subshells
the
haveare
transition
nucleus,
outer
43 140
elements.
called
the
rical; Table
19
i■number
2p
■19
kJ mol
borbital,
Helium
The
the nitrogen
The
2860kJmol
2860
ionisation
nitrogen
theionisation
2nd
has
kJ
as
potassium
5th
calcium
mol
this
potassium
1000
is
two
is
ionisation
4590kJmol
ionisation–1electrons.
can
energy . The
4590kJmol
energy.
ionisation
(K)is3rd
hold
2260
energy
–1 energies
energy
–1 2p
. Explain
Both
aofionisation
higher.maximum
. Explain
of nitrogen
3390
[Ar]
[Ar]
electrons
[Ar]
4sof
ofconfiguration
sulfur.
why
energy
of
why
4s
2s1 is
2two the
the can 3rdgo
ofelement
electrons.
3rd
4540 n = the
into 2 1s Worked
So, 3in the Periodic
■The5example
Patterns
■ Removal
lower
Shielding Table energies
8500
in ionisation
Elements
the further
thed-block
ofthe
1.that
a third
ionisation outer
effect
100
Badd electrons
electron
electron
energy.
of
Most
inner
31 shell
670
fromofto
1s
1s 22these
2s
2s the 22 2p
iseach
electrons
2p
fromd361are 580
2subshells
ion transition
the a are
innucleus,
43 elements.
mole
140
called
the
of
QUESTION
202s
21
19
3.4
b
Lithium
the The
orbital,
the The
electronic
ionisation
2860kJmol
nitrogen
electronic
has
successive
2nd
as calcium
scandium
this
potassium
three
is
structure
ionisation–1
energy
4590can .
4590kJmol(Ca)
structureThe
electrons.
ionisation
(Sc)
hold
kJ
(K) is3rdenergy
molhigher.
aof
The
helium
ionisation
maximum
.
energies
–12p of nitrogen
Explain
helium
1s is
[Ar]
is
[Ar]
orbital
1s
of
1s4s
energy
3d
why
4s
of
.
2s2
2two
.
1s 1
1 the
an
is
4s
can
of
2
electrons.
3rd
only n
n
hold
=
=
X.
2
So,
1
a
For ■
in the Periodic Table
Worked
levels.
■The
lower
gaseous
3 Shielding 5
Shielding
example
Patterns
6 Elements
the
In further
6QUESTION
any
thed-block
2+
1.
the
ionisation
ions
that
principal elements.
outer
across
effect C
B
is
add electrons
electron
quantum
energy.
called a
of inner
Most
the
innerperiod of
shell
1s
3rd
to
shell,
2 these
2s the
is2
electrons
from
2p
ionisation
d
the 1are
2 subshells transition
the
energy nucleus,
energy.
are
of called
elements.
the the
Again,
Table 3.4Lithium
maximumThe
ionisation successive ofthree energy
two ionisation
electrons is higher. so energies
the1s[Ar] third 4s2of2 an
electron element must = X.2goFora Worked
in the Periodic Table
3As example 1.effect of electrons
2s 2 2 3
e ■201s hascalcium –1.(Ca) electrons.
The 3rd –12p The orbital
2s can only n hold all
lower 7electrons
thethe d-block
ionisation are elements.N energy.
negatively
C Most 1s
of2these
charged,
1s 2s2 2p
2s 2pthey 2are transition elements.
repel each
■212s the Lithium
into
2860kJmol
nitrogen
electronic
ionisation
the hasscandium
next is
three4590kJmol
structure
energy
highest (Sc)
electrons. ofionisation
issubshell,
higher. . Explain
helium
The the 1s [Ar]energy
is2s.why
1s3d .21the
1s
orbital
So, 4s
the
2of3rd
can only
electronic = 1go a levels.
n hold electrons
3 Patterns
using
Shielding
Figure In in
any
calcium
3.13the subshells
principalacross
effect
shows as an how quantumincreases
a
example:
of period
inner
the first shell, in2 the
2electrons
ionisation the 32 order energy energy, s <of pthe <ΔH d. ,
se QUESTION 20 maximum calcium of two electrons
(Ca) –1 so the third
[Ar] 4s electron must As all

QUESTION
7 electrons
6electrons are negatively
N
C quantum charged,
1s 2s 2p they repel each
QUESTION
4 211scarbon
a Lithium
maximumThe
nitrogen
ionisation has
first scandium is
three
six
oflithium
4590kJmol
energy
two (Sc)
electrons.
ionisation
electrons is
nitrogen higher.
2
.
energies
so1
Explain
The the 1s [Ar]
of
third
why
3d
an 1s
orbital
1 the
4s
oxygen
element
electron
2
can 3rd only are n
must go =
hold 1 a other.
levels.
As
3 Patterns
all
Shielding
The
electrons 8Electrons
In
QUESTION
8 any
maximum
in
a the principal
An across
in
are
effect
subshells
element full
negatively
number
O inner
of
has a
increasesperiod
inner
ofthe shells
charged,
electrons
1s shell,
electronic
22 repel
electrons
in
2s 22
the
2p the
they
that
3 4electrons
energy
order repel
are
configuration s < of
allowedin
eachp the
< outer
d.
i1
hse 34 Three structure of issubshell,
21s 22s 3. order Figure7electrons
changes 3.13
across shows the N how first the
two first1sshell,
periods. ionisation
2s 2p We canenergy, explain ΔH – the ,
■
e QUESTIONFigure
211s
24 1s
carbon
into
2 2sfactors
maximum
into 1090,
2the
ionisation
3.92p
the
nextchromium
2Diagram
scandium
2350,
next ofsix that
highest
energy
two 4610,
highest
to (Cr)
(Sc) 1s
electrons
nitrogen influence
is
show
6220,
higher.
2s
subshell,
the
2p so
1 the
37800
the[Ar]
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2s.
third
2s.
ionisation
in So,
3dwhich
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So,
the
15 1s
4s
electron
oxygen
47300kJmolthe
2212s electronic
2 2p4
orbitals
electronicmust are
n .= 1go
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As
levels.
other.
in
all
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electrons
3 The
each 3rd
Shielding
shells.
Figure
Electrons
In Full
Electrons
QUESTION
any
ionisation
in3.13
maximum
subshell
87electrons the
inner1s
are
principal
shows
in
across
subshells
2effect
inshells
is:
2s
negatively
full
energy:
full
2number
s
2pO
N = 2
6 3s
how
inner
quantum
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inner athe
3p of
electrons,Ca
2increases
inner
electrons charged,
shells
6period
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shells (g)
electrons
3d 10
first1s4s 2p 2s
repel
in
electrons
2prevent
repel
=
4p2 2p
ionisation the
6
they
the
6that
4d
electrons
Ca
order
10 the
electrons
43electrons,
repel
energy3+
are
5s 2 5p(g)
energy, s<
full each
of
+in
5.in
allowed
the
e
ΔH
outer
pnuclear
<outerd. , i1
hsergy Three Three
energies
4
241s a
Electrons factors
The
structure
factors
first
2are of
chromium that
lithium
that
ionisation
(Cr) is influence
1s
influence
2 energies
2s .
3 for[Ar]
of ionisation
an element
ionisation
3d 5 4s 1 are As
other.all
form
changes
shells.
electrons
8 of
Electrons
Full
89electrons
a
in the
inner
the
An
across element
are
graph
in shells
subshells thenegatively
full
Fthe mainly
first has
inner
of twothe
increases by
shells
electrons electronic
charged,
referring
periods.
1s 2 repel
in
2s prevent
2
the
2p they
We configuration
tothe
4electrons
5
order repel
the
can each
sfactors
explain
full<in <outer
nuclear
pnuclear d.that
the
i1
ofadded one by one successive
filled up 2 to shell =ionisation
nhighest 4.tothe 2elements, The maximum 2number of electrons 66that are allowed
4Figure carbon
251s 2 2s 3.9 2pfirst Diagram nitrogen
1s show 2 2s 2 the
2p 1. order in which oxygen
5 1s 222s orbitals
2pare 4
–1 are charge
shells. 8Fullbeinga=inner felt by
shells O outer
of –1 electrons electrons.
1s 2 2s 2 2p
2prevent This 10 the isenergy,
called
full
h s Three Figure 4ainto The
Which
structure
1090,
factors
the
3.12 nextmanganese
2350,group
When six
lithium
that
in
4610,
adding
(Mn)
subshell,
is6220,
21s
influence
2 energies
Periodic
22s 37800
electrons theTable
and[Ar]
of
to2s. 3d
aanSo,
does
47300kJmol
ionisation
4s
element
the
particular this electronic 4 . are
2 2psubshell, d
inAs
other. 10ΔH
Figure
all
=each
changes i3 3.13
electrons.
subshell
Electrons
4940
An
across
1s shows
2are
is:
2s
iionisation kJ
element
Which
in
mol
sfull
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negatively
=mainly has
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first the
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inner twothe
6 3d first
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4s pionisation
Periodic =2page
4p
repel they
4dWe configuration
electrons,
Table
electrons repel
can
5s 2 5p 5.each
explain
does in ΔH
this
outer i1,
the
energies
5 4s 212s
bitals
ergy energies 4filled 24
Figure carbon
1s
filling
Electrons
2 2s
25 aelectronsup The
1090,
structure
3.9
element
2 2p2Diagram
each
to first are
shellchromium
subshell
2350,
manganese
of added
sixn =4610,
lithium
belong
to
4. the
ionisation (Cr)
in
to?
show
nitrogen
1s
one 6220,
(Mn)
is 2s
order
1sby the
2pone
2 energies
Explain2s37
37800
3 order
1of.800 increasing
for
your and
[Ar]
of
[Ar]in 3d
an which
successive
3delement
47 5
300oxygen
1s
47300kJmol
decision. 4s energy.
2 orbitals
kJ2elements,
mol areThe
–1 . charge
charge
in influence
form
shells.
The
each
shielding. 9 Full
88being of
being
maximum
aThe
subshellthe
inner felt
An
felt
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bynumber
element
2sby
is:
greater
2 2
s2pF
Othe
the
= 6
2
the
3senergies
ofouter
has
outer electrons
of
electrons,
2 3p the by
shielding
6 3d (see
referring
electrons.
electrons
1s 2
electronic
electrons.
10 4s 2s
2p2s
2 prevent
=
of
4p 2p
66 This
that4
5
This
outer
4d to35). the
the
is 5p
are
configuration
electrons,
10 5sis
electrons
2 factors
full
called
allowed
called
5 nuclear
.inthis bythat
hergy Three the 241s up factors
Which group
are
chromium nthat
only in paired
(Cr) influence
Periodic when Table
no ionisation
does
more
[Ar] 3d 5 emptythis
1
4s22sorbitals orbitals d other.
= changes
1010
form Electrons
electrons. across
of inner
the i graphin
element
Which the
full
Ne first
inner
mainly
blockbelongtwoin bytheperiods.
shells
to?
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referring
Periodicrepel 2 2p We 6electrons
to
Table can
the explain
factors
does outer the
that
me
bitals 1 The
energies 25 size
Figure
Electrons
filled
filling
electronic
2 2s 1090, 3.12
3.9
2 2p are
to
each
2
of
shell When
Diagram
subshell
2350,
manganesethe
added
configurations =4610, nuclear
adding
4.toone
in
1s show 2
order
6220,
(Mn) 2s
by 2
electrons
the
2pone
of37800 charge
3
of
the
order
for to
increasing
and
first [Ar] a
in
18
particular
which
successive 5 1s
47300kJmol
3d 4sthis
elements
2
energy. elements, 4
2psubshell,
–1. are
areThe shown in shells.
■ We
The
shielding.
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=each
9Full
influence can
first
being continue
ionisation
principal
The
subshell felt
i1s greater shells
by
is:
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sFthe
2 2p quantum
6 theof
=tomainly
remove
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2block electrons
energies 6 level,electrons
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electrons.
shielding
electrons,
2 3p 3d 10 4s
2
np2s2prevent
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This
6outer
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electrons,
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ergy Three
1
energies The
Figure
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filled factors
Which
element
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belectronsDraw
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up 3.12
to of
are
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acopper
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sketch
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n that
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=
in
4.
the
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nuclear
graph
adding one
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Periodic
Explain
to show
electrons
by one
when charge
Table
your
forthe
no to ionisation
adoes
decision.
log 10values
particular
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more empty 1 elements,of
subshell,
orbitals the
shells.
charge
10
inner
shielding.
form
10
influence
9 electrons.
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being
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The
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ionisation
ii
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Ne
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group
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electrons
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electrons.it 2 2s the
Periodic of
prevent
belong 2p
page attractive
65 to
This
Table
35).
to? electrons
the
the
is fullforces
factors
does
called
this
nuclearby that
The 1 As The size of the nuclear charge
29 (Cu) [Ar] 3d 4s of 2 electrons in an s subshell. n
bitals =only
The the
first nucleus
principal is left.
quantum We He call
level, 2this
= 1, sequence
can hold aof ionisation
maximum
5 2
me the filling
25QUESTION
in
Figure atomic
Table
electronic Which
elementeach
3.12 3.5. subshell
manganese
numbergroup
configurations
When belong in
adding in
(number
the
to? order
(Mn) Periodic
Explain
of
electrons of
theof increasing
protons)
Table
your
first to does10
decision.
18
a
4sthis
increases,
elements
particular energy. are The
theshown dshielding.
subshell,
■
the inner
1011electrons. The
electron
i greater
Which 2500
shells,
Na the
block shielding
the in lower
the 2
1sPeriodic the
2s of2 2p
2 2pouter
attractive
6
6 3s Table1 electrons doesforces this by
energies
1 the b the
electrons
Draw first a arefour
sketch only successive
paired
graph to ionisation
when
show no
the more
logenergies empty
values of a
orbitals
of between
the inner
10
influence

2 electrons the nucleus
electron ionisation elementshells,
Ne and belong
the
energies outer
lower to?
1s(see electrons.
the
2s page attractive 35). forces
bitals As The are
the filling
29 size
available.
atomic eachof subshell
number
copper the nuclear
(Cu) into?order
(number ofcharge
of increasing
protons) [Ar] 3d increases,
10 4s energy. The
the charge
The
of being
first iifelt
principal inbyan
Which the
quantum
s the outer
subshell.
group electrons.
level,
does it2nenergies.
=of
belong 1,outer
2n2p
This
=can to? isNe
hold called
a maximum
–1 –1
me electronic configurations ofwhen the first

10
18energies
elements
12
shown ■■ The
shielding.
energies, second The iii principal
successive Identify
greater quantum
ionisation
this He
element.
shielding level, 62, can
1 electrons hold a by
aare
element belong
hThe As positive the atomic
Anuclear
30QUESTION number
azinc charge (Zn) (number thisExplain
increases. of Theyour
protons) decision.
bigger
[Ar] 3d10 increases,
the 4s 1 positive
the the
betweeninner
11 electron
the nucleus shells,
2500Na and the lower
outer 1s the
electrons.
2s attractive3s aforces
mol
the in electrons
question
bavailable.
Table Draw 3.5. 2are
sketch only
about paired
graph type
to show of no
detailed
the more
log empty
notation
1010values ofof orbitals
will between 10first the nucleus element Ne and belong
the outer to? 2nelectrons.
me 1
As
positiveTheare
the 29
electronic size
atomic
Group
the
nuclear
first of copper the
element.
four
configurations
number charge nuclear
successive
(Cu)
(number
increases. of the
ofcharge
ionisation
first
protons)
The [Ar] 18
bigger 3d elements 4s
increases,
the positive are the shown ■ The
shielding.
of
The 2
12
maximum electronsThe
ionisation ii
principal
of 8 Which
greater
in an
energy 2500
electrons:
2000 quantum
Mg s group
the
subshell.
is lower
2 He level,
does
shielding
electronsas1s it the 2s =
belong
of 21,
n 2p
number
in can
outer
the 6 3s to?s2hold
electrons
ofNe
subshell full maximum
11by
and
/–1kJ–1
2 2 6 1
The 1
charge,
positive in QUESTION
Electronic
The 30 5
31Table Athesize
bavailable. a
Draw
nuclear Name
3.5.
greater of zinc
acopper the
sketch
2charge the
configuration
(Zn) three
nuclear
thesuccessive
attractive
graph
increases. types
to show of
charge
force
The orbital
the of
[Ar]
between
log
bigger present
ions
3d 1010values
10
10the 4s
4sthe
2 in
of1of
positive the
nucleus third the
■ The
inner
11 Thesecondelectron
b successive
iii principal
Which shells,
Identify Na
block quantum
ionisation the
this
in the lower
element. level,
energies
1s
Periodic the
2s 2p =
Table 2,
attractivefor
3s can the
does hold forces
first
the a
mol
h are the first four ionisation energies athe ■

between the nucleus and the outer electrons.
kJmol
bitals As the often

29 atomicquestion
be
Group stated gallium
number about
like
element. (Cu)this:
(Ga) this‘Use
(number type of 1s of detailed
2 notation
protons) [Ar] 3d notation
to
increases,
12give
4p will
the of
The
The 2 electrons
ionisation
second ii
iii Which
in an
energy
principal
Identify2500 s group
subshell.
is
quantum
thislowerHe does
element. as it
level, the belong nnumber
= 2, to?
can F of Ne full
hold a
The positive
charge, 30QUESTION
in 5Table nuclear
the 3.5.
greater 2charge
zinc thesuccessive
(Zn) increases.
attractive The
force bigger
between
[Ar] 3d 10
10the
4sthe2
positive nucleus ■ themaximum
■
betweeninner
electron
6Theelectrons
11
12 ionisation electron
the shells
of inthe
nucleus 8theenergy shells,
between
electrons:pNa
Mg subshell.
isin the
the
lower
2the lower
outer
electronsas1sthe 2 the
electrons
2s 2 2p attractive
number
in the 6 1
2
3ss2does and
of1 Table
subshell fullforces
the and
Aland the outer electrons.
5Athe a greater principal
Name the quantum
three types shell. of orbital present in1nucleus
athewill third elements inelement 2000
Periodicwith the electronic
Table are configuration
shown in 3.2.
kJ//mol
ehthe charge, the

question first four
about thisenergy type ionisation
of detailed energies notation of ■ b Which block Periodic Table the
and Electronic
the
31 Group
electrons. gallium configuration
element.
So,the more
attractive
(Ga) force2is of
needed
between
[Ar] ions
3d 10to 4sthe2overcome
4p 13second 1sthe 22 2s2s 22n 2p N662,3s 3scan 2F3p Ne
/ kJenergy
bitals As the electronic

often
Positive atomicbe stated
ions configuration
number are like formed this:
(number …’
‘Use
when of1s notation
protons)
electrons to
increases,
are 2give
removed thethe from
–1
electron
The shells
iii principalbetween quantum the outer5level, electrons =the and holdthe a and
kJ
positive 30 5 nuclear
a zinc charge (Zn) increases. The bigger
[Ar] 3d the 4s positive ■
between
The 12
maximum
nucleus
electron ionisation
the
third of
increases.
nucleus
principal
shells Identify
28theenergy
electrons:
22000
1500
between Mg and
quantum isthislower
2the2
the element.
electrons
outer
6level,
outeras1s n 1electrons.
= 3,
electrons in2p
number
can s
hold of
subshell
and a full
maximum
the
/mol
Name the three types of orbital present in the third 6 electrons b in

Which p
block subshell. in the Periodic Table does the
h Electronic configuration of ions
■ 6 3s
bitals charge,
and
and
these the
often
31
the A the question
electrons.
Group
be b
electrons.
attractive greater
principal
State
stated 2
gallium
forces about
So,
thethe
element.
like
So, more
quantum
maximum
more
ifthis:
(Ga) this
attractive
an Na type
energy
‘Use
energy
electron shell.
number
1s of
force2is
is detailed
between
needed
notation
needed
is biggerof
[Ar] electrons
3d
tonumber 10
bepresent notation
to
to
to
removed. 4s the
2overcome
give
4p
overcome 1 nucleus
that thewill ■
The data 1s
element 2s
in 2p
Table with 3.2 3p
the 3d
shows 4s
electronic us belongthat:configuration to?F
energy
12 Mg 2 2 6 2 1
bitals
e the charge, from ■■ 6maximum The13
nucleus increases.
ionisation of in8the energy Al is thelower as1s the 2s2in 2p
number N6 3s6Os2electrons3pof full
energy
positive electronic
Positive
atoms. 5 the nuclear
aThe ions
Name configuration
sodium arethe
charge formed increases.
ion,
three …’+shell.
when
types (proton
ofelectrons
The
2orbital are
10the removed
positive
22 = in11), thehas electron
electrons shells electrons:
2000
2between pquantum
subshell. 2the
the inelectrons
outer electrons the subshell
and the and
bitals Electronic
35attractive b greater principal bromine configuration
the quantum
ifattractive
(Br) force of
between
[Ar] ions
3d 4s the4p the2third
15nucleus of
The 18third
nucleus
14 bincreases.
electrons: Which
element
principal block
2electrons
1500 6 3s2in
Siwith Periodic
the snsubshell,
electronic
6level, 51s 2212s
=2s 3, Table
configuration
can
2p 3s 2Fdoes
hold 3pof12afull the in
maximum the
Subshells and atomic orbitals
10 1s2 2s
eo the and
these often
the
31
electronic be
electrons. stated
can
State beSo,
forces
gallium
configuration like
the found morethis:
(Ga)
maximum an ‘Use
energy
in electron
each
…’ 1s isis
subshell
number notation
is needed
toofofbe the
electrons to
to
removed. thirdgive
overcome that The13 ionisation energy 2pAl is H
3p
lower 3d as1s4s the belong
2 2p
number N6 3s to? 3p
energy
Positive ions are formed when electrons are removed from

ionisation
bitalsthe andthese
charge,
■ atoms. 10
Inthe attractive
the
electrons.
general, Thegreater
principal forces
sodium
ionisation So, the
its if
quantum
ion,an
attractive
electronic
energy electron
Na + shell. force
configuration
(proton
increases to be
between
number
as the removed.
proton the
is= 1s nucleus
11), 2 2s has 2p 6 .
■ 6
■ of p
■electron
The electrons
nucleus For
subshell
18 third shells
electrons:
in
increases.
each
principal
element
and
1s 2 the
element,
10
2s2
between
2 p
1500
1000
2p
electrons
subshell.
quantum
with
electrons6 3sthe2 the
the
3p in
in6 outer
successive
level, Be
electronic
3dthe
the 5
s d
4sn electrons
= 3,
subshell.
1
subshell, belong C
ionisation
can
configurationhold
6 to? and
electrons a the
energies
maximum in the
e the these 35 electrons.
b ions State
quantum bromine beSo,
the more
maximum
(Br)
shell. energy number isisneeded ofof
[Ar] 3d 10to
electrons
10 4s overcome
22 4p that
5 13
14 Al 6 2 Hthe6 outer
Si 1s212s 2 2 6
2pN6 3s2 3p O 2 1
2
energy

electronic
attractive can configuration
forces found if an …’+increases
in electron
each subshell to be theremoved. third 6
bitals Positive
36general, are
krypton formed (Kr) when electrons [Ar] 3d are 4s removed
4p11), 2 from electron shells between =electrons and the 3
ionisation
■ atoms. QUESTION bThe sodium ion, Na (proton number = 5 2 has nucleus increases.
ionisation
o the ■ and In
10 the
number
Note 35 electrons.
that
electrons. ionisation
increases.
this So,
bromine isSo, the
its more energy
same
electronic
(Br) energy
as the iselectronic
needed
configuration as
[Ar] the
3d 10to proton
4s 2overcome
configuration
is4p1s 2s 2p 6
. ■ of The
p 18increase.
15
14
subshell third
electrons: 1s2This
principal
and 2s
10
1500
is
1000P because
quantum
2 2electrons
2pSi
electrons 3s H 3pin the
inlevel,
the
3d
the
51sBe
s4s
1s nsubshell,
dcharge
2 2s 2s 3,
subshell. 22 2p
belong 2pC on
can 3s
6 3s the
hold
6Oto? 3p
3p 23a
2electrons ion gets
maximum in the
bitals these
In general,
attractive can ionisation
State
quantum forcesbe the found if energy
maximum
shell.an in each increases
electron
+ number
subshell is to as
of bethe
electrons
of the proton
removed. third that
You will
nucleus also notice
increases. from Figure 3.6 B that the order ofin theis
ionisation
o the Quantum atoms.

In 36
number
10 35 QUESTION
electrons.
general, The
increases. subshells
sodium
krypton
ionisation So,
bromine its ion,
(Kr)
electronic
energy
(Br) Na (proton
increases configuration [Ar]
as
[Ar]number
3d
the
3d
10
10 4s
proton
4s
2
2is=
4p
4p 1s 11),
6
5 2 2s has
2 2p 6 . pFilling
of
18 greater
subshell
14
15 electrons: the
and as each
102 orbitals
electrons
1000 electron
electrons
Si
500
P in
in is
the
the Be
removed.
s
1sd subshell,
2 subshell.
2s 2 2pC 6 As
3s 6O 2each
electrons
3p 2
3 electron 3
these
of36attractive
number
Note neon,
6 that
increases.
the
can
this forces
element
be found
is theshell. if an electron
with
same in each10 the
as electrons
subshell is to
electronic be
ofinremoved.
the each third atom.
configuration H
■
quantum 10 2 6
ionisation
1skrypton (Kr) [Ar] 3d 4sofis4p Benergy

First
16removed Sfrom Be
1s
Liattractive 2 2s 22 2p
2pC 66the 3s2does2 3p34 Na 3
o the Quantum
■ 10 Table
In
number QUESTION 3.6
electrons.
general, Use Electronic
subshells
ionisation
increases.
2 notation
So, itsshell. electronic
energy to give
configurations the
increases electronic
configurationfor assomethe configurations
10 proton
the 2 2 2p6.
6 2ssplit
1sare thepsubshells
You will
15
subshell alsoand in
notice terms
there
10 1000 P isof
electrons increasing
Figure
a greater in the 1s3.6
d2subshell.
2s that 3s
force order
3p between notof the
The Note
of principal
36 neon,
QUESTION
that
Negative the thisquantum
quantum ions
element
krypton is the are same
(Kr)shells,
formed
with as
10 apartthe
when
electrons electronic
from atoms
[Ar] the
in
3d gain
each configuration
first,
4s 2 4p
electrons.
atom. You Filling
A useful
will also the
way notice of orbitals
500
representing
from Figure electronic
3.6 Bthat the configurations
order of remaining is a 3
First
Quantum subshells
First
In
elements general, of the
19 ionisation
atoms
to2 36, with
where energy the [Ar] increases
following
is the as
atomic
electronic the proton
numbers:
structure of the subshells
15
16 in terms P
S of increasing 1s 2 2s 2
energy 2p 6 3s 2
does3p 34
not
■
intoTable
The
Table
number
Note
of
The
6
neon,
subshells
principal
3.6
that
Negative
sulfide
Use 1s
Electronic
increases.
the this (sublevels).
quantum
ion,
notation
element
ions
is6 the
S 2–are shells,
formed
(proton
to
configurations
same
with Each
giveas
10 the
the
electrons
principal
apartwhen
number
electronic
for
electronic
from atoms
=
some
in
quantum
the
16),
configurations
each of
first,
gain has
the
configuration
atom. shell
are
electrons.
18 split
electrons.
follow
You Filling
A 17
will
useful
a regular
positively
also the
way notice
charged
of orbitals
pattern 500
Cl
from 0
representing
of
protonss
Figure
then Li in
1s p
3.6
the
22 2s
electronic
then
2sBthat nucleus
22 2p
2p d
66the
3s after
22 3p
3p
and
order
the
45 Naof
configurations
Na
the
3.11). is a is
try Quantum subshells diagram that places 5000of0electrons in5energy boxes (Figure
FirstFirst
66 3.6 Use Electronic 2

2pnotation to
configurations give isthe theelectronicfor someconfigurationsof the the 16
subshells inThe terms S increasing Li 1s 3s does 10not
Filling the orbitals
number 2 2 2 6
argon
elements 1s aincreases.
of 2s
the
19 161s atoms
to 36, 3swhere 3p
with . the [Ar] following atomic
electronic numbers:
structure of element
follow negatively
argon.
a regular charged
pattern order electrons.
of ofs then
subshells p2Therefore
then 2 after 6d3s
more
argon
after
2 3p54 the
energy
appears
n
try The
The
contains
into of
Table
Its
The
elements
argon Electronic configurations
neon,
principal
Negative
subshells
6
principal
a
3.6
electronic
sulfide
1s Use
of the
2
ab2 2s
the
different
19ion,
16
quantum
2
9quantum
element
2ions
(sublevels).
1s
Electronic atoms
to
2p notation
36,
6 2–
configurationare
number
S where
3s 2
with
shells,
formed
(proton
with
3p 6
shells,
Each
to
configurations
. the of
give10 apartelectrons
when
subshells.
principal
the
number
[Ar]following
is the
apart
2
1s from
from atoms
electronic
2sfor2 in
the
The
quantum
some
=2p16),
atomic
electronic 6
the
each
first,
gain
subshells
configurations
3sfirst, 2
hasof3p 18
numbers:
atom.
the
6
structure
are
electrons.
shell
,arewhich
split
splitis
electrons.
of follow A
the diagram useful
16
17
subshells
18
to overlap.
element aEach
neededregular
argon.
way
that
box
The next
The
of
intorepresents
terms
places
pattern
overcome
representing
S
Cl
Ar 0of0electrons
element
order
increasing
of of s then
these
an
Li
Atomic
atomic
after
subshells
electronic
1s in
p
attractive
1s
2s
22 2s
argon
energy
boxes
then
number
5orbital.
2s
2p
2p66d
22after 3s
is3s
configurations
does
(Figure
after
(Z
forces. ) 5610
22 3p
3p
potassium.
argon theNa
not 3.11). is a
appears
Electronic configurations
Negative ions are formed when atoms gain electrons. A useful way of representing electronic configurations 3.11). is a
■ 17 Cl 1s 2p
try – into into
contains
are argon The subshells
distinguished sulfide
a ofdifferent
the (sublevels).
ion, atoms S 2–
number
by3sthe (proton
with Each
the of principal
number
subshells.
following = quantum
16),
The
atomic has
subshells
numbers: 18 shellelectrons. diagram that places electrons in boxes (Figure 37
nnge elements 19 to 36, theletters
where [Ar] s, 1s
is pwith
the or2sd.2p
electronicThere are ,also
structure f is
of follow aThe regular pattern 0 0ofcan s then p2 2s then 6din after the
1s 2s 2 2p 6 2 3p 6 . element 2 2 6 2 6
the
Its same
electronic a as16 argon,configuration is 18 electrons
3s 3p in each
which element argon. The order of subshells 5number after argon 5610 appears
Electronic configurations There is a big difference Atomic
between (Z )
2some successive
2order
subshells b 9 (sublevels). 2– (proton Each principal
number 2 2s2= quantum
16), 2has shell to overlap.
17
18
Potassium’s
■ Each The
boxes
box
outer next (orbitals)
represents
electron element
Cl
Ar an is inafter
be
atomic 1s
the argon
arranged orbital.
54s,
2p is
not (Figure3s potassium.
in 3pthe of
3d, increasing
The sulfide 202ion, are18 electrons.
6 Snumber diagram thatThe Aplaces
nnge
try contains Representing a1s cdifferent 6. of subshells.
electronic The6 3ssubshells
configurations Figure 3.13 graph 0electrons
of the first inionisationboxes 2energies 3.11).of the 37
2 2s 2 3p 6, which ■
middle40– aresubshells Its
argon
the electronic
distinguished same for a elements
as16 2p configuration
by3s the with letters more is 1s
s, than
pwithor 5718
d. 2p electrons.
There 3p also Figure f is element argon. order of Atomic
subshells number
2 after (Z )first
argon 610 18 appears
QUESTION 9 argon, the element electrons in each
atom.
Electronic configurations Table
18ionisation 3.5 Electronic Ar configurations 1sargon2 2s for6isin
2p the
3s 3p elements in 37
bdifferent to overlap.
■ Each
energy
The box
The
boxes from represents
nextenergies. element
bottom
(orbitals) an
For
to
can atomic
after
nitrogen
top.
be arranged orbital.
this potassium.
occursorder between
of increasing
nnge contains
are
– subshells Its a
electronic
distinguished number
configuration
by the letters of subshells.
is
s, 1s
p 2 2s2 2p
or d. The6 3ssubshells
There 2 3p6, which is
are also f subshell.
Potassium’s
■elements The outerfirst
hydrogen element
electron to with
is
sodium in an
the
plotted electron
4s, notagainst in in thethe atomic 3d
3d, number.
middle 3.6 Representing
the
shows
A
■ detailed
atom. same
QUESTION for
Elements
Note
c
btheas 20
elements
920 way argon,
subshells inin of writing
Groups electronic
the
withfor3element the
to more the
18 first thanwith
four
electronic
(apart configurations
5718
from electrons
electrons.
principal
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He) have quantum in each
Figure
outer of Figure
to overlap.18the
the
Table Each 3.13
Periodic
3.5 box
The
5th and
A graph
represents
next
Table.
Electronic 6th Ar
element of
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the
an
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Atomic
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6
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18the
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c that, bygeneral, electrons in the outer subshell ■
40– are Potassium’s The
energy
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s,the
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57
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3.5
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18
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41
Representing electronic configurations
■
middle subshells areQUESTION
■ removed
Note for c that,20
elements when
in general, metal
with ions than
electrons
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57 the positive
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1
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40 3.6 atom.
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ing 3.6 shows
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6 2s
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awith
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8 many
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energy
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Orbitals and the Periodic Table
many 1s
to
i
example:
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energy
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energy
2 2 6 2 6 2 2 3p
You Ti should
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1s5s2s5p 2 4s 6
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Orbitals and the Periodic Table ■ period Chromium because: and copper
2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 5 2p
The with arrangement
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itPeriodic Tableconfiguration.does 3p6 this 2 3p6 3d 2 Each iiiThe
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Increasing
Ti atom: 2s2 2p
Which group3s 2 3p does 3d 2 4s
belong to?
The
the You Orbitals and the Periodic Table
prepared should
arrangement
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i note
write structure
Which the
ofout elements
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the ofin the
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the
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Periodic ion: 1s
Periodic
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2 2s2 2p3s
The
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Periodic
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thisreflects
Table Each
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Chromium
The
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charge
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Electronic
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the distance remains 2sbetween reasonably the nucleus constant and the outer
Increasing
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Identify of group
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Periodic 2p 3s 3s 3p
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Increasing
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iii
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the Periodic elements. Table The
does Periodic
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Increasing
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■ Cr atom: 1s 3s 4s the expected
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the expected
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The outer electron goes into
the Potassium
Elements
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Identify
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Electronic
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orthan
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(rather has
than of
two two
theelectrons.
energy electrons,
electronic
between
The electronic configuration thatthe
of boron expected
in
2 2 2 6 1
■ QUESTION 1s b2s Which 2p 2in3s 3p6 terms 4s .theThe outer electron into
Elements
s4s subshell.
below subshell the 3dGroups
ratherin
2 block 2in1than and 6 of 25its
the have
Periodic 3d outer Tableelectrons
subshell because the2pin thethe 4s is iii
[Ar] the
elements 3dshielding
9 4sare 2). You exceptionsbywill inner have to
thelearn remains
pattern. these two
on TheTheElements
are electronic
removed
first whenconfigurations
metal ions of the
form some their of the
positive elements
areions. 1 The direction of the arrow represents i1 the ‘spin’ of the
electrons forionisation
in that
theeach add energy
electrons
subshell isdecreases
to
shown dassubshells
below you forgoelements
down
hydrogen. a
called When There high-speed
subshell. is a(Wegeneral
So electrons
scandium increase
an has hitinthe gas
ΔH particles
across
electronic at lowits own
a period.
configuration This
■
However,
■
TheElements
electronicthe d-block
following
that configurations
add elements
elements:
electrons ofbehave
to some
the das slightly
of the
subshells differently.
are called pressure, electron.
coloured
applies to(WePeriod imagine
lines 1are electron
seen
(hydrogen through androtating around
an instrument
i1 helium), Period 2
electrons
The
after first
However,
■
the argon
a in
the each
ionisation
are
vanadium
d-block d-block subshell
shown
elements. energy
(Z in
elements
= 23) isdecreases
Table
Most shown
of 3.6.
behave
these below
In are you
this for
slightly go
table
transition hydrogen.
downpart aof
differently. the
elements. subshell.
electron. So scandium
imagine an has
electronthe electronic
rotating configuration
around its own
group
Reading
after in the
across Periodic
the PeriodicTable. For
Table example,
from in
potassium Group4d 1
toofthe
zinc, pressure, axis
[Ar]coloured
applieseither
3d to
1 4s in2 .alines
Period 1are
clockwise
This is seen
(hydrogen through and
or anticlockwise
because electrons an instrument
helium), Period
direction.)
occupy the 2
theargon
ad-block areelements.
vanadium shown (Z =in 23) Table
Most of 3.6.
these Inare this table4d
transition part the
elements. called aaxis spectroscope.
(lithium
[Ar] either
3d toin2.neon)
1 4s aThis The
clockwiseand
isandletters
also s,toelectrons
pother
or anticlockwise
because and dperiods.
come from
As you go
direction.)
occupy
uclear charge. group
electronic
Reading
values
the
in
of the
b across
ΔH
4s subshell
electronic
copperPeriodic
configuration
i1 are:
the
fills
configuration
Table.
(Z =Periodic
29)
(Z =before
29) ofthe
of eachFor
Table
each
example,
element
3d element
from potassium
subshell.isBut
isinrepresented
Groupto
5s
when
represented
5s
1 the
zinc,
atoms called
■ aWhen spectroscope.
(lithium
orbitals there toare
with neon) two
the The letters
lowest also
electrons s,toin
energy pother
and
an dperiods.
–orbital,
the come
3d the Asthe
from
‘spins’
subshell you go
isofjust
the
uclear charge. values
byQUESTION
the [Ar]. b copper
of ΔH
This
4s subshell are:
‘noble
fills gas
before core’the represents
3d subshell. the Butelectronic
when atoms the ■termsWhen used
across
orbitals a
thereto
with describe
period
are two
the the lowestthese
nuclear
electrons lines:
energy charge
in an s
– for
the ‘sharp’,
increases.
orbital,3d the pBut
subshell forthe
‘spins’ ofjust
is thein
beryllium of c selenium (Z = 34) 4pthe 4s 105 the terms electrons
usedathe
across
above are
to4s
period opposite,
describe
subshell so
these
the nuclear the
butfromlines:
below two
charge arrows
sthe
for in
‘sharp’,
increases.
4p this box
pBut
subshell. point
forThis
the
■ byaQUESTION
Li d-block
= c519
[Ar]. kJelement
This ni1
mol
selenium
= 4–1 gas
n‘noble
lose
(Z lose
= 34) electrons
core’2 2srepresents
to form
2 2p6 3s2 3pthe 6. This
ions,
electronic ‘principal’ andthe
electron
electrons
above ‘d foropposite,
removed
are4s ‘diffuse’.
subshell comes so
butthe below twothe same
arrows
thesame4p in shell.
this box
subshell. So,This
the in
point
beryllium
proton than configuration
of a d-block
Li ==519 kJ =of
element4–1argon: 1selectrons to form ions, method
4p the 4s is opposite
‘principal’ and
electron
begins a directions.
‘d for
removed
pattern ‘diffuse’.
of comes
filling from
the the
3d subshell shell.
endingSo, the
with
■■electrons
Na
configuration494 are kJmol
lost
molof first. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6. This method is
–1
argon: opposite
force directions.
ofaattraction between the3dpositive nucleus and the2
proton than a shorthand
electrons
8 =a494
8K are way
lost
AnkJelement of writing
first. has the electronic structures of atoms
electronic configuration 3d begins
force pattern ofbetween filling the subshell endingand with
on removal ■ Na
8For aexample:
= 418
a shorthand kJ 2mol
mol
way –1–1 zinc. of Zincattraction
has electrons
the electronic the positive
configuration nucleus
[Ar] 3d10 10 the
4s .
An element 2pof6 3swriting
has
2 3pthe6 3delectronic
electronic structures
10 5s2 5p53d
configuration 4s of atoms Atomic zinc.orbitals
outer negative increases across the
■
on removal with For manyexample: 2s2–1
1selectrons. However, 10 4s2 4p6 4d
in an exam you . should
4s be Zinc 2p
has electrons
the electronic configuration [Ar] 3d 4s2.
ctronic ■
■with K =
Rbmany418 kJ
= 4031skJ 2molmol
2s 2
electrons. –16 2
2p 3s However, 6 10
3p 3d 4sin4pan4d 2 6 10
exam 5s 5p2
you 5 . should be Atomic outer orbitals
negative 2p increases across the
ctronic
nic Orbitals and
prepared
Orbitals
■ Ti and the
Rbatom:
prepared
the Periodic
Periodic Table
to
i
energy
= 403i 1s
to
n Table
write
Which
2 =
kJWhich
mol
write
3 2
2s32 2p–1out
block
out
6 the
3sthe
block
2 in
3p full
6the
infull
6the
electronic
Periodic
2
3delectronic
4s 2 configuration.
Table does
configuration.
3p this
Chromium
■ period
Each■ subshell
Chromium
period
The
Each subshell
because:
contains
because:
electronic
and copper
and copper one or more atomic orbitals.
containsconfigurations more atomic
one orincreases of chromium orbitals.and copper
to?Periodic Table does 3p this
energy
As Tiyouatom:go 1s
down n2element
=2s 2p
the 6 3s
group, 2 3p
belong 3d
the 2 4s2
outer electron removed iThethe nuclear charge
nic
oron must Youarrangement
The should note theelements
of following: Ti2+
in
2+ ion:
the 1s22 2s22 Table
Periodic 2p 6 3s2 3p6 3d 2
ido the electronic
nuclear configurations
2s
charge increases of chromium and copper
element belong to? 6 3s2reflects not distance
follow the expected
As
is You you
from go
theiidown
should note
same thethe
type group,
following:
of orbital theTi itouter
theion:
but electron
from 1s
to?a2s removed
2p
successively 3p6 3d2 ii the 2sbetween thepattern. Chromium
nucleusChromiumand the outer has
Increasing
oron must The arrangement Which of elements

group does in belong Periodic Table
3s reflects
her away the electronic structure of theofitelements. The Periodic
3s 3s Table iido notorbital
thethe
followisthe
distance expected
between thepattern.
nucleus and the outer has
Increasing
ii Which group does belong to? electronic configuration [Ar] 3d 5 4s 1 (rather than
is from
higher
■ the
Electronic
principalsame type
configuration
quantum of orbital
level but from
potassium
– 2s fromThe a successively
lithium, An atomic electron a
remains region of space
reasonably around
constant the nucleus
her
e isaway the
■ electronic structure
iii Identify this2of the
element. elements. Periodic Table An the
atomic electronic
orbital is aconfiguration [Ar] 3dtwo5 4s 1 (rather
nucleusthan
less canCr
higher Electronic
be split
atom:
principal
Potassium into
2 configuration
1sIdentify
iiiand 2s
has blocks
2 2p
quantum6
the 3s of
electronic
this 6
3plevel
element.
of
elements
3d5–4s5 potassium
1
2s (Figure
from lithium,
structure 3.10). 3s of an the electron
atom that can
expected remains1sregion
be
[Ar]
of space
3d44reasonably
occupied 4s22). by
Copper
around
one constant
or the
has the electrons.
electronic
for
can sodium
be split into 4s for
blocks potassium.
of elements Although
(Figure the
3.10). nuclear of aniii the shielding by inner shells remains
pe1isand
lessthe
on CrPotassium
atom:
b Which 2
1s6 2s has 2 2p
block 6
the 2
3selectronic
in 6
3p 3d 3+
the Periodic 4s 1 Table
structure does the
2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3
atom that can
the expected [Ar] 3d 10 be
1s occupied by one or two
4s ).1 Copper has the electronic electrons.
for
■ sodium
charge 1s22b2s
Elements 2 2p and
Which in
is 2increasing 3s 4s
2 3p
Groups
blockfor
6 4s
1potassium.
in 1. The
and Cr
outer
2 have
theelectronic
Periodic ion:
Although
electron
3+outerTable 1s the
isgoes
electrons
does the nuclear
into
6in an the iii
configuration
the shielding [Ar]by3d inner 4s (rather
shells than
remains the expected
on and the
p 1
1s 2s element
2p 6 3s2 3p 6down
with4s the
1. The the Crgroup
outer ion: there
configuration
electron 1s 2 2s 2less
2p2p
goes
2p attraction
2 3p
3san
into 6 3d3
the Figure reasonably
configuration
3.11 The constant.
[Ar] 3d10configuration
4s1 (rather than the expected
■ Elements in Groups 1 and 2 have outer electrons in [Ar] 3d 9 4s 2). electronic
You will have to learn of boron
that these intwo
charge
between s is
subshell.increasing
4s subshellelement
the1s 2outer
n 2s= rather down
6 3s2than
with
222pelectron the
3p the
6 3d the
and group
5 4s3d
electronic 1the there
subshell
configuration
nucleus
belong to? is less
because
because: attraction
the 4s is As each
Figure reasonably
orbital
3.11 can
The
9 4s 2). only
constant.
electronichold a maximum
configuration of
of two
boron electrons,
intwo
s4s subshell
subshell.
QUESTION =rather
222p6 3s2than the
5 4s3d subshell to? because the 4s is 2
box [Ar]
There
form.

elements 3dis a rapid You will
decrease have in to learn
ionisation that these
energy between
pe5 outer As each orbital can only hold a maximum of energy
two electrons,
2n2s 3p6 3d 1 belong
1between below
the
1s
thetheouter
distance 3d inelectron
terms ofandits theenergy.nucleus
and thebecause: 2number
the box There
form. is
of a are
rapid
orbitals exceptions
decrease
in each to
in
subshellthe pattern.
ionisationmust be: between
e5 outer
pemistry
QUESTION
below the 3dbetween in termsthe nucleus
of its energy. outer
2s elements
the
the Electrons
number last are exceptions
element
ofinelement
orbitals in each
in one period to theand
subshell pattern.
the first element in
must
p6 1s-block
the
■ electron distance
Filling increases
the 3d between
subshell the
9 Write electronic configurations for the p-block nucleus and the
p-block 2s
outer
following ions: the last
Gallium
sElectrons
■– one orbital thekrypton
to same in region
one period of space and the be:
repel each
first other in
element
s-blockFilling the 3d subshell the next
Gallium
sbecause
■– one in
orbital period.
the
to same
krypton The ΔH
region for
of lithium
space repel is much
each other smaller
ightly
p6 ■ 9 9
electron
AfterWrite increases
electronic
calcium, configurations
acomplete
new subshell for the following ions:
becomes
2+ (Z = 29) occupied. The p – the
The
three they
next haveadd
period.
electrons
orbitals theThe same
to ΔH
the charge.
i1
4p forsubshell So wherever
lithium is muchthis
because possible,
smaller
is the
2Filling
the ashielding
Al
the
3+ (Z =by13) d innerCu shells increases than the ΔH for
thehelium. Helium Sohas two electrons.
=orbitals
ightly because they
The electrons have i1 add same
to the charge.
i1
4p subshell wherever
because possible,
dhe 2Filling
After
next
the
calcium,
ashielding
Al2–
the
3+n(Z
electron 1=by 13)
orbitals
ad-block
goes
new subshell
into ade3d
complete innerCu becomes
2+ (Z = 29) occupied.
subshell
shells rather
increases 1s
than a 4p
The p
d
– than
three
electrons orbitals
will
the
nextorbitals.
– These
five highest occupy
ΔHi1energy separate
for helium. level orbitals
Helium
above thehasin
3d. two electrons.the
the same this is
subshell
3A useful
these b O
two n (Z d-block
1=representing
factors
= 8) outweigh theCu + (Z
increased= 29) 1s
nuclear charge. electrons are
will
nextorbitals.
highest in the
occupyenergyfirst quantum
separate orbitalsshell. inBut
the lithium has
same subshell
ducture
he of next electron
way
bprincipal2– of
(Zquantum
O 3+factors goes
= 8) outweigh into a 3d
e the subshell
electronic+
Cuincreased rather
configurations
(Z = 29) nuclear than a 4p
is a dto–minimise
five
These arethisin the first level
repulsion. aboveelectrons
These
quantum the 3d.
shell. But havelithiumtheir has
ucture of a3A these
useful
diagram
Boron c two
way
Fe
that
trifluoride of
(Z
places
representing
= 26) electronic
electrons in boxes (Figure
sub-shell charge.
configurations
3.11).
is a three electrons. The third
to minimise this repulsion. These electrons have their
‘spin’ in the same direction.
electron must go into the
itrogen diagram cprincipal
Fe3+shell
that
quantum
(Z
places= 26)electrons in boxes (Figure 3.11).
sub-shell three electrons. The thirdElectrons electron must are only paired
go into the
shell
next
‘spin’ in quantum
the same direction. shell further away from
Electrons the nucleus.
are only paired So,
itrogen
H
han H Each box represents an atomic orbital.
■ QUESTION F F when there are no more empty
next quantum shell further away from the nucleus. So, orbitals available within
Figure
■ 3.6 Each+The boxsubshells
represents foranthe atomic orbital.
firstB four principal when thethere
forceare of attraction
no more empty between the positive
orbitals available nucleus
withinand 5
han
same 2p 3
Figure
■ QUESTION
The
F boxes
3.6shells. (orbitals)
B can Fbe
The subshells for the first four principal arranged F in order of increasing
B a subshell.
the forceThe of spins
attraction are then betweenopposite to minimise
the positive nucleus and
quantum The boxes (orbitals) can beenergies
arranged the outer negative electrons
a subshell. The spins are then opposite to minimise decreases because:
uldsame 2p ■10
Figure
quantum 10 a3.10
energy
shells. The
from
Somefirst
bottomionisation
of the toblocks
top. of elementsof infourorder of increasing
consecutive
in the repulsion.
the outer Figure
negative 3.12 electrons
shows thedecreases electronicbecause: structures of
Figure
10 a3.10
energy from
The Some bottom
first
elements ofinthe toblocks
ionisation
the top. of
energies
Periodic elements
F Table of are: in the F
four consecutive repulsion. Figure 3.12 shows the electronic structures of
uld
lectrons Periodic Table.
■ An electron is represented by an arrow. carbon, nitrogen and oxygen to illustrate these points.
gurations Periodic Table.
elements in
■ An electron is represented –1 the Periodic Table
by an arrow. are: carbon, nitrogen and oxygen to illustrate these points.
lectrons
gurations
3.12,H you ■ three sodium
The direction boronof = 494 kJ mol
the arrow represents
boron trifluoride the ‘spin’ of the
The
■ fluorine direction
sodium
atom of
=
(2,3) the arrow
494kJmol represents
–1
molecule the ‘spin’ of the
3.12,
nitrogenyou electron. (We imagine
magnesium = 736ankJ electron
mol–1 rotating around its own
atomselectron.
(2,7) (We
magnesium imagine an electron –1 rotating around its own
axis either ==577
in a clockwise 736kJmol
or anticlockwise direction.)
C
Hnitrogen H –1
d electron. aluminium
axis either in a clockwise kJormol
anticlockwise direction.)
dom electron.
H When
b■ Sulfur there
aluminium
hexafluoride are two electrons
= 577kJmol in an orbital, the ‘spins’ of the
–1
the ■ When there silicon = 786
are twokJ mol–1F in an
electrons orbital,inthe F‘spins’ of thein
om the electrons are
silicon opposite,
=opposite,
786thekJmol so the
–1 twoF arrows this boxFpoint
extra electronsi are
Explain
opposite directions. so the
general two arrows
increase in in this box
ionisation point in
extra
his orbital F + i directions.
6 opposite Explain
S
energies the
fromgeneral
Fsodium Sincrease F in ionisation
to silicon. F S F
his
ve an orbital energieswhy
ii Explain from
2p
sodium tohas
aluminium silicon.
a lower first
F F F F
ve an ii ionisation
Explain 2pwhy aluminium has a lower first
Table
use of
Table
use of six sulfur
ionisation
energy than magnesium.
sulfur hexafluoride
energy than magnesium.
fluorineb Theatom first ionisation energy
2s–1 moleculeof fluorine is
able Oreflects b 1680kJmol
atoms (2,7) The(2,8,6)
first ionisation
2s whereas energy of fluorine
the first is energy of
ionisation
dable
period.
reflects –1 whereas
eriodic
d Period
period.Table 1680 kJ mol –1 the first
iodine is 1010kJmol . Explain why fluorine ionisation energy
has aof
n
eriodicHTable 4 –1. Explain why fluorine has a
0). Figure 4.10 iodine
higher is 1010
Dot-and-cross kJ mol
diagrams
first1sionisation energyfor a boron
than iodinetrifluoride,
despite it
n
rstPeriod 4
0). higher
BF3, and b havingsulfurfirst 1sionisation
ahexafluoride,
smaller nuclear energy
SF . than iodine despite it
6charge.
drstfairly
ns in an high. having
ns in an high. Figure 3.11 The aelectronic
smaller nuclear charge. of boron in
configuration
d fairly Figure 3.11 The electronic configuration of boron in

box form.
box form.
QUESTION
Bonding
k Electrons in the same region of space repel each other
k Electrons in the same region of space repel each other
N because
2 Draw they have the same
dot-and-cross charge.
diagrams forSo wherever
the followingpossible,
because they have the same charge.ShowSo wherever possible,
electrons will occupy
covalently bonded separate orbitals inonly
molecules. thethesame subshell
outer
H H electrons will
electron occupy
shells. separate
Note that orbitals
in part d in
the the same
beryllium subshell
atom
H to minimise this repulsion. These electrons have their
to minimise this repulsion.
is electron andThese
in partelectrons
e the have their
‘spin’ in the samedeficient
direction. Electrons arephosphorus
only paired
‘spin’ in
atomthehas
same direction.octet.
an expanded Electrons are only paired
when there are no more empty orbitals available within
when there
Cambridge are no more emptyCCl orbitals available within
TheInternational
a Tetrachloromethane,
a subshell. spins areChapter AS
4 Level
then opposite
4: Chemistry
to minimise
Chemical bonding
e
Cambridge
a subshell. TheInternational
3.12 shows theAS
spins arechloride
b Phosphorus(III)
repulsion. Figure
then opposite Level Chemistry
to minimise
electronic structures of
e repulsion. Figure
c nitrogen
Bromine,and3.12
Br2 oxygen to illustrate these points.of
shows the electronic structures
carbon,
carbon, nitrogen and oxygen to illustrate these points.
d Beryllium chloride, BeCl2
temperatures two molecules of AlCl3 combine to form a
H Cl e Phosphorus(V)
QUESTION
temperatures chloride,AlCl
PCl5 combine to form a Bond Bond energy / kJ mol–1 Bond length / nm
molecule withtwo
the molecules
formula Alof 2Cl6. The3 AlCl3 molecules
molecule with the formula Al Cl . The AlCl Bond Bond energy / kJ mol–1 Bond length / nm
are able to combine because lone 2 6pairs of 3 molecules
electrons on two
are 3able
Drawto dot-and-cross
combine diagrams
because lone for the
pairs offollowing
electrons on C C 350 0.154
O O of the chlorine atoms form co-ordinate bonds
covalently bonded molecules; show only the outer with thetwo C C 350 0.154
Multiple
of the chlorine
aluminium
electron covalent
atoms,atoms
shells:
formbonds
as shown co-ordinate bonds with the
in Figure 4.14.
Cambridge
aluminium International
atoms, as shown in AS Level
Figure 4.14. Chemistry C C 610 0.134
Some atoms can bond together by sharing two pairs of C C 610 0.134
a ethene, CH2 CH2
electrons. We call this a double covalent bond. A double C O 360 0.143
alent b carbon disulfide, CS2.
QUESTION
water, H2O,
covalent bond is represented by a double line between the C O 360 0.143
QUESTION
atoms:
■ 4 for
Ammonia example, O. Thepairs
Obonding
hasdot-and-cross
three dot-and-cross
of electrons diagrams
and one lone C O 740 0.116
a Draw diagrams to show the
for pair.
oxygen, carbon dioxide and ethene, all of which
than have C O 740 0.116
4 aAsformation
lone pair–bond
Draw pair diagrams
dot-and-cross repulsion
of a co-ordinate bond is between
to greater
show the bond
Co-ordinate
double covalent
pair–bond pair
formation
the bonding
bonds, are the
repulsion, shown
of a co-ordinate
following: in
bonding Figure
bond pairs 4.11.
of
betweenelectrons are O
Table 4.1 Examples C values for
of O and
O bond energies C O
C O Tablelengths.
4.1 Examples ofElectronic
values for bond energies and
(dative
■ In ordericovalent
pushed
Bilal Hameed closer
the together.
following:
to boron
form an bonding)
This gives the ammonia molecule
oxygen molecule,
trifluoride, each oxygen
BF , and ammonia,
3 H N H bond angle
3 NHatom
, to
bond
bond lengths.
Configuration 2
a triangular pyramidal shape. The is
A co-ordinate
i gain
needs to bond
boron
formtwo (or dativeto
trifluoride,
electrons
the compound covalent
BFF, and bond)
BNHammonia,
complete isNH
its outer formed
3, to So
shell.
about 107°.form the compound 3F3 BNH3 Figure 4.19 Carbon
Bond strength dioxide. the reactivity of a compound.
can influence
twoone
when pairs of
atom electrons
provides are shared
both the and two
electrons
ii phosphine, PH3, and a3hydrogen 3 covalent bonds
ion, H , tofor a
needed+
■ Water has two bonding pairs of electrons and two lone Bond strength can influence the reactivity of a compound.
106
Electronic Configuration 2 Bilal Hameed

in
InIn theb) Periodic
energy
energy
electrons
electrons level
level
are
sulfur,
are Table.
diagrams
Sdiagrams
shown By
such
by drawingsuch
drawing noting thewhere
asasFigure
Figure 1.20,
1.20,
arrows the the
inthefirst big directions.
opposite
opposite
opposite jumpspinscomes
spins
directions. ofofthe in
thepaired the
paired atom.
which
on theThanks
reduces
electrons totothe
shielding,
in pull
the of
outer the
the electrons
nucleus
theshell of an
is shown
2by the arrows in opposite atom.
in the Thanks
outer shell shielding,
are attracted electrons
by an
charges.
The
in 16the quantum
What
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20 a) 14
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c) What
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the atomic
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Figure
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hardest
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20 b)
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14that,
849
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14
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in a sodium atom. energy level
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20 The
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14
14 Why
849
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sodium The
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chemists
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1757, and
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Figure
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1.20The
in aa sodium
sodium Theenergy
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●
14isotopic
Why
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849 do
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What
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Draw successive
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AS CHEMISTRY

Electronic Configuration WS 2 104

Electronic Configuration WS 3 107

Electronic Configuration WS 4 110

Electronic Configuration WS 11 113

Electronic Configuration WS 12 122

Periodic Trends 131

Periodic Trends WS 12 157

Covalent Bonding 177

Covalent Bonding WS 2 195

Covalent Bonding WS 3 197

Covalent Bonding WS 11 200

Covalent Bonding WS 12 206

Shapes of Molecules 207

Shapes of Molecules WS 2 222

Shapes of Molecules WS 3 224

Shapes of Molecules WS 11 226

Intermolecular Forces 237

Intermolecular Forces WS 2 255

Intermolecular Forces WS 3 257

Intermolecular Forces WS 11 259

Intermolecular Forces WS 12 269

Data Booklet 231

1 Atoms, molecules and stoichiometry

1.1 Relative masses of atoms and molecules

1.3 The determination of relative atomic masses, Ar

2.1 Particles in the atom

2.2 The nucleus of the atom

1.3 The determination a) analyse mass spectra in terms of isotopic abundances

1.5 Reacting masses a) write and construct balanced equations

Back to contents page www.cie.org.uk/alevel 17

18 www.cie.org.uk/alevel Back to contents page

Atoms have 2 charged particles:

Positively charged protons.

Negatively charged electrons.

Atoms have 1 uncharged particle called a neutron.

of the atom in the

most of the volume

02_02 Cam/Chem AS&A2

Barking Dog Art

PROTON 1.672 x 10-24 1.602 x 10-19 1 +1

NEUTRON 1.675 x 10-24 0 1 0

ELECTRON 9.109 x 10-28 1.602 x 10-19 -1

A neutral 12C atom has 6 protons, 6 neutrons, and 6 electrons.

Therefore, its mass is:

(6 x 1.672 x 10-24) + (6 x 1.675 x 10-24) + (6 x 9.109 x 10-28)

= 2.0089 x 10-23 g PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

2.2 The properties of the three

● Atoms are small, spherical structures with diameters ranging fro

02_03 Cam/Chem AS&A2

unlike the thorium isotopes. Many other elements contain i

Atomic Structure 181333_02_AS_Chem_BP_020-043.indd 22

neutrons and electrons?

mass of exactly 12.

gainedAtomic Mass (Ar)

Bilal Hameed Atomic structure

Bilal Hameed Atomic Structure

Relative Molecular Mass (Mr)

Atomic structure Bilal Hameed

Atomic Structure Bilal Hameed

You can also use a mass spectrometer to calculate the relative

Figure 10 Schematic diagram of a mass spectrometer

There are five stages in this process:

gainedAtomic Mass (Ar) 

Relative Molecular Mass (Mr) 

peak at m/e @ 70: 35Cl - 35Cl  

peak at m/e @ 72: 35Cl - 37Cl  

peak at m/e @ 74: 37Cl - 37Cl  