rchaeolo Theories, Methods and Practice COLIN RENFREW PAUL BAHN @ Thames « Hudson_a/human beings experience time, An individual experi ‘ences 2 lifetime of perhaps 70 years or so. That person, Ahrough the memories of his or he parents and grandpar tents may alo indiecly experience eur periods of time, {nck over more than 100 yeas. The study of history gives ts aces fo hundreds more yeas of recorded time. But it Ftonlyazehaclogy tat opens pte amor unimaginable ‘stsof thousand and even fev millions of ears of past Inno existence. This chapter wil examine the various ‘xaysin which we asarchaeologsts date past events within this reat expanse of ine ight seem surprising that inorder o study the past itis aot always estential to know precisely bow long ago {Ga.years) a particular prio or event occurred. tis often ‘er Hep simpy to know whether ne event happened leforeoraer other By ordering atacs, depois soc- lcs, and evens into sequences, caler before later we Can study developments in the past without knowing how Jongeach stage ated or how many years ago such changes took pace. This idea that something is olde (or younger) "elativeto something ele isthe basi of lative dating Urimatey, however, we want to now te flo absolute agein years before the present of ferent events or parts of abequence we need methods of absolute dating. Absolute ‘tes help us ind out how quickly changes suchas the into fuction of apicultreecered, and whether they occured smultaneoualyorat diferent times in different regions of ‘he world, Oniyin he lst 6 years o so have independent means of absolute dating become avalable, transforming archacology inthe proces. Before then, viewally the only ‘lable absolute dates were bistorial ones, sch ate date ofthe eign ofthe ancient Egyptian pharaoh Tutankharatn. Measuring Time How do we delet the passage oftime? We can all observe its passing through the alternating darkness and light of rights and days, and then faraagh the annual ece ofthe seasons. In fact, for most of hurnan history these were the aly ways of measuring time, other than by the human lifespan, As we shall se, some dating methods stil rely on the annual passage of the seasons. Increasingly, however, 4 ; When? iting Methods and Chronolegy ating methods in archaeology have come to rely om other plysical processes, many of them not observable to the fhuman eye. The most significsot of these is the woe of radieactive docks. ‘Some degre of ee usually expressed ss anage bracket that can stretch over several cents or even mln, Inevitable when using any dating technique. But while he science behind dating methods i being ever more refined, ‘he main sours of zor erain te archeologist ~ by poor choice of amples to be dated, by contaminating those Simple, oe by misinterpreting rents. "Tbe meaningful, our timescale in years mist scate toa feed point in tne. Inthe Christan wood hf by convention taken asthe bi of Cais, supposedly inthe yearabi theres yearo) with years courted bak before Cars (nc) and forward ater Chit (aD or me Demin, ‘which Latin forin the Year of Ou Ln). Homeve his {s by no means the only system. Inthe Muslin worl, for example the basic Bixed pot i the date of Une Props departace fram Mecca (ab 6 isthe Christan calenda) ‘Asa result of these dilerences some scholna prefer 0 ‘se the tems "Before she Coramon Eee a inthe Common Ea" ct} instead of cand ab Sceatits who derive dates from radioactive methods want 2 neuzal international system, and have chosen to ‘unt years back fom the preset). But since sets too requir afin fed point to count Eom they take mean “efre 1950" (he approximate yeaa the eabih- ment of the frst radioactive method. radiocarbon) Thi ‘may be convenient for scientists, but can be eomsing for everyone es (a date of 400 ais nt 400 years a0 Dut ad 1530, eurerly over 460 years ago). Iris therfore clearest to convert ary av date forthe Tat ew thousand years nto "rte Poli prihowee eching back ic peti, however ‘0 or three malion years before 10,000 be}, archaeologists tse he terns “9 and “eats go interchangeably since a difference oF yo years or vo between hem iinet For this emote epoch we ae dating sts or events at bes only ‘within sever housed years of Sc "mue” date even the mos precise dates forthe Paleolithic give us glimpses oF that epoch onl at intervals of several thosand years earlyEIN ai Tecan archacologiss can never hope to reconstructs conventional history of Paleolithic events. On the other hand, Paleolithic rchacoogists can gain insights into some of the broad Jongterm changes that shaped the way modern humans evolved insights that ae denied archaeologits working, RELATIVE DATING ‘The first, and in sone ways the most important, step i ‘much archaeological research involves ordering things into sequences. The things tobe put into sequence can be archaeological deposits in a stratigraphic excaration (see 1.105). Or they can be artifacts or syle a in a typalogieal with shorter periods of time, where in any case there may ‘betoo much “detail forthe breader patern tobe apparent ‘The way in which archaeologists carry out tei researc therefore depends very much on the predsion of dating ‘obtainable forthe period oftime in question, sequence, Changes inthe carts climate also give rise local, egional and global enviroamental sequences ~ the most notable being the sequence of global fuctuations ducing the Tee Age. All these sequences ean be used fr relative dating, 5 Stratigraphy, as we savin Chapter, isthe study of srati> fication the laying down or depositing of strata or layers {also called deposits) one above the other. From the point of view of relative dating, the important principle is that the underlying layer was deposed first ane therefore carlier than the overlying layer. A succession of layers ‘provides a relative chronological sequence, from earliest (bottom) olstest (op. Good stratigraphic excavation at an archaeological site is designed to obtain such a sequence. Part ofthis work involves detcting whether there has been any hurnan ot natural disturbance ofthe ayers since they were orginally deposited (such as garbage pts dug down by later occu pans ofa site into earier layers, or animals burrowing holes), Acted with careflly observed sratigraphicinfor- ‘ation, the archacologistcan hope to construc a reliable relative chronologial sequence forthe depostion of the Aiferentlayes But ofcourse what we mostly wat to date are not 0 much the ayers or deposits themselves as the materials that humans have lf with them artifacts structures, ‘oxganic remains ~ that ulimately eval past human activ. ites at the ite. Here the idea of aucition i important ‘When we say that two objects were found fn association within the seme archaeological depos, we generally ‘mean that they became buried atthe sure ie. Provided that the deposit is a scaled one, without statigraphic Intrusions from another deposi, the assocsed.obscts ‘an be sad tobe no more recent than the deport itself A sequence of sealed deposits thus gives 2 sequence ~ and relative chronology ~ forthe time of burial ofthe objets found associated those deposit “Thisisa crucial concept o grasp, because ifone of those ‘objects can lter be given an absolute date ~ saya stable coinorapiece of charcoal that cam be dated by radiocarbon Inthe laboratory ~ then itis possible to assign that absolute Gate not only tthe charcoal but tothe sealed deposit and the other object associated with itas well. Aseries of such ates from different deposits wil give an absolute chronol ‘py forthe whole sequence. I is this interconnecting of stratigraphic sequences with absolute dating methods that provides the most relile basis for dating archaeological sites and their contents, The example shown opposites Sir ‘Mortimer Wheeler's drawing ofa section across an ancient ‘ell in the Tndus Valley {modern Pakistan) The site has ‘een disturbed by more recent pits, but the sequence af layers is stil visible, and the Harappan seal, of known age snd found in an undistorbed context in layer 8, helps 2 Gate thatlayer and the wallnext tot. ‘But there is another important point to consider. So fa vwehave dated, relatively and with luck absolutely, che ime of burial ofthe deposits and their associated material. As wwe have observed, however, what we want ultanately to roomstruct and date are the past human activities and behavior that those deposits and materials represent. If deposit is a garbage pit with pottery init, the deposit itself is ofinterestasan example of human activity, and the date for tis the date of human use of the pt. This wil Iso be ‘the date of final burial ofthe pottery — butt will not be the date of buraan use ofthat pottery, which cold have been {in circulation tens or hundreds of years earlier, before being discarded with other garbage inthe pt Lis nece= sary therefore always to be clear about which activity we aretrying a date arean reliably date the circumstances.EXAMPLE OF TRUE STRATIFICATION SINT WALL KUSHAN COIN’ 2No CENTURY AD rowing af ection creer mound th Inde leiden kit. Pt eltrborce makes 2g “tat bul the Harappen seal, or exomple loge Kooun fram sear seals found clsewhere les man undsturbed conten ayer 8, {aca therefore hla date thot ner andthe wall sgn which he ayer sb [rrr sevancs When welookt hearings, or any of te human (ceatons around vs, most of ur can mentally arcane tem ino a rough chronlogcal sequence. One kindof aircrat Its oer than another, oe et of cdobes looks more “ fshone than te new: How d archaeologist his aby for elatve dating> ‘Acchaesogiats define the form of x artfic sch ae petby sspcicattsbutes of mater shape, and decors eo. Several pot withthe same afirbutes conus pot ‘pe. nd poly grou artic into such pes. Under Ing the notion of relative dating through typology are wo ctr ews. eee The fists that he products of given period au place ave a recogizable ae rough tei distinctive shape 0d decoration they ate in some sense career oF the society that produced them, The achacologit of sethroplogat cat oflenrecoguize and casey individual rics by ter syle, and hence assign them oa pri lnrpace ina typological sequence ‘The second desis thatthe change in spe (shape and decoration) of arias is often hte grad, oF eval tionary. This idea cae from the Darwinian theory of the cvoltlon of species, and was used by nthcenturyarchae logists who applied avery convenient rule, that “hike goes with ike." In other words, pasticular artifacts (.g bronze daggers) produced at about the same time are often alike, but those produced several centuries apart will be differ: entas result of centuries of change. I fllows, then, that ‘when studying «series of daggers of unknown date, i is logical fist to arrange them ina sequence i such a way ‘hat the most closely simila are located beside eachother. “This i then Ikely tobe the true chronological sequence, because it best reflects the principle that “like goes with Tike.” Inthe diagram oveeeat designs of automobiles and prehistoric Europesn sues have been arranged ina relative ‘hronological sequence; however, the rate of change (@ century forthe automobile, millennia forthe 2ee) stil has tobe deduced from abeclute dating methods. For mani purposes, the best way to assign relative date to an anifac ie fo match it with an aac already recog nized within a welewablished typological system. Pottery ‘ypologies staly form the backbone of the chronological system, and nearly every area hus its oon well-established ceramic sequence. One evarmple is the very extensive ‘ceramic sequence forthe ancient societies ofthe Armericam Southwest, a part of whichis shown in the diagram totheright ‘sucha typology ited into a stratigraphic sequence of deposits that can be date by radiocarbon or other abso- Inte roane, them the artifacts inthe typological sequence ‘cn themaelves be assigned absolute dates in years. Different types of artifact change in style at diferent rates, and therefore vary inthe chronological distinctions that they indicate. Usually, with pottery surfice decora tion changes most rapidly (often ver periods of usta few seats) ands derefore te best amroue wo se fora pPO- logical sequence. On the ether band, the shape of a vessel Thearrangementof ait! yes na sequences based 0 wo simple eas: first, tha produts oa gvn pared and place have einen eno esign ana secon he changes spe e {dua or eveltonary, Gradual changes in design are cient tha history ofthe presto Furopeen xe: stone: 25. branes) land ofthe atomebie. However, th rat of change lacentry forthe sutomabie, milena forthe ae] ha fae deed ram slate dating methods atery ypolgn 1s exemple by is SOD yer somuence of Laokam bon ayes ram the Amercon Southwesta Bere cher ong which ne fret ee ea as ea wan cs 22 AS el nt tl ee oe ie ph and Srna adr omar sone wal Sch shoot nS a ec amie wr ee Se jae may be most strongly influenced by a practical Seriation {The insights of the principle that “like goes with Uke” fave been developed further to deal with asscciations of fa (assemblages) rather than with the forms of singe ijt taken 1 isolation. The technique of seration allows Grenblages of artifacts to be arranged ina succession or eval ovder, which i then taken to indicate their ordering fntime orthei relative chronology. ‘The great pioneer of Egyptian archaeology, Sir Willi inde Petre, was one ofthe fist to develop a technique for aanging he graves ofa cemetery in relative order by considering efully and systematically the associations of the varios potery forms found within ther. His lead fn the late 19% century was taken up half a century later by American scholars who realized that the frequency of partcalar ceramic sve, as documented in the successive layers of setlement, is usually small o start with, rises toa peak as te sple gains popularity, and then declines again (which iagramamatically produces 2 shape ike but {ship viewed from above, known asa "batleship cure), Using this insight they were able to compare the potter) aseemblages om different ses in the same area, each vith 2 ited stratigraphic sequence, and arrange these Sites into chronological order so thatthe ceramic frequen ‘es would conform othe pattern of rising toa maxianurn sndthen declining. The diagram t right shows bow this technique has been plied to changes in the populavty of three tombstone Assigns found in central Connecticut cemeteries dating om 1700 to 1860, The fluctuating fortunes ofeach design produce chancterisic and successive batleship curves as elsewhere in New England, the Deatis head design {peak populasity 1720-1739) was gradually replaced by the Cherub (peak 1760-1789) which in tara was replaced by ‘he Urn and wilow tee (peak 1840-1859) Seriation has boen used in an archaeological context by the American achacologist Frank Hole in his excavations in the Deh taran Plain in Iran. The Neclithic ceramic assemblages he was studying were derived from strat faphic excaxations, so i was possible fo compare the Secuences cbained throug fequency seration with theSTN 01 Teramaneroiraency? Frequency sriation: Frank Hotes ordering of bow pes ‘representing Susana Blackout rom ies 0 {ran Pain ron The baie curves indicate ees ands n popularty,contirmod by svatgraphic excoten. lowe stratigraphic sequences discovered ir their excava- tions. There were no serious contradictions again proving the validity ofthe method, For completeness, ii appropiate to mention hece an imereting approach t questions of chronology a is care spalied not wo ara Bt to language change, 93 studied by comparisons in the vocabularies of related lan- fuege. icer dr suggested thst hee tng be some for of asoite ding method these have heen widely (and ight rected. However he method eine fl Inte fom the standpolt of lave chronology (And fecal box pp. 47475), ‘The basis prince ie stnighforvard, If you tke two groups of peopl, speaking the same langage sad sepa them otha heres furter cote between them, bth gronps will no doubt conte to speak the same tongue ulin each population, with he passage of time changes wil cco; new words wl be invent snd fetvced whereas oer wl al oto ese. Soar a few cease, the wo independent group wll no onget be speaking qe the same guage afer fo thousand yearn the langue fone erp wl probably be aiost ‘hint the ote "The eld fleshy ach changes af cab. poplar method hasbeen to cose ist efter oe 9 coment an se any ofthese nthe two languages beng compared, Share amon rtrd Pe postive sre out 108 LINGUISTIC DATING or 209, gives some measure of ow far the te lengua have deg sine the sre when hey wereome. The ates suspect discipline of glochronlgy woul ‘aim go further and use a formula pronounce this measure of sinilary and disiarty,bow loog spp {nyeam itis sace th wo languages under consider dlverged. The American scholar Morris Swadesh, te Drinepal exponent ofthe method. concluded that tng Featel languages would retain a eomon vocab ef 86 percent of the original ater a period of separation of 1200 years. fn reality, however, theres no bai or sum ing &Zonstant and quantifiable rat of change i hi may many factor: influence linguistic change he existence racy aenong ther} Recently more sophisticated netods, including net nals, are being use search for sracture i histor ngistic dat, and i scers ikely tat these wil iy linguistic relationships. They may leo make posible mee effectve quanta coraparsons 8 well be “libs Siow of linguistic eimesales aginst such documented changes because they are recorded by wetigg) 26 tse letween Latin and the Romance languages Uescenied fom orbetween the earls Semitic languages an the amore modern representatives Induding Arabic. Such an spproich has boon developed recently using phplogenex anuljsistoallow the development of tee diagrams, aay from vocabulary data, and then systematically comparing nodes of unknown date with those points of divergence ‘between languages for hich hstoseal dates are know, Im 200) Russel Gray and Quentin Atkinson used the ‘approach to give a hme of inital divergence for the inde. Europea language falas early as go00 years 290, Elie: inthis chapter we discussed sequences that can be stabl shed either stratigraphicaly for individual sts, cx ‘ypolagially for anfacts. In addition, theresa major dase of sequences, based on changes in the eats climate, that has proved useful for relative dating on a local, regional, and even global scale. ‘Some of these envizonmental sequences can also be dated by various absolute methods The impact of imate and environmental fuctuations an ismman hfe is discus indenilin Chapter 6, "What Was the Environment?") CLIMATE AND CHRONOLOGY Pleistocene Chronology ‘The idea of 2 great Ice Age (the Pleistocene epoch), that occurred in the distant past, has been with us since the roth century, As world temperatures fl ice sheets ~ or= eqpanded, maning large parts of the eats lace and lowering world sea levels ithe lost water being se eked up inthe ie) Easy geologists and palo teePhogiss, stdying the cleat traces in geological SoBe redid hat the le Age was not one fon Forres apel,Uiteaditkad witnessed what he den our major ladle or periods of gladal advance Lom extiest to latest, Giz, Mind, Ris, snd fn continental Europe, terms in vogue unt the ios in North Ameria éierent nares were chosen — gous for eampl, being the equivalent of Warm) hose cold periods were warner inteudes ts inet, More minor Qucreations vein fos mor pases Were calleé sodas and intersadials, Ua te arrval ster World War If of abselute dating sods sch as tose based on radaatve clocks, archae Js depended very largely fr hss dating ofthe ong thc period on aterpts to correlate archaeological fies wit this glacial sequence. Far avay from the ice yes in repions such a8 Afica, strenuous efforis were ise wink ses wit Mctatons in rainfall (ale repli te hope wes thatthe ctuaions might lrscom thereles bed In with the glacial sequence. Scientists have now come to recognize that Muctua- tions in climate during the Ice Age were rauch more complex than originally thought. From the beginning of the Pleistocene, about 2.6 million years ago, down to aboot 780,000 years ago (the end of the Lower Pleistocene), {here were perhaps 10 cold periods separated by warmer Intedludes, Another 8 or 9 distinet periods of cod climate ray have characterized the Middle and Upper Pleisto ‘ane, from 78,000 to 10,000 years ago (The period of warmer ditrate known as the Holocene covers the last 10,000 years) Archacoloisis no longer rely on complex lacial advarces and retreats as the bass for dating the Paleolithi: However, fluctuations In Pleistocene and Hol- ‘ocene climate as recorded in deep-sea cores, ce cores, nd sediments containing pollen ate of considerable value for dating purposes. Deep-Sea Cores and Ice Cores ‘he mast coherent record of climatic changes on a word Wide scale 5s provided by deep-sea cores, These cores contain shels of mlcroseopic marine organisms known a foramina, laid down on the ocean foot through the “Talecummarsing ie main cinatie changes lsat torial apd archasleica stages af the iestocene epochForaminites Tac iy fap ‘oi ml sets form the seep sea sediments of fhe acsanfoor Analysis ise p.22dlotshets sediment ayers hes record Sl word soe temrertire orange slow continuous process of sedimentstion. Viiations in the chemical structure of these shells are 4 gp indica tar af the sea temperature atthe time the organisms were alive. Cold episodes in the deep-sea cotes teat to glacial periods of ic advance, and the warm episodes to intergle- ial periods of ice retest. Radiocarbon and urarium-seies ating (see below) canals be applied to the foraminiferan shells to provide absolute dates for the sequence, which ‘ow stretches back 3 milion years. As with deep-sea cores, cores exacted from the polar ce of the Arctic and Antarctic have yielded impressive sequences reveling past climatic changes. Tae layers of compacted ice represent anmual deposits fr thelast 2000 43060 years that can be counted ~ thus giving an absolite ‘Chronology for this part ofthe sequence. For lier time periods ~ at greater depths ~ the annual statfcation is ‘ho longer vse, and dating of the ice cores ie mach less certain. Good correlations have been made with climatic ‘variations deduced from the study ofthe deepsex cores. Evidence of major voleanic eruptions aa also be preserved in the ie cores, theoretically meaning thet particular eruptions, such as the huge Thera eruption in the Aegean roughly 3500 years ago (associated by some scholars with the desiruction of Minoan palaceson Crete— see bo, p. 154-38) cam be given a precise absolute date. In practice, though. its hard tobe certain theta volcanicevers preserved in the ie actualy relates to a particular his cally documented eruption ~ it could relate to an unkeiony eruption that happened somewhere else inthe word Pollen Dating All flowering plants produce grains called pollen, and ‘tHese ae almost indestructible, surviving for many thu. sands (and even millions of yatsinalltypes condition, ‘The preservation of pollen in bogs and lake sediments has allowed pollen experls (palynologsts) to constnic Getaled sequences of past vogetation and climate, These sequences are an immense help in understanding ancient environments (cee Chapter 6), but they have also been ‘and to some extent stil are ~ important a= methed of relative dating, ‘The best-known pollen sequences are those developed for northern Europe, where an elaborate succession of so-alled polls zones covers the last 8,000 yeats or 80. Bj studying pollen samples from a partieula site, that sitecan often be ited into a broader pollen zone sequence and thus assigned a veative date. Isolated artifacts and finds such as bog bodies discovered in contents where pollens preserved ‘an also be dated in the same way. However iis important to remember that the pollen zones are not uniform actost Jarge areas. Regional pollen zone sequences must rst be established, and then the sites and finds in the area an be linked to them. If teeing oF vadicacbon dates are available forall or prtof the sequence, we can workout absolute chronology forthe region. ‘Thanks tothe durability of pollen grains, they ean yield ‘environmental evidence even as far back 263 milion years ago for sites in East Aftica. Different interglail periods Jn areas such as northern Europe have also been shows to have characteristic pollen sequences, which-means that the pollen evidence at an individual site in the area can sometimes be matched to particular interglacial useful dating mechanism since radiocarbon cannot be used for these early ime periods. PE Sse) Although relative dating methods can be exrenrely useful archaeologists ultimately want to know how ad sequences, sites, and artifacts ae in calendar yers. To achieve this they ned to use the methods ofabealute dating desezbed in the following seiuus. The thiee most commonly used and ‘most important tothe archaeologist are eolendar and histor: ‘ca chronologies, weesng dating. nd radiocarbon dating. For the Paleolithic period, potassum-argon dating and uranium series dating arevital. Genetic datngisalso now beginning?» ‘be used to date population evens, {Opposite abovel umaryol the main tchniqus avetabo for the dating of diferent archaeolgca materials {Opposite below Chronological table summarizing the spansaf tine for which Aiferont aosoutedsing methods av applicableUpto 300 sc tretand | Tree year 25003 (ermary), = (6700 ee (US) rom 5-107 ANS, Froms. org AMS! | wary comptcong aed ratocrton | ganna aang | Eurenaten to) et tone conventional, ) eer 310% (der han 80000 8° ‘Argon-argon a Urenu-seres s-10% 1000-50000 errolummescence | 200mgi80mm | 25.10% on ste 25% to 100008» ie -diameter/Smmn thick otherwise ee"100 RE | CALENDARS AND HISTORICAL CHRONOLOGIES | Until the deelpment ofthe fst scien dng tech- niques around he beginning ofthe ath century dating Erchaelogy depended alos entirely on connections with “hronvioges and calendars that peopl nancet sme id themoches eaublshed, Such dating methods ae sil of ‘immense valued. nthe ancient wore societies ‘recorded thei own sory in wten documents fe ERD, the Nee fat and ancert China, for eample bor os recorded interns ofthe sucesive Kings, who were organ. faed oy groups of dynos” As we shal sc, there were slsovery peeiecalendrical stomsin Mesoaneca. *chuclogite have to earn nd thre main penis sen working with ery tov eronolgies He the hronological sytem requies arf reonsteton and sis of rl or ng noeto be ressoably compete. Second thes stbogh tna relly record themraber of yeas in each cg, bs il to be kod with ox own Cslenda Tid, the ais, festnes, or traces to be ated at pct site have somehow tbe relaed othe historical chronology, for example by their association with aninscription refering te rere the ime, "these pent canbe wel usted by he Fapptin an ‘Maya chronologies. Egyptian history is arranged in terms of nantes, hemsehes rgeived inthe Ol, Me, {nd New Kingdoms face le ones). The modern ew iba sys used on several dour includng he s0- Caled Trin Royal Canon This yates gies ar estimate of the number of years in each reign, right down to the onquet of Egypt by Alsander the Great in the year 353 ne (ada eenrand hy Greek historias). S0 he Fypen gnanes can be dated by working backward frm thee, although the exact length of every reign is not known. This System can be confined and rined sing aeronorny fyptisn steal econ dence oberon certain astonomicl eves tht cn be independent ited using urnent astronomical knowlege and koowige of where Sn Egypt the ancient obveraons were carrie at gp fin dies re penrlly consider to be gut reltle afer ont 00 36 tha magn of ror of perhaps one ‘or two decades at most, but by the titne we go back to the bepining of the Dynastic period, arosnd 3109, the ‘curiae crore might amount some 200 es or Of the calendri systems of Mesoamerica the Maya calendar asthe most bore (cc box oposit 1 does ‘ot depend, thse of Eorope and the New Fs, om a ‘car of dynasties and ules, Other areas of Mesemerica Jaa their wn eslendsed stems which opted on sina principles THE MAYA CALENDAR “The Maya calendar was one of great precision, ured for recording dates Iminscnptions on stone olurans or Stela erected at May cites during the Classic penod (ho 250-900). The ‘luadation ofthe calendar, end the ‘more rear deciperment af the ‘Maya glyphs, mean thet «well dsted Maya hstry te now emerging in ‘way which seemed impossible half ‘century ago “To understand the Maya calendar venecessary to comprehend the Maya hnumencal ayers, and to recognize the various gph or signs by which ‘the various dys (each of which had = name, ike our Monday Tuesday etc) were distinguished. In dition, 8 necessary to fllow howthe calendar self was constructed, The Mya numerals areelatvely saightforvard A sized shell meant 20,8 dot “one,” and a henzontal bar “ive” Numbers above 19 were \wnttenversealyn powers of 20. ‘The Maya used two calendreal ‘ystems: the Calendar Round and the Long Count, ‘The Calendae Round was uted for mt every purposes Itinvoled ‘wo methods of counting The First is the Sacred Round of 260 days, wich isl used m some pars of the Maya ands, We should imagine wo Intetioclong cog wheels (see diagram ‘oppost, one with aumbers from 103, the other ith 20 named days. Dayo use ou erminology) wal be “ms, ay 216 2k dy 3153 Aba, “and s0 own day 3, hich 595 Ben. But hen day 14161 by and $0 ‘the system continues. The sequence coincides agin afer 260 ays and ‘the new Sacred Round begs wth» Te conjunction with this, he solar year was recorded, consisting of 8 named months, each of 20 deys, plus 2 terminal penad of cays. The Maya New Year began wath 1 Pop (Pop beiagthe name ofthe month); the next day as 2Pop, and so.onPARTI: The Framework ofArchaeology EARLY DYNASTIC (Archaic) (3100-2650 8c) Dynasties 0-2 ‘OLD KINGDOM (2650-2175 2) Dynasties 3-6 FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (2175-1575 6) Dynasties 7-11 MIDDLE KINGDOM (2080-1630) Dynasties 113 | | SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (i6so-350%) Dynasties uty [NEW KINGDOM (559-1069) Dynasties 1520 ‘THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (1069-657 2) Dynasties 21-25 | ee eae asties 26-3) ‘general greed by Eppttogists, but ie precise dating of the ferent pends aputed Overlapping estes between cyrasiohingdoms o.9. Fst intermediate period ana Male gine tht epee mec cncsle leet arson county. Using a Historical Chronatogy 1s relatively easy forthe archatologist to use a historical chronology when abundant artifacts are found that cin be related closely to it Thus, a-najor Maya sites suck as ‘Tikal or Copan there ae numereus stlae with calendrical {nacrptions thst can often be used to date the buildings with which they are associated. The arifucts associated with the buildings can in turn be dated: for instance, if 4 portery typology has been worked out, the finding of ‘Any absolute dating method depends on the existence of a regular, time-dependent proces. The most obvious of these isthe system by which we order our modern calen- ar the roition of the earth around the sun once each ‘known ype of pottery in such historically dated conten allows the potery ypology tel be dated. Contents an) ‘buildings on oter sites lacking inscriptions can be dg} appronimatclythoxgh the ocurrenee Of sla pot yen Sometimes arulacts temanves carry dates oF the naa of rulers that can be dtd. Tis is the case With tay, Maya ceramics that bear hcroghyphic scriptions. For Roman and medieval periods of Europe, coins nortaly cary the name of the isbuing ruler and iscripsons op ‘cords elsewhere usally allow the ruler tobe date. But + {scrcil to remember that ‘o date coin or anartiactis ag, the same thing a date the contest in whic itis foe, “the date ofthe coin indicates the yar in which # may made, Is inclusion within a sealed archaeological depos, ‘stables simpy terminus post quam (atin for “ateacr ‘whicf}un other words the deposit canbe no cater thay {he dae on the coin ~ butt ould be later perhaps rach ster than that dat. ‘A welcestablshed historical chronology in ome county may be used fo date events i neighboring and more fr fang lands tha ack their op historical ecg but re sertioned inthe histories ofthe iterate homeland, Sim Inny archaeslogits can us exoste and imports of objects to extend chronological linkages by means of cmse-datng ‘with oer sepia. or instance, the presence of righ pottery in well dated ancient Egyptian contests establishes 2 terminus ante quem (ate bere whieh) fo We ram. actu of tat potery: it eannot he mone recent thn the Egyplin cone. n adion,Egypian objects, some with {insertions allowing ther tobe accurately dated in yp tien terms, occur at various ste outside Egypt, they Ihlping to date the context in which they ne fou Dating by historical methods remain the most impor tant. procedure forthe archaeologist dn counties with 4 reliable calendar supported by a significant degree of Iieracy. Where there ate serious uncertainties over the ‘lendar, or overt coration wit the moder calenel system, the creations can often be checked using ober bicite dating methods, tbe described below. ‘Outside te histori and Inert lands, however, croak dating and broad ‘ypologcal comparisons have bese llmostentcely superseded by the various scentScly ‘ated dating methods described below. So that now alte sword calaies canbe asigned absolute dates. year, Because this yearly oye produces regular annual ETuctaations in climate, it has an impact on feaares of ‘the environment that can in certain cases be measured 4 create a chronology. For absolute dating puxposes thegee ny ng oh 0 ga oe rere rinse Reps sea Pa ofthese annual cations in inate wide- ee Fr ee eer eared Cee a ine ee gee fans ce ie aoe Br et rea wi Grane donb Se dhe uel whan Fe i clepat teers So te Towel dem seein scons reveing owen ne tom egies ae sete ee on feceasd honed Set Bee ea creates. Cee gore Faget einen ster Seeman eee aes vase teas nacter rane Tree-Ring Gating The rode technique of ueering dsting (dewocho- tol) vas dewloped by an American astonome!, AE Dougie intbeeatiy decades of telat century ~altough tray ofthe principles had been understood Tong before that Working on wel pressed tnbers inthe ard Ammer ‘can Southwest, by 1930 Douglass could assign sbsolute Gato many ofthe maor ses there, sich as Mesa Verde fd Pueblo Ronit, Butitwar not unt te end ofthe 930 that he technique was introduced to Burope, and only in the 96a that he uae of tial procedures and compat az i the foundations for the entalishset ofthe long trering dronologies now so fundamental to raodera Eicacnogy. Today dendrachronclogy has two ditnct aacaelogal vse: 2) ak 3 succes rpeans of libra sogor correcting radoarbon das (ee below) and (2) 25 ‘an independent method of absolute dating in its. own right. Basis of Method, Most tees produce a ing of new wood tach year and these circles of growth can easily be seen in a crocs section of the trunk of felled tree. There ring are ot of unifortn thickness. In an individual tee, they will ‘ay for two reasons. First, the rings become narrower vith the increasing age ofthe tee. Second, the amount a tree grows each year is affected by fluctuations in climate In ard regions, rainfall above the average one year will ‘Proce particularly thick annual ring, In more temper. Seeton aan cok ear frm the wal fag cabin in Hanover, Penny, USA: the annual growth rings are cleat wsible, ‘and since his sample contains complete sapwod op of mageh ‘spring dat of 1850/1 can eesti ste regions, sunlight and temperature maybe morecritcal than rainfall in afecting a trees growth, Here, « sharp cold epell in spring may produce a narrow growth ring, Dendrochronologists measure and plot these rings and produce a diagram indicating the thickness of succes five rings in an individual tree. Tees ofthe same species growing in the same area will generally show the same pattern of rings so that the growth sequence can be ‘matched between successively oer timbers to build up a chronology for an are (tis not necessary to fll tees in fzder to study the ring sequence: a usable sample can be extracted by boring withost harming the tre) By match ing sequences of ring from living tres of different ages az well as from old tzber, dendzochronologists can produce ‘long. comtinuows sequence, such as that in the diagram overleaf, extending back hundreds, even thousands, of {years from the present, Thus, when an ancien timber of the same species (eq. Douglas firin the American South west or oak in Europe) is found, it should be possible toPART: The Framework of Archaeology | ‘res-rng dein. Diagram to show how the annual grove ings cn be counted, moehed na nuerisnd, old 2 mastrcaruarce Inaltfrertregens othe won, such sequences ar dried rom varus diferent species ree Idepending on wht s preserved in temperate regione of Europe, the longest sequences are Based on ok in Arizona she bistlecone pine. match its weezing sequence of, say, 100 years with the appropriate 190-year length of the marter sequence of chronology ln this way, the felling date for that piece of timber canusually be date to within yar ‘Applications: (1] Long Master Sequences and Radio- carbon Dating. One of the most important uses of tree-ring dting has been the development of Jong tree- ring sequences, against which itis possible to check radiocarbon dates. The pioneering research was done sn ‘Arizona ona remarkable species, tae Californian brite cone pine which can live up to 4goo years. By matching samples fiom dead trees also, an unbroken sequence ‘vas built up back from the present as far as 6700 0c. ‘The impor-ance of this forthe calibration of radiocarbon. Gates is ditcuesed below. The research in the American Southwesthas been complemented by studies in Europe of treerings of oak, often well preserved in waterlogged deposits. Tae oak sequence in Northern ireland stretches back unbrcken to ¢. 5300 ac, and the master sequence in western Germany t0¢ 8500 0 ‘Apalications: (21 Direct Tree-Ring Dating. Where people in the pastused timber from a species, sch as eak that today forms one of the dendrochronoiogiea! sequences, ‘one ean obtain an archacologicaly useful abeolte date ‘by matching the preserved timber with part ofthe master ay sequence, This snow feasible ia many parts of the wr oule the topes. Results ace particularly impressive in the American Southwest, where the technique fs longest xablished and wood is well preserved. Here Pucblo Indians bull he Avelings fom uees such ab the Douglas fir and piten ine thet have yeded excellent ring sequences, Dene Ezonlogy has become the principal dating metho forthe Pueblo villages, de earist dates for which belong tothe ‘stent although the main period of building cares sllensiun ster One brief exumple fom the Southwest will seve t highlight the precision and implicaions of the method In bis pioneer work. AE. Douglass had established tat Betti, vif dwelingin northwest Aizona, dated em sound ab 1270. Reusing to teste inthe 6c, feiey Dean collected 92 weesing samples and used them i document not ust th founding ofthe setlerent in 22 1267 butts expansion room by Zoom, year by year unlit. reached a peakin the nid-a8os, before being abandoned shorty thereafier, Eetimates of number of occupants et rom also made it possible to caeulte the rate of exp: ‘on of Betatakits population toa maximum of about 35 people, Dendeoczonology ean Sus lead onto wider con: Sulerations beyond questions of dating Inncentalandwester Europe, the eakrastor sequences ow allow the equally pecs ding ofthe development ohhic and Bronze Age ke wilages such as Coral een ead aed bow In he German Ser the vilage of Kicthoes, ber an pe wenden supporting fame oa wel hee ae rccrgdresor T0960 3067 and 9o55 Be the nbers were sso vi seco Eee ao ont ature and than pre ays Fier be cay pace of sure i wesem Fe act ee ringette gis Nellie ree he Set Tk inte Smere el « pon ie gruced arom ssp drag te vier of arse arbor ar oreboc pp 3e6 2) Sometimes local chronologies remain “oating”~ thle short-term sequences Rave not been tied into the main master sequences. In many pars ofthe world, however, ‘master sequences ate gadvally being extended and float ing chronologies fitted into them. In the Aegean ate, for ‘example, a master sequence is row available back to early ‘medieval times (the Byrantine period, with earlier Hoa ing sequences stretching buck in some casett0 7200 8. Tn furue, the link betwen them will no doubt be found Considerable progress is being made toward establishing along treving chroneleg for Anatolia by Peter Kunlaolm ‘of Comell University, Treen tng of ne ate Bronze Age Stiement a ora, Steran, remarkably precee Founded 010m with 9 Turtes of eur hoses [pase 1 the lage was anlaged for times, and a fence added in 985 0.“peslogy| PRT Th ramowartrcoctnr| Limiting Factors. Unlike radiocarbon, dendrocheonology is not a worldwide dating method because of two basic limitations 1 applies only to ween regions ouside the topics svete pronounced difeencs beeen the seons produce carly deed anual ings 2 Foradireceesing date itis reseed 0 noo rom hose pecs that peeled ater sence back tm he presenta (pope eal oaed inthe pass and where (the sample aflords a ice ong cord to ges nique mach 1 addition, there are important questions of interpre. {ation to consider. A tre-ring date refers to the date of. felling of the tree. This is determined by matching the RADIOACTIVE CLOCKS Many of the most important developments in absolute dating sincr World War If have come from the use of ‘what one might call “radioactive clocks,” based on that Widespread and regular feature in the natural world, radioactive decay [see box opposite. The best Known (of these methods is radiocariom, today the main dating tool forthe last 50,000 years or so. The main radioactive methods for periods before the dnespan of radiocarbon sre polassium-argon, uraiumsere, ara fcson-rack dating, ‘Thermoluminescence (T) overlaps with radiocarbon in the time period for which iti wef, bu also has potential for dating calier epochs ~ as do optical dating and detron sin remnance ~ all trapped electron dating methods that rely Inditectly on radioactive decay. In the following sections we will diss each method in ti, Radiocarbon Dating Radiocarbon i the single mos wel method of desing forthe archaclogit As we sal se, thas ts imation. beh in ems of accanagy and forthe time ange where itis uel, Archaeologists themeeves ate lo the ease ‘of major erors, tanks to poor sampling procedures nd ares inerpretaton,Nevethlesradearon has {tansformed our understanding ofthe pat belpingarche- ‘Shogo estaish forthe Stine a velabe chronology feria. History and Basis of Nethod. In r949, the American ‘chemist Willd Libby published the first radiocarbon ates, During World War I he had been one of several sis enlists studying cosmic radiation, the subatomic particles tuce-ring simmple ending wit the outermost rings (ty sapwood) toa regional sequence, Where most or all of hg sapwtood is missing, thefelling date cannot be identified, ‘ut even with an accurate felling date, the archa has to make a judgment ~ based on context and forms. sion processes ~ about how soon after felling the timbey entered the archacological deposit. Tiers may be ode for younger than the structuzes into which they wer finally incorporated, depending on whether they were reused from Somewhere cle, or used to make a repsiin a long-established struetuse, The best solution i ote {multiple samples, ard to check the evidence carefull fonsite, Despite these qualifiations, dendrochronolog, looks set to become the major dating technique along. ide radiocutbon for the last 8000 years intemperate sn arid lands that constantly bombard the eu, producing high-energy nueurons. These newrons tect with ntogen atoms i the atmosphere to produce atoms of carbon 4 (“Cet radiocarbon, which ae unstable because they Rave ee dentro inthe nucleus instead of te usual sis fora nary carbon (°C) (se box oposite). This instability lal toradioacve decay of ata rela ae Libby extinsted that i ook 5568 jets for half the “C in any sample decay ~~ although modem research inde that the more accurate Sure Is 5750 years (or coms gy Ibortoies stil se 5368 yet forthe bali th “ference no longer mates now Bat We have a comet? ‘brated radiocarbon timescale’ see below Libby realized that the decay of radiocarbon ta consan ‘ate should be balanced by its constant production through ‘ovmie radiation, and tat therefore the proportion of {nthe atmosphere should remain the same throughout time. Furthermore, ths steady atmospheric concentation of radioeatbon is poted on uniform to all ing things ‘rough catbon dove. Plants take up carbon dioxe during photwayatess, they are eaten by herbivorous ‘imal, which in turn ae eaten by earaivore. Only when 2 plant or animal dies des the upake of "cease and tht ead concentration oF“ bogin deine hough radio. Bective decay Ths, knowing the decay at or halFifeoF Tibiy recognized hat the age ofdead plant or animal teu could be calculated by measuring the amount of radiocae bon ef ns sample. “Libby great practical achievement was to devise an aco= rate means of measuzement (The Wace of “Cae mint tostartwith and are educed by half after 5730 years, Af 25,000 years, therefore only one sixteen ofthe iil“F When? Doing etd and Cseeny EE HE PRINCIPLES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY ke mostelemenss occurring in place aa constant rate, independent quantty of sotope remains, ant so titers carbon ext in more than ofall enuonmentalcondtions. fon Inthe case of , the halle pe isotope fren Ithas three ‘The time taken for half of the now agreed tobe 5730 years “or topes: °C, °C, and —the toms of radioactive isotope to 84509 mon years For imerscomespond tothe atomic decay scaled ite halfe nother certain other sotopes, the hale is ight ofthese aropes. In ary words, after one hal-fe,there wil @ minute faction of second. But In Gimp ofcarbon 38.9 percent of be halofthe atoms let aftertwo every case, theres a regular patern isareofC ype andhavesx _halflves, one-quarter ofthe orginal tothe decay. sand six aeons in the sand v1 percent are of the Sciype ih sv protons and seven rurons. Only one atom ina frlion milonsofstoms of carbon ‘mile that of the wotope'*C with Genemeutrons nthe nace This [ssope of carbon produced in the upper atmosphere by cosmic “bombarding nitrogen (#N} and contains an excess of nevtrons, sralarg it unstable Ie decays by the frision of weak beta radiation back ns pecrsorictoe ofmsrogen = OW WN with seven protons and seven ‘of radioactive decay the process takes “tore et Rosca Iarvon- is prodend inthe amaaphoro and abarbed by pants though carbo dixie and by anime ih feuding of plas or eter animals, Uptake of "ceases When he panorama des “coon righ) Aor deat the amount of“ doays a Kroon rat 150 percent ater 5730 years, ete. Measurement ofthe amourt et Ina sample gies the dt.IRI £207 Te Famewactarcoetesy | tiny concentration of Cis avaabe to be measured in the Sample) Tiby lcoverd that each stom of "C decays by Telesings beta part, andhe succeeded in coumting these tmissons ring a Gg corer Thi she bis ofthe ‘conventional method stil played by many raioarbon Iaboratces today Sores utaly consist of organic mate tls found on archaeological sites, such as chara, Wood, ced and otherplantrenans, an human oranina bone, ‘The accurate mersement of i “C servo sarple Mfeced by counting eros, background cone radiation, nd other erst contrat st cement of uncer tp the measurements This means tat aiocarbon dats dre invariably acompatied by an estimate ofthe probable {ror the psig tem nnd evinced > tsery radiocarbon date (ce bel). ‘One advance onthe conventional metho care wth the ‘introduction in srme laboratories inthe ate 9708 and ely {fs of special gas coanterscpable of taking measure ‘Dee trey shel pane ke comer etd ‘onenceded some gof pe con afer purfeaton which teat a ong spies 0-30 gf word or char Ceal 100-300 gf bone. The spec equipment required oni ow hondet mila) of ae. Increasing te accteator mass specromery (AMS) methods becoming thedominant echiqe ued i 7aio- catbon dating. Th recures smaller samples stl AMS Cunt the ates of % dry dsregarding thei aioe Sct. The minimum sample size reduced to a ile 4s 5-10 mg ~ thu enabling precous organic materi, Sich asthe Turin Shroud (tec pp. rad) te sampled Sand dicly dated, and making fete the dace dating ‘ot pollen. Inially tas hoped thatthe databe timespor for racarbon ting AMS could be Posed ack om $e,000'0 80,000 yea although this proving difal a Achieve, in prebeetuseof sample contamunation Calibration of Ragiocarbon Dates. One of the basic assumptions ofthe radiocarbon method has turned out to “bernot quite correct Lilby assumed thatthe concentration of “Cin the atmosphers bas been constant through time; That we now know tat thas varied, due to changes in the artis magnetic Held ard that ofthe sun, The method that demonstrated the inaccuracy ~ weeing dating — has also provided the means of erecting calibrating “C dats. Radiocarbon dates obtained from tee-ings show that before abuut 1000 ne dates expressed in radiocarbon years are increasingly too young in relation to tue clen- ‘ar yeats. In other Words, before 1000 a¢ trees (and all, ‘other living things) weze exposed to grester concentra: tions of atmospheric “C than they are today. By obtaining radiocarbon dates systematically from the long treesing maser sequences of brstlecone pine and oak (see above), sclentists have been abi t plot radiocarbon apes against tree-ing ages (in calendar years) to produce callbratiog ‘cures enabling radiocarbon dats wo be corrected inte ena ime. This calibration effet has come tobe clled the ‘Secand Radiocarbon Revolution. “Treoving-dated wood provides 4 direct measure ¢f atmospheric radiocarbon and therefore represents the ‘bert material possible for the calibration carve. A preseay ‘these records extend back to 12,600 years 2g0. The tee rings come from US brislecone pine, German pine sn ‘oak, and Trish oak. Beyond this, scientists must rely oy ‘ofter prory records to calibrate radiocarbon, These const ‘predominantly of foraminifera from varvecounted marine sediments and uranium thorium dated pristine corals. The latest INTCAL.09 curve now reaches back to 50,000 Cala ‘Again, the curve shows that there canbe significant offs ‘between radiocarbon and calendar years, f up to 4000 000 yeas in some parts ofthe timescale. Future data this interim cure is erected to come froma the Take Suigetsu varved lake sediment recordin Japan, 2nd Australasian toes, whose age extends beyond 20,000 ur “There are short-erm wiggles in the curve and occasion. ally sections of the curve that run so fla that two sample ‘vith the same age in radiocarbon years might in reality be Gembesone The wiggles ofthe INTCALDY calirain curve ve the as 068 jose The staight Ine insestoe thoes Hosea ne) Betneonc 358nd 90 year go, uring thesarcaled “Mauna” Minimurn there were ery few Sunspers reared, indctng lower alr acy. Thin Cm alfcted carts magnet fel ‘using raiocartan production tise, and ging us the see? ‘Sein nth clint curve thineyears apart in calendar years, a problem that is par Sy nksore for dating inthe Iron Age, in the period ito nc. When calibrating 2 radiocarbon date itis that the measured radocarbon date (eg, 2200 naitserorestmate 25 wel, 2200 4100 UH). areal Sei brart nt reper anti, narrower and more precise siting wher on the carve the aioe Gate and efor estinate Ell. Several software programs ae now ble that allow the user to generate computer derived batins ee box overef), Bayesian methods involve Sjuonal non-cbronometc archeeolopcl information js analysed using statistical methods to produce new nba distributions (see box on pp. 142-43). ication of Radizcarbon Dales. Radiocarbon Isbe vide an estimate of age based on their measurement of mou of radiocarbon activity ina sample. The level of “fv s converted tan age expressed in mumber of ears the death ofan organism and the present. T avoid cfison caused by he fact that the “present” advances each laboratories have adopted aD 1950 a8 their “present” ad all radiocarbon dates are quoted in years 3° or years efore the preset.” meaning before 1950. Thus, in scien: ‘ihepblicaions, radiocarbon dates are given nthe Form: 3780 2100 BF (OxA1735) fist figure is the radiocabon age n°, nest is the a measurement error (see below). Finally, in {sthe laboratory analysis number Each hbora has its own leter code (eg. OxA for Oxford, England, {420 GeA for Groningen, Netherlands) Ss dtcutsed above, various factors prevent the precie e of radiocarbon activity in a sample and, con- jquenily, there isa statistical eror or standard deviation ined with all radicarbom dates. Radiocarbon dates ce quoted with an erorof one standard deviation. Far a eof 3700-2100 a this means that there should bea 68.2 probability two chances in three—that the corect te of age in radiocarbon years lies between 3800 and 00 s, Since there is also 2 ancin-throe chance thet the tect age docs not fll within this range, archaeologists alse to also consider the date range st two standard ations, eto double the size of he standard deviation, that there wl bea 95.4 percent chance thatthe age est ste will be bracketed. For example, for an age estimate 4700 2100 wr there isa 95.4 percent chance thatthe Iaiiccarbon ge ofthe sample wil he between 3900 (5700 #300) and 3300 (3700-200) st. Calibrated dates should be reported as “Cal xcjao* or and it is important thatthe relevant calibration asset should be repored 2¢ wel, since cblraton data- Ei are periodically revised and exended. Therefore the “Srveational radiocarbon age, thats to say the radiocarbon ‘age a7, shoulc be reported, along withthe accompanying stable carbon isotope measurement. The conventional age, ‘once measure, wll never change but calibrations and cali- brated dates de, ‘Where the erchacolgis is discussing absolute chronol- ogy generally -peciaps using radicarbon alongside other methods of diting, induding historical anes ~ it seems logical to employ the simple scja> system, provided an attempt has been made to callbrate any radiocarbon date, and that this isstated earl atthe oust. Contamination and Interpretation of Radiocarbon Samples, Although radiocarbon dates have certain ines capable loves of eror associated with them, erncous resus are asic to derive rom poor samping and incor ‘ect interpetson bythe archaeologists from inadequate laboratory provedures, The jor soures of err in the field areas fllans Contamination before sampling. Problems of con ‘tamination of the sample within the ground can be serious or instance groundwater on waterlogged es «an dissolve organic materials and also deposit them, ‘hus charging the isotopic emposition: te formation ‘of mineral concretions round organic matter can bing ‘alcium carbonate entirely lacking in aiearbon, and {thus falaciously increase the apparent radiocarbon age ofa specimen by effectively “diutng” the "C preset. “These maters can be tackled in the laboratory. > Contamination during or fer sampling Al raiocarbon samples should be wrapped in sluminiur foil and sealed wihin clean conte such spastic bagat the time of recovery. They shouldbe labeled in detail at lance onthe ouside ofthe container, cardboard abels inside ca be a majo source of contamination. The ‘container shouldbe placed inside another one plastic ‘bag, well seled, inside another bag separately sealed ‘anbea und proceiuefor mest materials. But wood ‘or eavbor samples tat may preserve some teeing structure should be more carefully housed in asgid ‘container. Wherever possible exclude any modern ‘atbon, such as paper. which can be disastrous Voowever, modern roots and earth cannot always be swoided: ia such cases itis beter toinlude ther, with a separate note forthe borztry, where the problem can be tackled “Application of any organic material later ~ such as glue or carbowax ~is likewise disastrous (although the lab may be abe to remedy it), $0 is continuing photosynthesis within the sample or this aso, the relevant containers should be stored in the dark. A green mad isnot uncommon in sample bags on some rots. RautomstalyindicaescontamintionWIE 7 The FomenorrArchoster HOW TO CALIBRATE RADIOCARBON DATES Radiocarbon labortones will ‘of Gaussian or Normal dstnbution between series of datable events generally supply calibrated dates of onthe rans. This dstabuton s known tis posable to obtain a ther samples, but archaeologists may transformed, using the calibration precise date by "gale matching need t calibrate aw radiocarbon curve ands astonated aro, into This i most Fequenty applied to dates themselves probebilty distrbuton onthe aus, radiocarbon dates fom ree-rings The calbration cue, part of epreseting calendar years ihe (eee box overleaf for an exam whichis shown the dagram on parts ofthe radiecarbondistibuton series of rachocatbon measurement PousBilastates the relationship that havehigher eels ofprobablity rade of several radiocarbon samp between radiocarbon yeas (27) and also have a higher probabity onthe yath a known numberof years ‘samples dated seta ealendat calender seale ‘benween ther allows the resulting yours (Claro /a0} The twolines The libration curve i fllof steep pattem of changes in adioearbon Of the calibration uve ineeate and sometimes weg sections, Content over Ue to be drety ‘thewdth af he estimated err st neludingsecons th plateaux ‘matched statistically with he wn ‘one standard dewaton In order uihere the amount oFradiocarbon in inthe eabraton eutve This can to find the calibrated age range of the atmosphere remansthesame provide a date forthe felling date stradocarbon sample a computer overlong periods oftime Here Othe tree to wih 10.020 yes, program ismostofen used. There the calibration precision is always Alternately, were othe informs fre several that are rcl avaiable on unde Even dang single samples suchas ase of radiocarbon figures the Internet (Ox, BC, CALIB, ete). st high eves ofpreasion (some linked by strairaphy ests, ith Oxcal theip/je.arch ox ac uk _laboratones ace able to produce dates possible to use Bayesian sttstis cxcal) a simple plotis generated of untha 20f5-20 eas) ordaung combine al the known data (se box single calbrated result, such asin multiple samples (which can then _ovetiea)Cabration programs and thedigram below inthis example be averaged cannot substantially _eurves canbe abiined directly from fone can see the radiocarbon date of _mprovethe situation. Sometimes, the Raiocarhon website at 4701358 's represented nthe form however, where the elapsed tne vw eadioarbon org his gram shows theceltnen os Sine radeon dte tng Oa! The poe ‘hows te prbaby ‘rater ofibe ‘on carbon age dpocsse The said gs Clete ng the INTcALagcltratan save ming tne pebcbydsbion Sra, whch the cxloeted ae Ae ‘ongsas 682 0rd Ssapenababey GS A 124512 470 35) (8.2% probaly lea 24 890-508 Cat 98.4% probatiity 95.481 545-478 al Radiocarbon date (a Calibeated date (Cal 14 Conestof epson. Most eros in radiocarbon dating ~ arise because the excavator has not fully understood the formation processes of te conte in question Unless itis appreciated how the organic master found sts try tothe postion wheres was found, and how and thes (tems ofthe ste) came tobe Doried. hen reve interpretation sips, The rat ue of FEdlcacbon éating must be tat the excavator should teteabiita sample for dating lessor shee ure of its archaeological context, 4 Dae of canter To often ite assumed thats raio carbon determination, eg, on charcoal, wl give a straightforward erinate forthe date ofthe chatcoats burial context. Howere, ith charcoal derives fom roof bers that might themsetes have ben several entries ld when destroyed by fire, enone ie dating someeal construction, nthe content af destruction ‘There are numerous exmples of such dificulies ane ofthe most conspicuous being the reuse of Sch tnbes or even of fost wood fe “bog oa) whose radiocarbon date could be centuries earlier tan the content in question For his reason, samples ith sort fe are offen preferred, such a ig of Brushwood or charred cee gains that are noe) ‘obeckd atthe time of but Aste for sampling wil real ws dtu hone ‘tein date eee ae nec, The bet ting proce re isto work toward an internal rave sequence = for Insane nthe sographic accession ona well canted ‘esac a the Gate Shee, Montor Valle, Nevada, tated by Davi Hurst Thomas and hi antodates. te Sure can be arranged in relative sequence in his way hronologyPARTI Th Frameworkot rchacloay BAYESIAN ANALYSIS: IMPROVING THE PRECISION OF RADIOCARBON CHRONOLOGIES Calibration faghocaron dates Sayesian arajsis can ie dates Information can be used to cons. ssrecessay to coret fr past dou tothis level In most cases the ste models and to compare dates Yarationsin the radiocarbon content method allows raghocarbon to resolve between diferent tes, Ths hs ‘ofthe atmosphere However,one_chronologes to within a century used to greet eet inthe study of de efectofeaibation that there As with any such stasbeal Bntsh Neolithic lng barons, isalimittthe precson that can approach, the outputs depend ‘the precision of the chonalogys be acheva,alitthat depends.on strongly an the assumptions made that we re abe to understand the the penodin queston Atbestfor and soitis often necessaryto See sequence of events onthe resolu single samplers range fone totwe how robust Pe conclusions are cofindvndual human generations. ‘centuries possible andor some againstdferent model assumpsions. this case the ndvdual adiacarbon nods th resotion seven lower dates gavea misleading impression ‘Tis limtaton, however canbe Dating British Neolithic that many ofthese monuments had overcomerfuesreableto.combne Long Barrows long histones, The Bayesian anes ‘the information from theradicearbon inmost archaeological sites long showed that conversely this ype rmessurerrans rth not any the data wed wood is ether not preserved of monument was a much more from the calibration cure, Butalso or not very closely associated with _transent phenomenon Information onthe elative age of the act ofinteest. However, samples and ther groupings. usualy carefully excavated sts, lke those Wood Samples Relating tothe dered fre excavation stratigraphy. fromthe Bnish Neolithic, salso Eruption of Thera Bayesian aaostes prondes 2 possible to uso the rleronship Treering eld down annually a framewor todo this and theres —_retween samples found on sts to canbe dated dendrochronological sofvare aialabe that an dothe improve the precision ofthe dating. ut sometimes ths ts nt possible, nays (¢, OxCaland BCA) In some instances stangraphic and instead waggle match dating cn Bayesr sale can signfcsrty information, along wth an beused. This mvolves radiocarbon Improve re precision ofthe understanding ofthe depositon ofthe dating samples from 2 teeing radiocarben method and hasbeen matenal,can allow us to deduce the sequence and then fing the “plied oa range ofdifeent types requerce of dates. In almost allcases results to the calbration curve using ‘fproblem including single samples weave groups ofsamples that are Bayesian methods to determine the ‘offong ved wood, single seo tllfromone parvcuar period. Alte bes fir The als to mami the ‘chroneloges, sedimentary sequences land repeal chronologies. In alcases the analy is the radlocarbon dates ‘oto the cabaton curve, taking nto account the other information we have abou the samples Inereasing the amourt of pectic formation and the number of dloearbon ation cf the weker ht tobe determine. inthis can the rote cc etre by te formation oft mineral or iat erin ate (at vrth osan) or the Ge of manatee (or wid Tharafcued asa) The method proces weil tes Contnng achowloial ede, and tas bee wed ‘ rence, sad has been stray a en sie or tach av lal one, nea, prvi indyendentconsmation of fssumagor tnd oe vamos of sion wack, aor sche, stone, and in some cireumstances burnt soll But unfort: ‘nately its 2 method thats dificult to mske precse, and s0 {ts generally used when other methods, such as radiocar ‘bon dating, are notavailable. Like many other methods it depends upon radioactive decay, but in this case i isthe amount of radioactivity received by the specimen ince the sar dat thats of inter est not the radiation emitted by the specimen itself. When atoms located within the structure ofa mineral are exposed to radiation from the decay of radioactive elernents in the nearby environment, some of that enery is “trapped If the ammount of radiation remains constant over ime, ‘hen this energy will accusmulate ta wnlfoem rate and the total amount of energy wll depend upon the total me of ceporuze, When a simple is heated to 00 "Cor more, the ‘tapped energy is released as thermoluminescence, and the “radioactive clo is setback 1 2er.BT P8811 he Framework ofArcheclogy DATING THE EARLIEST WEST EUROPEANS The Stents de Atapuercs, near Burgos Innorthern Spain, s avertabe treasure house ofites ~ mctly Infill eaves ~that are rewriting the early prehistory of western Europe, ‘Archaeologists have been know there since the 1860, and te fst ecwvations ofPlentocene tls fr fauna occured in the 1960, However the Fst dcovery of fossil hominin rene came nthe 1370 Escavtions have been ever more numerous andintensve snc the {obs at first directed by Emiliano ‘gure, and eubesquerty by juan Lan Asuage, José Maria Bermiez de Casto, and EudaldCarbonel. Ever ‘now, ony tnyfacton ofthe Sierra's Contents have een investigate, work wl conte fr decades f sot centunes, nd Atapuerea anks een ‘as one the world's most important Archaeologica arees Dating Atapuerca ‘Chronology has always been a the forefront of work in these ses 38 tncreasingly ery ayes were exposed, fad in the face oF widespread isms by the archaeological establishment = many conservative ‘cholirs were reluctant to abandon their beef that there was no human ‘eceupation of Europe before 500,000 years ago, ‘Avanety of techniques has been applied, fom microfzunal nayss te radiocarbon, potasium-agon, snd uranium seties methods They have combined to present endence cof eceupatin which stretches back more thant malign years. OF Map of thes of sia de Atpueres ff show catons ‘share the momo hori fd eon ade partcularimportance ae levels TD, TDsand TD6 a the Gran Dolina sit, which date fom 800,000 t rion years ago twas 1894 thet the fravhuman remains nd stone tools found in TOS provided the fist undeniable exdenee for hominis in Europe during the Lower Piesocene =the hominins were even & new species name, Homo antecrsor, Electron spin eomance and urariumseres dating of fossil eed confirmed the Lower Plestocee age of level TOS (more than 780,000), wile the same methods placed the lower halfoF TDS at 609,000 and, Dio and TDi Between 380,000 and 340,000 (paradoncaly the layers tate numbered fom bettom iotop). These figures correlated well withthe mierofauna, especially the rodents " (Gale) Th sal of ome atacnes, urd ot Con Dara, ‘rand te screener tt Romans edn Ee ‘hg the Lauer Peace pono. rilion ea a, ‘rd sole thon he se lave Homo badelbergose cumatine \Inte Gln at, te ones. Uys (Gi) have been dated to more [her 780,000 years ago by means of Iulcoragnetsm (ohch indicated period of versed palartykrown site Maruyama epoch, while Mores Gils, cated by electron Sphiresonance and uranum-senes p35, 000-300,000, nd GIV at The Sima de lfante hes a deep Besigaphy faunal, mcrofunal, {hd pleomagnen analyses here Jue shown that the lowest cecton [Press andi) = which has yielded “ore Fakes made by humans — dates the Lower Plestocene, more than [lion years ago, while Phase 1V sings othe end ofthe Middle Pesstocne. This enoemeus timespan [Ppeobably due 1 the temporary Bisse ofthe cave in Phaze, Teich caused a major natus nthe Decimation of sediments 7998 eas announced that tern au together wth stone Jools hed been recovered frm ayer TE which a aurber of methods — “snasis of rodents and metres, 4 Wha? Datng Methods and Cronoogy METER ‘Fone ofthe mot item esate acbusopl remand (a) Bons flom the Smad es Munsee Lome ofthe ssoc mans ard ere deine moe tan 333000 ero AP les goindau oe epsried may ‘also ond your dts od yt {Fike human slo has ben coe paleomagnetism, and “burl dating” raise of two cosmogene nuclides, i and Al, inthe sediments and racks} ~has combined to place at 1-12 milion years ago, making the oldest and most securely dated record of human occupation Europe Inthe Sima delos Huesos (see box, pp 388-83) a combination ‘of microfauna analysis, electron spin resonance and urenium series methods has established hat = Speleothem that cover the depos containing human bores detes to at Teas 30,000 years ago, whie high resolition uanium-svtes dates Fave shown thatthe bodies were placed here shout 660,000 yeas ago.Trmoluminescene dating, Tp The T clckin pottery sett zerawhen 9 vss ered TLacrumuats url the pot heated gan inthe prcont yt derrmine sage. Cente Glow ures obseredin the ataratory Curve fl plays the ght mtd wher the samples st heated. Curve fis the non-T igh recordesina second hestng fe edt gion observable when any samples heated. The extra light emited in tho rst heating the TL mazsured for ding, (AboveGced and bad locos fr TL spe. Ress il be inaccurate if the subsoil leila radosctvty rom tat ofthe filing oe pio atch ‘Teracta head from Jamas, Nigeri, belong ta the Nok culture ATL reading forthe age ofthe scp ha proned te tet relible date or this and athe ereactas ra the Nok region Height 23cm Pin ‘This means that archacological artifes, suck as pote will have ad their clocks reset wien they wers original fired, and that by reheating samples fom these objects, ve can measure the thermoluminescence released and hente Gate the material. The main complication ofthe method's that the level of background radiation that a sample might have bo exposed ois not uniform —itmmust bemeasured {or every sumple by burying a small capsule containing f radiston-sensitive material, or by using 2 radiator ‘ountes atthe exact spot he sample was found. In gene, the difficulties of making these measurements mein that TI. dates rately have a precision of better than azo percent of ae age of he sample, ‘A good example ofthe axchseological applition of T {is the dating of the terracotta head known as the Jems head, fom te allvinm ofan mine neds the [os Plates of Nigeria. The head and similar eamples beong to the Nokeulmare, but such scuptuzes could not be dated veliaby atthe sit of Nok itself because of the lack of ary plausible radiocarbon dates. ATL reading on the head gave an age19 #360 86, allowing this and similar heads fom the tobe given 2 fr chronological position forthe jptical Dating js method i sili principle tTL, butt is used to Frineral thathave been exposed light. ether than Most annerals contain some trapped energy that ibe cleaved by several minutes’ exposure to sunlight. exposure i in effect the start point. Once burke iy beg to accurulae electrons once more as a result. Tidision experienced in the sail. ln the laboratory, aly stmalated luminescence (OSL) is produced by Tight of visible wavelength ant the sample, the resultant aminescence is measured, And ance pin the background radiation atthe place of burial h He messed. so opical dating suffers from many of ssc fr th Nasal craton arth ucts, th uminacane does nd Opi tno het nated dates onthe right fact-earng sends could be opal dated and produced results of between 5,000 and 30,00 w, parton mpliaions forthe fate ofthe first human copii of he Australian andass. ase mgs ream aa sees ithustration below, the same complicationsas TL. Nevertheless OSLhas been. used successfully in conjunction with TLand rediocarbon. to date the very early site of Nauwalabia in Australia (see Electran Spin Resonance Dating -lectron spin resonance (ESR) is «technique similar to but ess sensitive than TL, but it can be used for materials that decompose when hested and thus where TL is not applicable. Its most successful application so far as been orthe dating of toth enamel. Newly formed tooth ena! ‘contain no trapped energy, but i: begins 9 accumulate ‘once the toth is buried and exposed to natural background ‘adition. The precision of the merhod when used to date tooth enamel Is in the order of 0-20 percent, but It is sl very used forthe study of ex]y humans (see bax. p. 148-49) and the crosschecking of ther dating methods. sasctsan0 samsa500 veate 6a ectURED) 64811 The Framework otarchaecigy | GENETIC DATING ‘Genetic dating, unlike most of the methods discussed Ihre snot applicable to arises or evento samples of anclert DNA. Like Inguistie dating (Se p 126) apples to what may be teamed population events. Ln linguistic dating these pertain to languagespeaking groups, for instance the date of dispersal of different groups within 2 language family. But here Uh demographic events are ‘monitored bythe emergence of new mitochondrial DNA or Yechromosome haplotypes (see pp. 220 and 459) or by sipufeant changes in her frequency. For instance the ety “Out of Aft dsperals of Homo sapiens have been dated by thease of malecular genetic data. Dating population spi, revealed bythe reconstuction offal) tres fom genetic data (ve. “population phylogenies", equtes the assumption that populations ae akin t© species and that no gene low ha occurred between them aller they have spit. There are various methods avail Able, ofconsiderabe sophistication. They all depend on the gneralizaion thatthe numberof genetic wutations obsertable between to mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA oF ‘chromosome lineages (mvtationr that have occurred since they spli) gives & measure of the time that has elapsed since hat pit That time canbe calculated using the motation rate, which i used ab a kindof “lock” analogous to the radioactive clock taken as the bass for raiocarbon ding cep. 156). These methods ely upon rather complercaculations that are natirally undertaken | CALIBRATED RE! Racioacive decay is the only completely regular time: dependent process known, uninfluenced by temperature for other envtonmental conditions, There ae, however, ‘other natural processes that, while not completly regula, ate suliientl steady over the course oftime io be of use ‘thearchaeologst We have already seen how natural annval cjcdes produce varves and teerings, which of course are Jmmensely useful because they give dates calibrated in years. Other proceses that form the basis ofthe Gest to techniques described below are not naturally calibrated in years, but In principle they can be made to yield absolute ates if the rate of change herent in the process can be independently calibrated by one of the absolute methods already discussed. In practice, a8 we shal se, the eaibra: tion for each technique offen has tobe dane afeesh for each ‘scorarca beau ofensirosmetl far that infaenee tate of change. This makes these technique dificat to use as reliable abeohite dating methods. They can, by molecular gentiit, and there are sill un problems: for instance the results obtained from cael Tons based upon mitochondrial UNA analytes Ci differ systematically from those obtained from Yh rmosome anys. Despite these problems the resus are important sal wide employed. They have, for instance, been utd to date the eay “Out of Aca expansions of our om species 19 about 60,000 yeas ago. The resus in genta Tarmonize with those obtained forthe diet dating (oy insane by means of radiocarbon) of the apperanc o ‘the first humans in Australia, Indeed there is sufficient confidence in these moleelar genetic dates to requ reinterpretation of the much eater dates of 90,000 yas 2 (obtained by uraniumeeies dating (p. 146) a0 by ‘Reuohuminescence dating (p47) fet the supposed | anatomically modern human remains found at Qafech in fsal Th disparity has ld Yo the conclusion ti the humans found at Qaseh epresent an ele disperslofy ‘athe eater form of mania; nat et flly modern inthe tnonmizal or biological sense, Genesc dating as its own unresoled problems fo insiace it has ot yet finaly determined the date to be accepted forthe frst human setlement ofthe Ames {ace box, p. 460). But itis now well established as one of the Dringpal dating methods avalabe fa human population Buller ven however, stl prove enormously helpful simply 282 means ofardering samples in relative sequence, in which eléeris distinguished fom younger. Obsidian Hydration ‘This techniques based on the principle that when obsiiae (the voleanie glass often used rather ike lin to make tol) is fractured, it tarts absorbing water from its surround: ‘ngs, forming « hydration layer that Increases in thickness through time and can be messed, f the layer increases in thidaness in a linear way, then assuming we know the rate of growth and the present thickness, we ought tobe Ble to calculate the length of time elapsed since gros ‘began. The zero moment, when the hydration zone stared forming, is the moment when the fake tool was fresh sade by removing it from the original obsidian block, or by trimming it Unfortunately there is no universal)hs neraten cating croton layer we nan ‘sian aract Ie tayer mereases indhicnness a5 te passes, bt ters nies td teatro psa rom diferent qursies have diferent chemi fons, and scan affect the picture is neces a, therfore, 0 establish separately the hydration rate pe alferent kinds of ebsiien found in gen res, deep in ind the temperature factor, which canbe for Tp use the method for absolute dating, it has wo be rated against an established chronological sequence {aking to account the chemical and temperature factors} {arth region in question, Sarapies for dating need to come frm one or more well-defined contests tat cam be dated securely by other means. In addition to providing direct Chronological intbrmation, the method can be useful in sessing the relitive ages of different strata within asiieor ‘region where obsidian s abundant ‘Thougs principally relevant to sites and arifcls ofthe Fat oc00 year (he portal prod) obsidian bys Son has given aceptable dates of around 120,000 years for Middle Paleolithic material from East Aica ‘Amino-Acid Racemization ‘This method, rst applied inthe erly 1970s, suse to date bane wisether human or snimal Is special significance is “atitcan be appied to material up to about 100,000 years ld, beyond the time range of radiocarbon dating, The te niques based on the fact that amino acd, which make up _rotcins present in lllivng things, an exist two miroe “tage forms, teamed enantiomers. These difer in their _Geruial structure which shows in their effecton polarized light. Those that rotate polavized ight to the left are lac: _antiomets ot Lamino aids; those that rotate the light t0 _Secghtare dexno-nantiomers or Damino acids, The amino acids present in the proteins of living ‘eganisms contain only enantiomers. After deat, these change a a steady vate (hy racemize) 0 D-enantiomers. ‘The rate of racemization is temperature dependent, and [i ong Metis ne roa ‘therefore likey to vary fom sitet sie. But by radioar Don-dting suitable bone samples ata particular sit, and measuring te eave proportions (ai) ofthe Lend D forms in them, one abould be able to work out what the local racemization rate is This cabration is then wed to date bone sompls from erirlovlsat the site beyond te time range of radiocarbon. As a means of absolute dating the method is ofcourse entirely dependenton the scuracy ofits ealibraton (sare other relative methods Archaeomagnetic Dating and Geomagnetic Reversals ‘Archacomagaetic (or paleomagnetic) dating has so fer bbeen of limited use in archaeology. tis based on the con: stant change, both in direction and intensity ofthe earth's ‘magnetic field. The diection of that magnetic eld at a particular time is recorded in any baked clay structure (oven, Klin, hearth etc} that has been heated to tem perature of 6§0 to 700 °C. At that temperstare the iron particles in th clay permanently ake up the earths mag. netic direction and intensity at the time of firing. This principle is called thermoremanent maguetista (TRM). ‘Charts can be built up of the variation through time that can be used to date baked clay structures of unknown age, ‘whose TRM is measured and then matched toa particular pointon the master sequence “Another aspect of archacomagnetism, relevant for the dating ofthe Lower Paleolithic, isthe phenomenon ofcomz- plete reversals in the ears magnetic eld (magnetic north ‘becomes magnetic south, and vie versa) The most recent The changing crecton of magnet orth in Brit trom 426500 1950. Infovrabe circumstances baked clay fund sitacan be ated by measuring the cretion ots residual magnet HlaPIN 067 oe Fameworsarchonatey major reversal occured about 780,000 yeas ago, and a ‘sequence of such reversals stretching sack several millions DATING THE of years hasbeen bul up withthe aidofpoassium-argon —- THERA ERUPTION Su oer dating techniques, The finding of art of ais Sequence of reversals in the rock stata of Afticn ©x77 sre than 300 yet go the hominin ses bas proved 2 helpfil check on the otter anna reas mown dtng mefods Gut have ber used a hore ates aswel Totten) ntheneger Sen ss thecal steofAapuercain psinGeebox.pp.t4849)- erupted, burg he presto setlrent of Alot on is southern shore. Alrotin- excavated fiom the 19608 by the Greek archaeologist Spyidon Marinatos (1901-1974) and ‘oe recent by Christos Douras 1 | CHRONOLOGICAL CORRELATIONS ‘One ofthe mos promising avenues fr future work in "has prove tobe pen stonic hronology is the coreltion of dere ting methods. Pompen, mth weltreserved sees ‘These of ne absolute metod in suppor cf another can and houses, some wih remacable ‘en bring vy powesfil eeu, Anencelent example is __vallpatng al buned beneath fhe way thar eerng ating has been wed io supportaia] mary meters of vane ash The indeed calvate radiocarbon, asaresut of which hclater erp teflon erestng tas gained greally in accuracy and ceabiliy. The same problems and oppartuntes inden, cbrcreton is treo the lationship bewoen selaive and ‘Astong go 351859, Mainatos Sheolute dating Aough actual dtcinyeattate provided suggested thatthe Thea erupton ipratsolute methods, much ofthe reliably and internal was responsible f-the destucton ‘consistency of those dates {and therefore the possibility ofthe Minoan palaces of Crete (10 af recogiding and weeding ou Snarcurste absolute age Kor 69 mules toh south), mary determinations) comes fom the famework provided by _ofwhich were abardoned during the ‘herelatve dating metbod. {iteBronze Age. Tis en spated Tinks betmces chronological sequences that are geo- _offadebat that stil contnves ‘graphically remote from each other ~ “teleconnections" ‘The most recent pottery style in om present consideabedificitis The most common the relevant Minor pales Was fate those that depend on the comparison ofsequences—for ‘Late Minoan |B. Tres was assigned {Instance of teeing widths. Tiss certainly valid for adja: fan absolute date anyears by cross: centtreesorforrerswithinasmallara;overawideregion ting Deusen Minaan sequence Stchtlconnectons‘mustbetraicivaincauon, inte andthe welesablhed Egyptian histone chronolegy On this ba, the end of ite Minoan 1B {and hence the Minoan palaces) vas dated around same way, the correlation of vazve sequences in Scandinavia and in North America has proved coatentious. With such rethods there i always the risk of aziving at a “correla: tion? between soquences tat, while intally plausible i asoue income “us dete, howeve, mae ani with the destruction of Aro on Global Events: ‘Thera problematic, because Akotrt fas noe Minos 8 pony One ofthe most powesfulwaysofestablishinga corelation fur bundart steal ote ate between sequencesisbyseeing wir them the ocomrence moan Ase Mow acholes these significant event one wi wide repercussions tus conclude itt he The {seographicaly, perhaps even ona gles scale Suchevents grupo had rothng to do wth the fre naturaly ery rae, and are generally catastrophic in. desrucbon ofthe Minoan palace, {heir naire The impact on earth oflage meteorites, for which mst havebeen lar ever. Insane, woul fl mths category. “hoy wore thetfre poy date ‘Much more common are agescie volcanic erupions. he Trergeruplononthin the ate ‘coeetothevelezno these eventshavesrikingand obvious Minoan perio peeps (again ‘eects, with mudandlvaflows and bickfaisofanhofen using the Egyptian based chronology ‘with devastating consequences for human occupation. At for Minoan Crete) around 1560.the Thera ah al ( 645 s¢ Bute ere from the Thera eruption, So ese long-range methods fr dating the ste of Pryckopi onthe global event dendrochronalogy fegen sland of Meo nd dating — hive proved Ther eruption may be reso Iepcded asa global even (ld be expected to have t nce the dust thrown dnton reaching the eth) wp ously narrow duces 2 Ife rile eof was proposed. A tee ely anomalous ning was “sed o support Diz the arguments for associating tis ng with the eruption occured wee 16 ape uence ofree-rng seen 7 and 600 82 with g probably, This spec urkey (8 bo. The tub ed finds asocited wth spect pharachs has recently yelde dates ear than previous Mstorea estimates, leas into question th carly date of around truptan. That cal have ak fect for Aegean ch 1 8 Forth The debate continues Ths remains cone ofthe mest inte ‘controversies inthe whole slog science