National Technical University of Athens

Defining, exemplifying, classifying,

generalising
Week 3 Goni Togia
Text evaluation task: Week 2

 “It can be found in a magazine or research article”

 This is very unlikely as the two genres have very different
characteristics: the former is addressed to a wider audience while
the latter is specialised.
Summarising task: Week 2

 The term ship means a subject that has the ability to float in
water and whose purpose is to transport passengers or
cargoes safely while being economically efficient and, in the
case of warships, to support the national interests at war
times.

 The term ship refers to a buoyant structure which is able to

move on its own power using wind power or via external
means used in a wide spectrum of applications ranging from
peacekeeping to merchandise or even mineral extraction and
oil drilling.
Feedback from assignment 1: text evaluation

 The phrase ‘fit for purpose’ is used to indicate that something,

in our case a ship, must comply with international regulations
and meet specified marker requirements while being efficient
and reliable in order to optimally perform in its field of
operation.

 To be fit for purpose a ship must be able to float correctly in

order to avoid accidental sinking, it must be stable even when
the winds and the waves are particularly powerful and it must
keep the estimated speed irrespective of the conditions while
withstanding the carrying load.
 Simple (broad/formal) definitions
They usually follow this simple structure:
Concept class special features
verb form which

………… ………… …………

A reversible is a process in which the system goes
process through a series of
infinitesimally small
steps, keeping
essentially at
equilibrium all the
time.
Thermal is a condition in which no change of state
equilibrium occurs when two
objects A and B are in
contact through a
diathermic boundary.
The language of definition

Typical structures for formal definitions

Item to be defined Verb forms defining information.

(Present simple,
active and passive)

Electrophile is… an atom, molecule or ion

means… able to accept an electron
describes… pair.
may be defined as…
can be defined as…
is defined as…
Restrictive and non-restrictive clauses

 Since definitions try to narrow down the meaning of an

item, restrictive relative clauses are used in formal
definitions.

 Non-restrictive relative clauses provide extra information

about the subject of the main clause and can be used to
expand definitions.
Restrictive and non-restrictive clauses: example

 Restrictive
 Enthalpy is a state variable which is defined as the sum of the
internal energy E plus the product of pressure p and volume V.

 Non-restrictive:
 Enthalpy, which is useful in problems involving flow processes, is
a state variable which is defined as the sum of the internal
energy E plus the product of pressure p and volume V.
Examples of problems with simple definitions

 The following definition offers examples rather than

defining the term fluid.
 Both liquids and gases are fluids.
 Examples may follow the definition of a term, but they should not
replace it.

 The following definition is incomplete since it omits the

general class of the term defined.
 Enthalpy is the sum of the internal energy E plus the product
of pressure p and volume V.
 Possibly in a dictionary.
Extended definitions

 They provide more information than a simple definition.

 Facts, examples, or even images, may be employed in an

extended definition.
 The type of additional material depends on your audience
and topic.
Exemplification

 Providing examples to define a term or to illustrate a

point is particularly common in academic writing.

 Some common expressions that are used for

exemplification are:
 It is shown / exemplified / illustrated by …
 It shows / exemplifies / illustrates this. …
 For example, / instance, …
 Typical / Important examples are …
 The following are examples of …
 The following is a case in point …
 … transferable protons such as …
Generalisations

 They are very important in academic writing and are very

useful for starting off a piece of writing or a paragraph.

 They allow the writer to introduce the main properties of

a concept in one statement –the generalisation- the
details of which can then be developed in the text using:
 examples,
 classifications and
 definitions.
The language of generalisation

 Unless there is evidence to show 100% certainty,

academic writers do not tend to use absolute
generalisations.

 Instead, they use hedging expressions that reflect their

level of certainty about a statement and help them avoid
overgeneralisations.
 Remember hedging allows us to distinguish between facts and
claims.
 We use it when it is necessary to make decisions about
 our stance on a particular subject or the strength of the claims we
are making.
Hedging generalisations
Degree of Quantity Frequency Probability
certainty

Complete All always definitely will

undoubtedly is-are
must/have to

High a majority usually presumably should

many/much normally probably would
a lot (of) generally ought to
as a rule
Partial some/several possibly can
a number (of) often perhaps could
several frequently maybe may
occasionally might
a minority (of)
a few/a little
seldom
Low rarely
hardly ever
no/none/not any
never
Classifying

 Classification involves grouping elements into categories

on the basis of one or more criteria.

 It is important to explicitly mention:

 What you are classifying
 How you are classifying it
 Which groups or categories you have identified
Classifying: examples

 EM radiation is classified into types according to the

frequency of the wave. These types include, in order of
increasing frequency, radio waves, microwaves, infrared
radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and
gamma rays.

 Polymers may be further classified depending upon

whether there are single, double or triple bonds along
their backbone.
The language of classification
X can be divided into two groups. These are …
further divided into

X consists of two categories.

comprises classes.

X (may be) classified according to …

on the basis of …
It is shown by …
exemplified
illustrated

X and Y are classes of Z.

types
categories