Acoustic Phonetics

Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech and aims to analyse sound
wave signals that occur within speech through varying frequencies, amplitudes and durations.

One way we can analyse the acoustic properties of speech sounds is through looking at a
waveform. Pressure changes can be plotted on a waveform, which highlights the air particles
being compressed and rarefied, creating sound waves that spread outwards. A tuning fork
being struck can provide an example of the pressure fluctuations in the air and how the air
particles oscillate (move in one direction rhythmically) when we perceive sound.

waveform

A waveform of a vowel – Ogden 2009: 30

Some acoustic analysis…

Frequency vs Amplitude

The frequency (pitch) and amplitude (‘loudness’ or intensity) of a sound can be analysed on a
waveform. Frequency can be calculated through the number of cycles on a periodic waveform
with a repeating pattern. The higher the number of cycles per second, the higher the frequency
and perceived pitch. Frequency is usually expressed in Hertz (Hz).

Analysing the amplitude of a waveform tells us how intense or ‘loud’ a sound is, and how much
the air particles deviate. It is conventionally expressed in decibels (dB).

The x-axis on a waveform corresponds to the time frame in which the sound was produced
(usually in seconds or milliseconds), and the y-axis represents the amplitude.

Sine Waves vs Complex Waves

Sine waves are waveforms that have very simple, regular repeating patterns. The number of
‘cycles’ in the waveform (the number of complete repetitions in the period waveform) reflects
the number of times the vocal folds have opened within the time frame displayed. This is
known as the fundamental frequency (f0), which is measured in Hertz (Hz). A frequency of
200Hz means that there are 200 hundred complete cycles per second within the waveform, so
200 times the vocal folds have opened. In reality, most speech sound waves have a rather
complex pattern, and are known as complex waves. These are made up of two or more simple
sine waves, and the fundamental frequency can also be calculated on complex waveforms by
counting the number of cycles per second on a waveform.

Periodic vs Aperiodic sound waves

Sine and complex waveforms are periodic, meaning their cycles are regular and repetitive. The
types of speech sounds that would appear as a periodic sound wave are voiced sounds, such as
vowels or nasals. Since such sounds have regularly repeating waveforms, they can also be
decoded through ‘Fourier analysis’ which breaks down the component sine waves. This type of
graph is called a spectrum, which does not measure time. Instead, the x-axis measures
frequency, and the y-axis represents the sound pressure level.

The fundamental frequency on this type of graph can be worked out by selecting the lowest
frequency component of this complex wave. This is usually the first complete peak on the
spectrum. From this fundamental frequency peak, harmonics occur at evenly spaced integer
multiples. Harmonics are known as the ‘natural resonances’ within the vocal tract, which are
the amplified frequencies. On the spectrum, these correspond to each peak.

On the other hand, speech sounds can also be aperiodic when analysing them acoustically. This
means that they do not have a regular repeating pattern, rather, they have a very random
pattern meaning that a fundamental frequency cannot be calculated. This means that the
aperiodic speech sounds are voiceless, such as a voiceless fricative.

Spectrograms

Another way to analyse a sound acoustically is through looking at a spectrogram. They provide
much more complex information than what we can see on a waveform. Similarly, to
waveforms, time is displayed on the x-axis, but the y-axis measures the frequency of the sound.
Amplitude is represented by the darkness in the acoustic energy. The louder the sound, the
darker it appears on a spectrogram and is therefore more intense. Spectrograms allow us to
see the high frequency energy that comes with aperiodic sounds.

Spectrogram

A spectrogram of the word. The periodic, aperiodic and transient sounds are marked. Ogden
2009: 32

Transients vs Continuous sounds

Transients are a form of aperiodic sound. It is a sound that builds up pressure behind a closure,
and then has a sudden burst/release which shows up as a spike on a waveform. On a
spectrogram, the closure shows up as a blank space before a dark vertical band of acoustic
energy to represent the release. A typical transient sound would be a plosive, such as [p] or [b]
in the English sound system.

Continuous sounds are another form of aperiodicity. Unlike a voiced vowel sound, this would
show up as an irregular, random pattern on the waveform. On the spectrogram, this would be
represented by high frequency acoustic energy, which is dark and intense, and therefore has
high amplitude. This is typical of many voiceless fricatives, such as [f] and [s] in the English
sound system.

Voicing on a spectrogram

As established earlier, voiced sound are periodic signals. A fundamental frequency can be
calculated due to the regular openings of the vocal folds as they vibrate. On a waveform, this
would be highlighted by a periodic sound wave. On a spectrogram, there are two specific visual
elements to look out for, which resemble a voiced sound. The first is the vertical striations
(they look like vertical wavy lines on the spectrogram), which correspond to this opening of the
vocal folds, and when air flows through them every time. The other visual clue is the dark
horizontal bands which are typical of vowels, approximants and nasals. These are called
formants, which are the natural resonances of the vocal tract (earlier, they were described as
harmonics). The size and shape of the vocal tract can be modified to allow these formants to
vary. This can be done by changing the tongue position, lip position, etc.

Adapted from: Ogden, R. (2009) An introduction to English Phonetics, Oxford: Oxford University
Press, p. 30-35.

Types of Wave

A simple wave be described by the mathematical sine function showing a simple oscillation. A
complex wave is made up of at least two sine waves added together.

Waves may differ in their complexity, while sharing a fundamental frequency. For example,
both the complex red wave and the simple blue wave have an F0 of 100 Hz

The specific shape of a complex wave may not affect our perception of the pitch of that sound,
but it does effect the overall quality.

Each of the waves here differ in their complexity, but all have the same F0.

While simple waves are always periodic, meaning that they repeat at regular intervals, complex
waves may be either periodic or aperiodic

Complex periodic waves have a repeating pattern, and we can use that pattern to calculate the
fundamental frequency.

Complex aperiodic waves do not have any pattern to their oscillations, and therefore will not
have an F0.

Complex waves may also be either continuous or transient.

Transient waves are always aperiodic, while continuous waves may be either periodic or
aperiodic.

Here we have examples of continuous and transient waves both in speech and non-speech. in
the upper left we have a continuous wave represented a continuous oscillation of a vowel.

In the lower left, we have continuous aperiodic wave represented white noise.

In the upper right we have a transient aperiodic wave representing the strike of a hammer.
And in the bottom right, we have a transient aperiodic wave representing the burst of an
unaspirated [t].

We can use these concepts of periodic, aperiodic, transient and continuous to describe major
classes of speech sounds in the waveform.

For example, this waveform of a man saying “scan it” is made up of an aperiodic continuous
sound, followed by a transient sound, followed by three periodic continuous sounds with
different complexities, and finished by another (low amplitude) transient sound.

These various sound waves correspond to major classes of speech sounds, namely fricative,
plosive, vowel, and nasal. As a result, the waveform of “Scan it!” is visually similar to the
waveform of “Spoon up!”, which is made of the same major classes in the same order.