SVCE TIRUPATI

COURSE MATERIAL

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND

SUBJECT TRANSMISSION LINES (19A04401)

UNIT 3

COURSE B.TECH

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

DEPARTMENT ENGINEERING

SEMESTER 22

PREPARED BY MS. D Srilatha

(Faculty Name/s) Assistant Professor

Version V-1

PREPARED / REVISED DATE 24-05-2021

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TABLE OF CONTENTS – UNIT 1

S. NO CONTENTS PAGE NO.
1 COURSE OBJECTIVES 1
2 PREREQUISITES 1
3 SYLLABUS 1
4 COURSE OUTCOMES 1
5 CO - PO/PSO MAPPING 1
6 LESSON PLAN 2
7 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING 2
8 LECTURE NOTES 2
3.1 Boundary conditions of EM fields 2
3.2 Wave equations for conducting & perfect dielectric media 9
3.3 Conductors & Dielectrics - Characterization 13
3.4 Wave propagation in good dielectrics 14
3.5 Wave propagation in free space 15
3.6 Wave propagation in good conductors 17
3.7 Polarization 19
9 PRACTICE QUIZ 22
10 ASSIGNMENTS 24
11 PART A QUESTIONS & ANSWERS (2 MARKS QUESTIONS) 24
12 PART B QUESTIONS 26
13 SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES 27
14 REAL TIME APPLICATIONS 27
15 CONTENTS BEYOND THE SYLLABUS 27
16 PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE BOOKS 27
17 MINI PROJECT SUGGESTION 28

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1. COURSE OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this course is to
1. Introduce fundamentals of static and time varying electromagnetic fields.
2. Teach problem solving in Electromagnetic fields using vector calculus.
3. Demonstrate wave concept with the help of Maxwell's equations.
4. Introduce concepts of polarization and fundamental theory of Electromagnetic
waves in transmission lines and their practical applications.
5. Analyze reflection and refraction of Electromagnetic waves propagated in
normal and oblique incidences.

2. PREREQUISITES
Students should have knowledge on
1. Physics
2. Engineering Mathematics

3. SYLLABUS
UNIT III
Boundary conditions of Electromagnetic fields: Dielectric-Dielectric and Dielectric-
Conductor interfaces, wave equations for conducting and perfect dielectric media,
Uniform plane waves- definitions, all relations between E & H, sinusoidal variations,
wave propagation in lossless and conducting media, conductors & dielectrics -
characterization, wave propagation in good conductors and good dielectrics,
Polarization, illustrative problems.

4. COURSE OUTCOMES
1 Understand the concept of wave propagation through the Maxwell's equations.
2 Derive wave equations for different media.
3 Explain concept of polarization of electromagnetic wave.

5. CO-PO / PSO Mapping

PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 P10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2

CO1 3 3 2 2 2 2

CO2 3 3 2 2 2 2

CO3 3 3 2 2 2 2

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6. LESSON PLAN

Lecture No. Weeks Topics to be covered References

1 Electric field boundary conditions T1, R2

2 Magnetic field boundary conditions T1, R2

1
3 Wave equation for conducting dielectric medium T1, R2

4 Wave equation for perfect dielectric medium T1, R2

5 Uniform plane waves, All relations between E and H T1, R2

6 Conductors and dielectrics-characterization T1, R2

2
7 Wave propagation in perfect dielectric and free space T1, R2

8 Wave propagation in good conductors and polarization T1, R2

7. ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

1. Technical Quiz.
2. Seminars.

8. LECTURE NOTES
3.1 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
3.1.1 Electric Boundary Conditions
If the field exists in a region consisting of two different media, the conditions that
the field must satisfy at the interface separating the media are called Boundary
conditions. These conditions are helpful in determining the field on one side of the
boundary if the field on the other side is known. The conditions will be dictated by
the types of material the media are made of. We will consider the boundary
conditions at an interface separating
1. Dielectric (εr1) and dielectric (εr2)
2. Conductor and dielectric
3. Conductor and free space
Dielectric-Dielectric Boundary Conditions
Consider the electric field E field existing in a region that consists of two different
dielectrics characterized by (εr1) and (εr2) as shown in figure below.

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Figure 3.1: Dielectric-dielectric boundary

The fields E1 and E2 in media 1 and media 2 can be decomposed as

Consider the closed path abcda in the above figure. Assuming that the path is very
small with respect to the spatial variation of E and applying the maxwell's equation,

we obtain

Thus the tangential components of E are the same on the two sides of the
boundary. In other words Et undergoes no change on the boundary and is said to be
continuous across the boundary. Since,

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we can write

So, Dt undergoes some change across the interface. Hence Dt is said to be

discontinuous across the interface.
Consider a cylindrical gaussian surface (pill box) shown in figure 3.1 with height Δh
and with top and bottom surface areas Δs. Applying Gauss's law to the surface, we
get

The contribution due to the sides vanishes and allowing Δh—>0 gives

where ρs is the free surface charge density placed deliberately at the boundary. If no
free charges exist at the interface i.e., if charges are not deliberately placed at the
boundary, then ρs =0 and the equation becomes

or

Thus the normal component of D is continuous across the interface. That is Dn

undergoes no change at the boundary. Since D = εE, the above equation can be
written as

or

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The above equation shows that the normal component of E is discontinuous at the
boundary. The equations 1, 2, 3 and 4 are collectively referred to as boundary
conditions. These equations must be satisfied by the electric field at the boundary
separating two different dielectrics.
We can use the boundary conditions to determine the "refraction" of the electric
field across the interface. Consider D1 or E1 and D2 or E2 making angles θ1 and θ2 with
the normal to the interface as illustrated in below figure.

Figure 3.2: Refraction of D & E at a dielectric-dielectric boundary

From equation 1 we have,

or

similarly,

or

dividing equation A by equation B, we get

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since ε1 = ε0εr1 and ε2 = ε0εr2 , the above equation becomes,

This is the "Law of Refraction" of electric field at a boundary free of charge.

Conductor-Dielectric Boundary Conditions
The conductor is assumed to be perfect and the case is illustrated in the below
figure.

Figure 3.3: Conductor-dielectric boundary

Consider the closed path abcda in the above figure. Assuming that the path is very
small with respect to the spatial variation of E and applying the maxwell's equation,

E inside a conductor is equal to zero i.e., E = 0. substituting this, the above equation
becomes

As Δh —> 0,

Similarly we get,

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Because D = εE = 0 inside the conductor, the above equation becomes,

or

Thus under static conditions, the following conclusions can be made about a perfect
conductor.
1. No electric field may exist within a conductor , ρv = 0, E = 0.
2. Since E = -▼v = 0, there can be no potential difference between any two points
in the conductor, that is a conductor is an equipotential body.
3. An electric field E must be external to the conductor and must be normal to its
surface, that is

Conductor-Free Space Boundary Conditions

This is a special case of conductor-dielectric condition. The boundary conditions
at the interface between a conductor and free space can be obtained by
replacing εr = 1. The electric field E must be external to the conductor and normal to
its surface. Thus the boundary conditions are

The conductor-free space boundary conditions is illustrated in the below figure.

Figure 3.4: Conductor-free space boundary

3.1.2 Magnetic Boundary Conditions
Magnetic boundary conditions are the conditions that H or B fields must satisfy at
the boundary between two different media. To derive these boundary conditions we
use Gauss's law for magnetic fields

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and Ampere's circuital law

Consider the boundary between two magnetic media 1 and 2, characterized,

respectively by μ1 and μ2 as shown in figure below.

Figure 3.5: Boundary condition between two magnetic media

Applying Gauss's law to the gaussian surface (pill box) and allowing Δh —>0,

Thus

1
or

The above equation shows that the normal component of B is continuous at the
boundary and the normal component of H is discontinuous at the boundary. H
undergoes some change at the boundary.
Similarly applying Ampere's circuital law to the closed path abcda, where surface
current K on the boundary is assumed normal to the path. We obtain

As Δh —>0, the above equation leads to

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This shows that the tangential component of H is also discontinuous. The above
equation in terms of B can be written as

In general it can be written as

where an12 is the unit vector normal to the interface and is directed from medium 1 to
medium 2. If the boundary is free of current or the media are not conductors, K=0
then,

or

Thus the tangential component of H is continuous while that of B is discontinuous at

the boundary. The equations 1, 2, 3 and 4 are referred to as magnetic boundary
conditions.
If the fields make an angle θ with the normal to the interface, equations 1 and 2
results in

A
while equations 3 and 4 results in

Dividing equation B by A,

The above equation is referred to as "Law of Refraction of Magnetic Field".

3.2 Wave Equations for Conducting and Perfect Dielectric Media

In general waves, are means of transporting energy or information. Typical
examples of Electromagnetic (EM) waves are radio waves, TV signals, radar beams

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and light rays. All forms of EM energy share three fundamental characteristics: they
all travel at high velocity; while travelling, they assume the properties of waves; and
they radiate outward from a source. A wave is a function of both space and time.
Wave propagation in lossy dielectrics is a general case from which wave
propagation in media of other types can be derived as special cases. A lossy
dielectric is a medium in which an EM wave, as it propagates, loses power owing to
imperfect dielectric. A lossy dielectric is a partially conducting medium with σ ≠0.
Consider a linear, isotropic, homogeneous, lossy dielectric medium that is charge
free (ρv =0). The modified Maxwell's equations in frequency domain are
1. ▼.D = 0 or ▼.E = 0
2. ▼.B = 0 or ▼.H = 0
3. ▼XE = -(𝜕𝑩 / 𝜕𝑡) = -jωμH
4. ▼XH = J + (𝜕𝑫 / 𝜕𝑡) = E[σ+jωε]
Taking curl on both sides for 3 equation

Applying the below vector identity

on left hand side of the above equation and invoking 1 and 4, we get

or

1
where

and 𝛾 is called the intrinsic propagation constant of the medium.

Similarly we can show

2
Equations 1 and 2 are known as homogeneous vector Helmholtz's equations or simply
vector wave equations.
The propagation constant 𝛾 is a complex quantity and therefore can be written as

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By simplification

Without loss of generality, if we assume that a wave propagates in an unbounded

medium along az and that E has only x-component that does not vary with x and y,
then

Hence

or

This is a scalar wave equation, a linear homogeneous differential equation, with

solution

We assume wave propagation along positive z-direction, therefore the second term
in the above equation becomes zero. And inserting the time factor eiwt , (Sinusoidal
variations) we get

or

A sketch of |E|at times t=0 and t=Δt is illustrated in the figure below.

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Figure 3.6: E field along az at t=0 and t=Δt

Similarly we can obtain

where

and η is a complex quantity known as the intrinsic impedance of the medium in

ohms. And it can be shown that

with

where

And therefore

or

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As the wave propagates along az , it decreases or attenuates in amplitude by a
factor e- z, hence is known as the attenuation constant or attenuation coefficient
of the medium and is measured in nepers per meter (Np/m) and can be expressed in
decibels per meter (dB/m). An attenuation of 1 neper denotes a reduction to e-1 of
the original value.
If σ =0, as is the case for a lossless medium and free space, =0 and the wave is
not attenuated as it propagates. The quantity β is a measure of the phase shift per
unit length in radians per meter and is called the phase constant or wave number. In
terms of β, the wave velocity u and wavelength λ are

E and H are out of phase by θη at any instant of time due to the complex intrinsic
impedance of the medium. Thus at any time E leads H by θη.
If the phase ωt is same for all points on a plane surface, then it is called Plane
Wave.
If the phase ωt is same for all points on a plane surface and if the amplitude is also
constant over the plane surface then it is known as Uniform Plane Wave.

3.3 Conductors & Dielectrics - Characterization

The ratio of the magnitude of the conduction current density Jc to that of the
displacement current density Jd in a lossy medium is

or

Where tanθ is known as the loss tangent and θ is the loss angle of the medium as
illustrated in figure below.
Although a line of demarcation between good conductors and lossy dielectrics is
not easy to make, tanθ or θ may be used to determine how lossy a medium is. A
medium is said to be a good or lossless or perfect dielectric if tanθ is very small or a
good conductor if tanθ is very large. we can deduce

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Figure 3.7: Loss angle of a lossy medium

and

where

or

with

where εc is called the complex permittivity of the medium. And we can observe

3.4 Wave Propagation in Good (or lossless or perfect) Dielectrics

In a lossless dielectric

and

Substituting these in the expressions of and β will yield

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Also

Thus E and H are in time phase with each other in a perfect dielectric.

3.5 Wave Propagation in Free Space

Free space is a dielectric with εr =1. In this case

Substituting these in the expressions of and β will yield

and

where c ≈ 3x108 m/s, is the speed of light in vacuum. The fact that EM waves travel in
free space at the speed of light is significant. It provides some evidence that light is
manifestation of an EM wave. Similarly substituting the values in the expression of η,
we get

and

where η0 is called the intrinsic impedance of free space and is given by

and

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The plots of E and H are shown in figure below.

Figure 3.8: Plot of E and H as a function of z at t=0

In general, if aE, aH, aK are unit vectors along E field, H field and the direction of
propagation respectively then, it can be shown that

or

or

Both E and H fields or EM waves are everywhere normal to the direction of wave
propagation. That means the fields lie in a plane that is transverse or orthogonal to
the direction of wave propagation. Such a wave is called a Transverse
Electromagnetic Wave (TEM Wave). A combination of E and H is called a uniform
plane wave because E or H has the same magnitude throughout any transverse
plane, defined by z=constant. The direction in which the electric field points is the
polarization of a TEM wave. The wave in the figure 3.8 is polarized in the x-direction.
This can be observed in the below figure which illustrates uniform plane wave.

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Figure 3.9: Uniform plan wave

3.6 Wave Propagation in Good Conductors

A perfect or good conductor is one in which σ >> ωε, that is

Hence the values of and β will be

and

Thus E leads H by 450. η is a complex quantity and it is defined as the surface

impedance for a good conductor. If

then

Therefore, as the E or H wave travels in a conducting medium, its amplitude is

attenuated by the factor e- z. The distance δ through which the wave amplitude
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decreases to a factor e-1 (about 37% of the original value) is called skin depth or
depth of penetration of the medium. That is

comparing both sides

The skin depth is a measure of the depth to which an EM wave can penetrate the
medium. For good conductors

Skin depth is illustrated in the figure 3.10. For a partially conducting medium, the skin
depth can be quite large. And for a good conductor

For good conductors we can write

Above equation shows that δ measures the exponential damping of the wave as it
travels through the conductor.

Figure 3.10: Illustration of skin depth

The phenomenon where by field intensity in a conductor rapidly decreases is known
as the skin effect. It is a tendency of charges to migrate from the bulk of the
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conducting material to the surface, resulting in higher resistance. The skin depth is
useful in calculating the ac resistance due to skin effect. The dc resistance of a
conductor is given by

The surface or skin resistance Rs in ohms is defined as the real part of η for a good
conductor. Thus

This is the resistance of a unit width and unit length of the conductor. Consider the
below figure,

Figure 3.11: Skin depth at higher frequencies

Thus for a given width w and length l, the ac resistance is

where S=δw. For a conductor wire of radius a, w=2πa

Since δ<<a at higher frequencies, this shows that Rac is far greater than Rdc.

3.7 Polarization
Any EM wave is commonly described by its polarization. Polarization is an
important property of an EM wave and the concept has been developed to
describe the various types of electric field variation and orientation. The polarization

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of an EM wave depends on the transmitting antenna or source. It is determined by
the direction of the electric field for fields having more than one component.
Polarization may be regarded as the locus of the tip of the electric field (in a plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation) at a given point as a function of time.
There are three types of polarizations:
1. Linear or plane polarization
2. Circular polarization
3. Elliptical polarization
Linear polarization: A uniform plane wave is linearly polarized if it has only one
component or when its transverse components are in phase. In other words, if the tip
of the electric field vector traces a straight line, then the wave is said to be linearly
polarized. For a wave traveling in the +z direction, the different polarizations are
depicted in the below figure and may have

Figure 3.12: Linear polarization

Ex = E0x cos(ωt-βz+φx)
Ey = E0y cos(ωt-βz+φy)
where E0x and E0y are real components. The composite wave
E = E0x cos(ωt-βz+φx) ax + E0y cos(ωt-βz+φy) ay
is linearly polarized when the phase difference
Δφ = φx - φy = nπ, n=0,1,2......
Linearly polarized plane waves can be generated by simple antennas such as dipole
antennas or lasers.
Circular polarization: Circular polarization takes place when the x and y components
are the same in magnitude (E0x = E0y = E0) and the phase difference between them is
an odd multiple of π/2, that is,

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𝜋
Δφ = φx - φy = ±(2n+1) 2 , n=0, 1, 2, ....

For example, the x- and y- components may be of the form

Ex = E0 cos(ωt-βz)
Ey = E0 cos(ωt-βz+π/2)
If the tip of the electric field vector traces out a circle in the plane normal to the
direction of wave polarization then the wave is said to be circularly polarized. In
circular polarization the fields rotate at a constant rate in a plane as the wave
travels. The rotation can have two possible directions. If the fields rotate in a right
hand sense (clock wise direction) with respect to the direction of wave travel it is
called right hand circular polarization. similarly is the fields rotate in a left hand sense
(anti-clock wise direction) with respect to the direction of wave travel it is called left
hand circular polarization. Right and left circularly polarization is shown in figure
below.

Figure 3.13: Circular polarization

Left hand circularly polarized wave will be of the form

E = E0 cos(ωt-βz) ax - E0 cos(ωt-βz+π/2) ay
and right hand circularly polarized wave will be of the form
E = E0 cos(ωt-βz) ax + E0 cos(ωt-βz+π/2) ay
Elliptical polarization: An elliptically polarized wave is one in which the tip of the field
traces an elliptic locus in a fixed transverse plane as the field changes with time.
Elliptical polarization is achieved when the x- and y- components are not equal in
magnitude (E0x ≠ E0y) and the phase difference between them is an odd multiple of
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π/2
𝜋
Δφ = φx - φy = ±(2n+1) 2 , n=0, 1, 2, ....

This allows the tip of the electric field to trace an ellipse in the xy-plane. An elliptically
polarized wave is shown in below figure. In elliptical polarization also the fields rotate
at a constant rate in a plane as the wave travels. The rotation can have two possible
directions. If the fields rotate in a right hand sense (clock wise direction) with respect
to the direction of wave travel it is called right hand elliptical polarization and will be
in the form
E = E1 cos(ωt-βz) ax + E2 cos(ωt-βz+π/2) ay
similarly is the fields rotate in a left hand sense (anti-clock wise direction) with respect
to the direction of wave travel it is called left hand elliptical polarization and will be of
the form
E = E1 cos(ωt-βz) ax - E2 cos(ωt-βz+π/2) ay

Figure 3.14: Elliptical polarization

9. PRACTICE QUIZ

1. The tangential component of E is ____

a) continuous
b) discontinous
c) 0
d) ∞

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2. The law of refraction of electric field is
a) tan θ1 εr1 = tan θ2 εr2
b) tan θ1 εr2 = tan θ2 εr1
c) tan θ1 tan θ2 = εr1 εr2
d) tan θ1 = tan θ2
3. For free space εr =
a) 0
b) infinity
c) 10
d) one
4. The electric field inside a conductor is zero
a) True
b) False
5. The tangential component of H is ____ across the boundary.
a) discontinuous
b) continuous
c) zero
d) none
6. An EM wave is a function of
a) space only
b) time only
c) both space and time
d) neither space nor time
7. In a lossless medium =
a) 1
b) 0
c) infinity
d) undefined
8. A medium is said to be a perfect dielectric if tan θ is
a) 1
b) 0
c) very large
d) very small
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9. In a perfect dielectric E & H are
a) parallel
b) out of phase
c) in phase
d) none
10. Speed of light in vaccume is
a) 108 m/s
b) 30 x 108 m/s
c) 3 x 109 m/s
d) 3 x 108 m/s

10. Assignments

S.No Question BL CO
1 Derive electromagnetic boundary conditions. 2 1

2 Derive wave equation for a lossy dielectric 2 1

3 Explain wave propagation in perfect conductor 2 1

4 Write a short notes on polarization. 2 1

11. Part A- QUESTION & ANSWERS

S.No Question& Answers BL CO

1 Write the Maxwell's equations.

Ans: 1. ▼.D = 0 or ▼.E = 0

2. ▼.B = 0 or ▼.H = 0
1 1
3. ▼XE = -(𝜕𝑩 / 𝜕𝑡) = -jωμH
4. ▼XH = J + (𝜕𝑫 / 𝜕𝑡) = E[σ+jωε]

2 Define attenuation constant .

1 1
Ans: As the wave propagates along az , it decreases or attenuates
in amplitude by a factor e- z, hence is known as the attenuation

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constant or attenuation coefficient of the medium and is
measured in nepers per meter (Np/m).

3 Define phase constant β.

Ans: The quantity β is a measure of the phase shift per unit length 1
1
in radians per meter and is called the phase constant or wave
number.
4 Explain uniform plane waves.
Ans: If the phase ωt is same for all points on a plane surface and if 1
1
the amplitude is also constant over the plane surface then it is
known as Uniform Plane Wave
5 List the characteristics of wave in free space?
Ans: Free space is a dielectric with εr =1. In this case

Substituting these in the expressions of and β will yield

1 1

and

6 Explain loss tangent and loss angle.

Ans: The ratio of the magnitude of the conduction current density Jc to

that of the displacement current density Jd in a lossy medium is

1 1
or

Where tanθ is known as the loss tangent and θ is the loss angle of
the medium

7 What is a TEM wave.

Ans: Both E and H fields or EM waves are everywhere normal to 1 1

the direction of wave propagation. That means the fields lie in a
plane that is transverse or orthogonal to the direction of wave

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propagation. Such a wave is called a Transverse Electromagnetic
Wave (TEM Wave).

8 Define skin depth.

Ans: The distance δ through which the wave amplitude decreases 1

1
to a factor e-1 (about 37% of the original value) is called skin
depth or depth of penetration of the medium.

9 Define skin effect.

Ans: The phenomenon where by field intensity in a conductor 1
1
rapidly decreases is known as the skin effect.

10 Define skin resistance.

Ans: The surface or skin resistance Rs in ohms is defined as the real part
of η for a good conductor. Thus
1 1

11 What is polarization.

Ans: Polarization may be regarded as the locus of the tip of the 1 1

electric field (in a plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation) at a given point as a function of time.

12. PART B- QUESTIONS

S.No Question BL CO

1 Derive the conditions that must be satisfied by the electric 2 1

field at the boundary separating two different dielectric
media.

2 Derive magnetic boundary conditions 2 1

3 Derive wave equations in a lossy dielectric medium 2 1

4 Explain wave propagation in perfect dielectric 2 1

5 Explain wave propagation in free space 2 1

6 Derive the wave characteristics in a perfect conductor 2 1

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7 Write a note on polarization 2 1

13. Supportive Online Certification Courses

1. Electromagnetic theory by Prof. Pradeep Kumar, conducted by IIT Kharagpur - 12

weeks

14. Real Time Applications

S.No Application CO

60 GHz Technology
1
The next generation wireless technology namely 60 GHz can provide
wireless connectivity for short distances between electronic devices
2
at speeds in the multi-gigabyte-per-second range. With the strides in
process technologies and low cost integration solutions, academia,
Industry, and standardization bodies also turned to mm wave
technology.
2 Electromagnetic therapy 2

The electromagnetic therapy is an alternate form of medicine which

claims to treat disease by applying pulsed electromagnetic fields or
electromagnetic radiation to the body. This type of treatments is
used for wide range of ailments such as nervous disorders, diabetes,
spinal cord injuries, ulcers, asthma, etc.

15. Contents Beyond the Syllabus

1. Time varying potentials.

16. Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

1. Text Books :
1. Matthew N.O. Sadiku, "Elements of Electromagnetics", 4th edition, Oxford
Univ. Press 2008.
2. William H. Hayt Jr. and John A. Buck, "Engineering Electromagnetics", 7th
edition., TMH, 2006.

2. References:
1. E.C. Jordan and K.G. Balmain, "Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating
SyBehzad Razatems", 2nd edition, PHI, 2000.

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2. John D. Krauss, "Electromagnetics", 4th edition, McGraw-Hill publication
1999.
3. Electromagnetics, Schaum's outline series, 2nd edition, Tata McGraw-Hill
publications, 2006.

17. MINI PROJECT SUGGESTION

1. Electro-magnetic propulsion system

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