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Foreword
Braking systems have been continuously developed and improved throughout the last
years. Major milestones were the introduction of antilock braking system (ABS) and
electronic stability program. This reference book provides a detailed description of
braking components and how they interact in electronic braking systems.
Complex technology of modern motor vehicles and increasing functions need a relia-
ble source of information to understand the components or systems. The rapid and
secure access to these informations in the field of Automotive Electrics and Electron-
ics provides the book in the series “Bosch Professional Automotive Information”
which contains necessary fundamentals, data and explanations clearly, systemati-
cally, currently and application-oriented. The series is intended for automotive pro-
fessionals in practice and study which need to understand issues in their area of work.
It provides simultaneously the theoretical tools for understanding as well as the appli-
cations.
VI Contents
Contents
Authors
Active steering
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Wolfgang Rieger,
ZF Lenksysteme, Schwäbisch Gmünd, Germany.
Motor-vehicle safety
In addition to the components of the drive- tion, these safety systems are also referred to
train (engine, transmission), which provide as active safety systems.
the vehicle with its means of forward motion,
the vehicle systems that limit movement and The motor-vehicle safety systems that are
retard the vehicle also have an important role found on the most up-to-date vehicles sub-
to play. Without them, safe use of the vehicle stantially improve their safety.
in road traffic would not be possible. Further-
more, systems that protect vehicle occupants The brakes are an essential component of
in the event of an accident are also becoming a motor vehicle. They are indispensable for
increasingly important. safe use of the vehicle in road traffic. At the
slow speeds and with the small amount of
Safety systems traffic that were encountered in the early
years of motoring, the demands placed on
There are a many factors that affect vehicle the braking system were far less exacting
safety in road traffic situations: than they are today. Over the course of time,
쐌 the condition of the vehicle (e.g. level of braking systems have become more and
equipment, condition of tires, component more highly developed. In the final analysis,
wear), the high speeds that cars can be driven at
쐌 the weather, road surface and traffic condi- today are only possible because there are
tions (e.g. side winds, type of road surface reliable braking systems which are capable
and density of traffic), and of slowing down the vehicle and bringing it
쐌 the capabilities of the driver, i.e. his/her safely to a halt even in hazardous situations.
driving skills and physical and mental con- Consequently, the braking system is a key
dition. part of a vehicle’s safety systems.
In the past, it was essentially only the braking As in all other areas of automotive engineer-
system (apart, of course, from the vehicle ing, electronics have also become established
lights) consisting of brake pedal, brake in the safety systems. The demands now
lines and wheel brakes that contributed placed on safety systems can only be met
to vehicle safety. Over the course of time with the aid of electronic equipment.
though, more and more systems that actively
intervene in braking-system operation have
been added. Because of their active interven-
Road safety
Operational response
Visibility
Controls External safety Internal safety
æ LKI0018-1E
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_1, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Motor-vehicle safety Safety systems 3
Fig. 1
1 Motor-vehicle safety systems
1 Wheel brake
with brake disk
2 Wheel-speed
8 sensor
3 Gas inflator for
8
foot airbag
7
4 ESP control unit
7 (with ABS and
TCS function)
6
4 16 5 Gas inflator for
7 2 knee airbag
5 6 17 1 6 Gas inflators
1 2 3 5 7 16 18 for driver and
10 15
passenger airbags
12 18 (2-stage)
14 7 Gas inflator for
13 11 16 side airbag
9 2 8 Gas inflator for
head airbag
3
13 1 9 ESP hydraulic
12 modulator
10 Steering-angle
æ UKI0046Y
sensor
11 Airbag control unit
12 Upfront sensor
13 Precrash sensor
14 Brake booster with
Active safety systems Passive safety systems master cylinder
These systems help to prevent accidents These systems are designed to protect vehicle and brake pedal
and thus make a preventative contribution to occupants from serious injury in the event of 15 Parking brake lever
road safety. Examples of active vehicle safety an accident. They reduce the risk of injury 16 Acceleration
sensor
systems include and thus the severity of the consequences of
17 Sensor mat for
쐌 ABS (Antilock Braking System), an accident. seat-occupant
쐌 TCS (Traction Control System), and detection
쐌 ESP (Electronic Stability Program). Examples of passive safety systems are the 18 Seat belt with
seat-belts required by law, and airbags – seat-belt tightener
These safety systems stabilize the vehicle’s which can now be fitted in various positions
handling response in critical situations and inside the vehicle such as in front of or at the
thus maintain its steerability. side of the occupants.
Apart from their contribution to vehicle Fig. 1 illustrates the safety systems and
safety, systems such as Adaptive Cruise components that are found on modern-day
Control (ACC) essentially offer added conve- vehicles equipped with the most advanced
nience by maintaining the distance from the technology.
vehicle in front by automatically throttling
back the engine or applying the brakes.
4 Motor-vehicle safety Basics of vehicle operation
Visibility
DisturbanceÊvalue
Destination
Influences
ReferenceÊ
variableÊ Obstacle
desiredÊ DisturbanceÊvalue Engine ESP Brakes
value
MotiveÊforce
æ UAF0041-1E
RoadÊproperties BrakingÊforce
ControlledÊvariables
VerticalÊforce VerticalÊforce
DisturbanceÊvalue DisturbanceÊvalue
Motor-vehicle safety Basics of vehicle operation 5
enced drivers concentrate most of their at- The designer’s response to critical driving
tention on the stabilization aspect of driving. conditions must thus be to foster “pre-
When an unforeseen development arises dictable” vehicle behavior during operation
for driver and vehicle (such as an unexpect- at physical limits and in extreme situations.
edly sharp curve in combination with re- A range of parameters (wheel speed, lateral
stricted vision, etc.), the former may react in- acceleration, yaw velocity, etc.) can be moni-
correctly, and the latter can respond by going tored for processing in one or several elec-
into a skid. Under these circumstances, the tronic control units (ECUs). This capability
vehicle responds non-linearly and trans- forms the basis of a concept for virtually
gresses beyond its physical stability limits, immediate implementation of suitable re-
so that the driver can no longer anticipate sponse strategies to enhance driver control of
the line it will ultimately take. In such cases, it critical processes.
is impossible for either the novice or the ex- The following situations and hazards pro-
perienced driver to retain control over his/her vide examples of potential “limit conditions”:
vehicle. 쐌 changes in prevailing road and/or weather
conditions,
Accident causes and prevention 쐌 “conflicts of interest” with other road users,
Human error is behind the vast majority 쐌 animals and/or obstructions on the road,
of all road accidents resulting in injury. and
Accident statistics reveal that driving at an in- 쐌 a sudden defect (tire blow-out, etc.) on the
appropriate speed is the primary cause for vehicle.
most accidents. Other accident sources are
쐌 incorrect use of the road, Critical traffic situations
쐌 failure to maintain the safety margin to the The one salient factor that distinguishes criti-
preceding vehicle, cal traffic situations is abrupt change, such as
쐌 errors concerning right-of-way and traffic the sudden appearance of an unexpected ob-
priority, stacle or a rapid change in road-surface condi-
쐌 errors occurring when making turns, and tions. The problem is frequently compounded
쐌 driving under the influence of alcohol. by operator error. Owing to lack of experi-
ence, a driver who is travelling too fast or is
Technical deficiencies (lighting, tires, brakes, not concentrating on the road will not be able
etc.) and defects related to the vehicle in gen- to react with the judicious and rational re-
eral are cited with relative rarity as accident sponse that the circumstances demand.
sources. Accident causes beyond the control Because drivers only rarely experience this
of the driver more frequently stem from other kind of critical situation, they usually fail to
factors (such as weather). recognize how close evasive action or a brak-
These facts demonstrate the urgency of ing maneuver has brought them to the vehi-
continuing efforts to enhance and extend the cle’s physical limits. They do not grasp how
scope of automotive safety technology (with much of the potential adhesion between tires
special emphasis on the associated electronic and road surface has already been “used up”
systems). Improvements are needed to and fail to perceive that the vehicle may be at
쐌 provide the driver with optimal support in its maneuverability limit or about to skid off
critical situations, the road. The driver is not prepared for this
쐌 prevent accidents in the first place, and and reacts either incorrectly or too precipi-
쐌 reduce the severity of accidents when they tously. The ultimate results are accidents and
do occur. scenaria that pose threats to other road users.
6 Motor-vehicle safety Basics of vehicle operation
These factors are joined by still other potential A vehicle’s handling, braking and overall
accident sources including outdated technol- dynamic response are influenced by its struc-
ogy and deficiencies in infrastructure (badly ture and design.
designed roads, outdated traffic-guidance Handling and braking responses define the
concepts). vehicle’s reactions to driver inputs (at steering
wheel, accelerator pedal, brakes, etc.) as do
Terms such as “improvements in vehicle re- external interference factors (road-surface
sponse” and “support for the driver in critical condition, wind, etc.).
situations” are only meaningful if they refer to
mechanisms that produce genuine long-term Good handling is characterized by the ability
reductions in both the number and severity of to precisely follow a given course and thus
accidents. Lowering or removing the risk from comply in full with driver demand.
these critical situations entails executing diffi- The driver’s responsibilities include:
cult driving maneuvers including 쐌 adapting driving style to reflect traffic and
쐌 rapid steering inputs including counter- road conditions,
steering, 쐌 compliance with applicable traffic laws and
쐌 lane changes during emergency braking, regulations,
쐌 maintaining precise tracking while negoti- 쐌 following the optimal course as defined by
ating curves at high speeds and in the face the road’s geometry as closely as possible,
of changes in the road surface. and
쐌 guiding the vehicle with foresight and
These kinds of maneuvers almost always pro- circumspection.
voke a critical response from the vehicle, i.e.,
lack of tire traction prevents the vehicle react- The driver pursues these objectives by
ing in the way that the driver would normally continuously adapting the vehicle’s position
expect; it deviates from the desired course. and motion to converge with a subjective
Due to lack of experience in these borderline conception of an ideal status. The driver relies
situations, the driver is frequently unable to upon personal experience to anticipate devel-
regain active control of the vehicle, and often opments and adapt to instantaneous traffic
panics or overreacts. Evasive action serves as an conditions.
example. After applying excessive steering input
in the moment of initial panic, this driver then
countersteers with even greater zeal in an at-
tempt to compensate for his initial error. Ex- 2 Overall system of “driver – vehicle – environment”
as a closed control loop
tended sequences of steering and countersteer-
ing with progressively greater input angles then
lead to a loss of control over the vehicle, which
Actual course: resulting driving behavior
External
responds by breaking into a skid. disturbance
values
and braking response
Phase 4:
Steering to the right
1 Phase 5:
2
End of test
10 Motor-vehicle safety Basics of vehicle operation
Fig. 4
tR Reaction time
through the engine and drivetrain must
tU Conversion time always be applied to the vehicle as a basic Per- Hazard Start of braking Vehicle
condition for changes in the magnitude ception recognition (calculated) stationary
tA Response time
tS Pressure buildup and direction of its motion.
Motor-vehicle safety Basics of vehicle operation 11
requires a high degree of skill and circum- is triggered when “overbraking” on slippery
spection on the part of the driver. road surfaces, or by extreme yaw rates on
Jack-knifing is also a danger when tractor- µ-split surfaces (with different friction
trailer combinations are braked in extreme sit- coefficients at the center and on the shoulder
uations. This process is characterized by a loss of the lane). Jack-knifing can be avoided with
of lateral traction at the tractor’s rear axle and the aid of antilock braking systems (ABS).
➜
Short reaction time ➜ Long reaction time
7
6
Fig. 1
5 8
11 Rim bead seat
12 Hump 4
13 Rim flange
14 Casing
15 Air-tight rubber
layer 9
16 Belt
3 10
17 Tread
æ UFR0033Y
18 Sidewall
2 11
19 Bead
10 Bead core 1
11 Valve
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_2, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Basic principles of vehicle dynamics Tires 13
æ UFB0606-1E
100
entire circumference of the tire and across the 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 mm
full width of the tread. Tread depth
Illustration of slip
The slip component of wheel rotation is
referred to by λ, where
a υ U1
ϕ1 λ = (υF–υU)/υF
On a braked wheel,
the angle of rotation, φ,
per unit of time is smaller
(slip)
Basic principles of vehicle dynamics Forces acting on a vehicle 15
Yaw
al
Vertiction
vibra
Vertical axis
Pitch
Aerodynamic drag
is M Motive force
al ax
ongitudin
L Lateral force
Roll Braking
force Vertical force
M
Slide
æ UAF0072E
Tr
an
sv
Vertical force
is
16 Basic principles of vehicle dynamics Forces acting on a vehicle
force (positive:
motive force;
negative: braking
FS
FU
force)
FS Lateral force
Basic principles of vehicle dynamics Forces acting on a vehicle 17
3 Kingpin offset
a b c
Fig. 3
a Positive kingpin
offset:
1 1 1 MGes = MT + MB
b Zero kingpin offset:
no yaw moment
c Negative kingpin
offset:
MGes = MT – MB
1 Steering axis
2 Wheel contact
point
3 Intersection point
æ UFB0638-1Y
l Kingpin offset
MGes Total turning force
2 3 2 3 2
(yaw moment)
l l MT Moment of inertia
MB Braking torque
18 Basic principles of vehicle dynamics Forces acting on a vehicle
4 Linear wheel velocity, υX, with braking force, FB, 5 Frequency distribution of the coefficient
and braking torque, MB of friction at a locked wheel at various
road speeds on wet roads
Fig. 4
æ UFB0348-1E
υx Linear velocity of
wheel
FN Vertical tire force
(normal force)
Frequency
FB Braking force
MB Braking torque MB
Fig. 5 υx
40
Source:
Forschungsinstitut für Ve 60
Kraftfahrwesen und
hi
cl 80
in e s
æ UFB0586-1Y
Fahrzeugmotoren, FB FN km pe 100 1
Stuttgart, Germany /h ed 0.6 0.8
0.2 0.4 µ
0 friction H
F
(research institute for
ient of
υ
A B a Stable zone
Nevertheless, the tire can also slide while it is 0
0 20 40 60 80 % b Unstable zone
rolling, and on motor vehicles this is referred α Slip angle
Brake slip λ
to as slip. A Rolling wheel
B Locked wheel
1 Coefficients of friction, µHF, for tires in various conditions of wear, on various road conditions
and at various speeds
Vehicle Tire Dry road Wet road Heavy rain Puddles Icy
road speed condition (depth of (depth of (depth of (black ice)
water 0.2 mm) water 1 mm) water 2 mm)
7 Lateral slip angle, α, and the effect of lateral force, FS, 8 Position of tire contact area relative to wheel in a
(overhead view) right-hand bend showing lateral force, FS, (front view)
υx
α υα
Fig. 7
υα Velocity in lateral
slip direction
υx Velocity along FS
longitudinal axis FS FY
FS, Fy Lateral force
α Slip angle
FN
æ UFB0589-1Y
æ UFB0590-1Y
Fig. 8 FS
FN Vertical tire force
(normal force) m
FS Lateral force
Basic principles of vehicle dynamics Forces acting on a vehicle 21
There is a nonlinear relationship between Fig. 6 shows the lateral-force coefficient, µS,
the slip angle α and the lateral-force coeffi- as a function of brake slip at a lateral slip an-
cient µS that can be described by a lateral gle of 4°. The lateral-force coefficient is at its
slip curve. In contrast with the coefficient highest when the brake slip is zero. As brake
of friction µHF that occurs under acceleration slip increases, the lateral-force coefficient de-
and braking, the lateral-force coefficient µS is clines gradually at first and then increasingly
heavily dependent on the wheel contact force rapidly until it reaches its lowest point when
FN. This characteristic is of particular interest the wheel locks up. That minimum figure oc-
to vehicle manufacturers when designing sus- curs as a result of the lateral slip angle
pension systems so that handling characteris- position of the locked wheel, which at that
tics can be enhanced by stabilizers. point provides no lateral force whatsoever.
With a strong lateral force, FS, the tire contact Friction – tire slip – vertical tire force
area (footprint) shifts significantly relative to The friction of a tire depends largely on the
the wheel (Fig. 8). This retards the buildup degree of slip. The vertical tire force plays a
of the lateral force. This phenomenon greatly subordinate role, there being a roughly linear
affects the transitional response (behavior dur- relationship between braking force and verti-
ing transition from one dynamic state cal tire force at a constant level of slip.
to another) of vehicles under steering.
The friction, however, is also dependent on
Effect of brake slip on lateral forces the tire’s lateral slip angle. Thus the braking
When a vehicle is cornering, the centrifugal and motive force reduces as the lateral slide
force acting outwards at the center of gravity angle is increased at a constant level of tire
must be held in equilibrium by lateral forces slip. Conversely, if the braking and motive
on all the wheels in order for the vehicle to be force remains constant while the lateral slip
able to follow the curve of the road. angle is increased, the degree of tire slip
However, lateral forces can only be gener- increases.
ated if the tires deform flexibly sideways
so that the direction of movement of the
wheel’s center of gravity at the velocity, υα,
diverges from the wheel center plane “m”
by the lateral slip angle, α (Fig. 7).
22 Basic principles of vehicle dynamics Dynamics of linear motion
gradient angle G
Standard tractor unit
S Center of gravity
– without fairings ≥ 0.64
FG = FL + FSt + FRo – with some fairings 0.54 ... 0.63
Table 1
– with all fairings ≤ 0.53
Table 2
Basic principles of vehicle dynamics Dynamics of linear motion2
corresponds to FS acting α
at D (in aerodynamics
it is normal to refer to
dimensionless coeffi-
cients instead of forces)
Basic principles of vehicle dynamics Dynamics of lateral motion2
υF Vehicle speed
imbalance. FS Lateral force at
individual wheels
rK Radius of bend
S Center of gravity
2 Basic principles of vehicle dynamics Definitions
standstill.
has reached
stabilised level
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7
t7 Vehicle comes to
Time
a halt
28 Car braking systems Overview
Car braking systems must perform the On power-assisted braking systems such as
following fundamental tasks: are most frequently used on cars and light
쐌 Reduce the speed of the vehicle commercial vehicles, the actuation pressure
쐌 Bring the vehicle to a halt is amplified by a brake servo unit (brake
쐌 Prevent unwanted acceleration during booster).
downhill driving
쐌 Keep the vehicle stationary when it is
stopped
12 2 3 4 11 2
Fig. 1
11 Front brake
(disc brake)
12 Brake hose
13 Connecting union 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9
between brake
pipe and brake
hose
14 Brake pipe
15 Master cylinder
16 Brake-fluid reservoir
17 Brake servo unit
18 Brake pedal
19 Handbrake lever
10 4 3 12
10 Brake cable
æ UFB0676-1Y
(parking brake)
11 Braking-force
reducer
12 Rear brake (drum 4 3 1 2 4
brake in this case)
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_3, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Car braking systems Overview 29
ABS has been continually improved and de- Ancillary functions of electronic systems
veloped to the extent that it is now standard Electronic processing of data also makes pos-
equipment on virtually all new vehicles sold sible a number of ancillary functions that can
in western Europe. be integrated in the overall electronic braking
and vehicle-dynamics systems.
Electrohydraulic brakes (SBC) 쐌 Brake Assistant (BA) increases brake pres-
SBC (Sensotronic Brake Control) represents sure if the driver is hesitant in applying the
a new generation of braking systems. Under full force of the brakes in an emergency.
normal operating conditions, it has no me- 쐌 Electronic Braking-force distribution con-
chanical link between the brake pedal and the trols the braking force at the rear wheels so
wheel cylinders. The SBC electrohydraulic sys- that the best possible balance between front
tem detects the brake pedal travel electronically and rear wheel braking is achieved.
using duplicated sensor systems and analyses 쐌 Hill Descent Control (HDC) automatically
the sensor signals in an ECU. This method of brakes the vehicle on steep descents.
operation is sometimes referred to as“brake by
wire”. The hydraulic modulator controls the
pressure in the individual brakes by means of
solenoid valves. Operation of the brakes is
still effected hydraulically using brake fluid as
the transmission medium.
Shoe and external shoe brakes on the ing lever, located at the front, close to the
wheel running surfaces steering arm, to the external shoe brake on
The first motor vehicles drove on wooden the rear wheel (Figures 3a, b).
wheels with steel or rubber tires, or rubber-
tired, spoked steel wheels. For braking, levers In 1886, the first passenger cars with internal
(as for the horse-drawn carriages) pushed combustion engines were introduced: the
brake shoes or external shoe brakes with Daimler motor carriage (1.1 hp, 16 km/h),
friction linings against the running surfaces which was derived from the horse carriage,
of the rear wheels. An initial example is the and the Benz motorcar, which was newly de-
“riding carriage” developed by Gottlieb signed as an automobile. Both of them had
Daimler as an experimental vehicle in 1885 shoe brakes, as did the world’s first truck,
(the first motorcycle, with an engine perfor- built in 1896. The shoe brake was installed
mance of 0.5 horsepower and a top speed of in front of the rear wheels of each vehicle
12 km/h). A cable led from the brake actuat- (Figures 3c, d, e, f.).
a 1 2 b 3
Fig. 3
a, b Daimler riding
carriage 1885
c d 1 Brake actuating
lever
2 Cable to brake lever
3 Brake lever
1 1 4 External shoe brake
on rear wheel
c Daimler motor
carriage, 1886
1 Shoe brake, which
also braked in
“automatic” state
when the flanged
e f step was stepped
on
1 Shoe brake
4 Daimler steel-wheeled car with band brake, Band and external shoe brakes
1889 As solid rubber tires quickly became estab-
lished for motor vehicles (beginning with
1 the triangular Benz motorcar in 1886 and
the Daimler steel-wheeled car of 1889) and
were soon replaced by air-filled rubber tires
for a more comfortable ride, the era of the
shoe brake in automobiles had already come
to an end.
æ UFB0768Y
via several brake shoes riveted to the inside)
Fig. 4
or external shoe brakes (rigid cast iron or
1 Band brake steel brake shoes with brake linings) began
on the rear axle to be used. These pedal-operated brakes
worked with external brake drums that were
5 Daimler Phoenix, 1889, normally installed at the front on the inter-
drive shaft (front view)
mediate drive shaft or on the drive axle in
the rear wheel area.
1 External shoe brake, solid rubber tires and steel band brakes on
front section
the rear wheels (Fig. 4). The Daimler
2 Brake lever and
1 2 “Phoenix”, also dating from 1899, still had
brake linkage
solid rubber tires, but these were soon re-
6 Daimler Phoenix, 1889,
placed by air-filled tires. A footbrake acted
drive shaft (rear view) as an external shoe brake on the front drive
shaft (Figures 5 and 6), and the handbrake
1 acted on the rear wheels. In addition, this
car featured – as did, for example, the Benz
racing car of 1899 (Fig. 7) – a “sprag brake”,
a strong rod mounted on the rear that had
2
the purpose of being driven into the (usually
relatively soft) road.
1 Brake rod
Rheinische Gasmotoren-Fabrik A.G.
2 Brake lever Mannheim from 1902 reads as follows:
3 External shoe brake, “In addition to a handbrake attached to its
rear section left side, the car is braked primarily by
Car braking systems History of the brake 33
depressing the left foot pedal, which acts as 7 Benz racecar, 1899, with external band brake
a band brake on the brake disks fastened and suspended “sprag brake”
to the two rear wheels. Simultaneously, as
mentioned above, the belt is automatically
moved out. To stop the car immediately,
both the left and the right pedals are de-
pressed at the same time, which causes the
band brake connected to the right pedal to
act on the brake disk and thus brake the
reduction gear.”
æ UFB0771Y
1 “Sprag brake”
Over time, vehicles became faster and heav- 2 External band brake
ier. Therefore, they required a more effective with brake shoes
brake system. Thus band and external shoe 1 2 riveted to the inside
brakes soon gave way to the internal shoe
drum brake, for which Louis Renault ap- 8 Daimler-Simplex, 1902, with cable-operated drum
brake on the rear wheel
plied for a patent in 1902. A spreading
mechanism pushed two crescent-shaped
brake shoes against the inner surface of the
cast iron or steel brake drums, which were
connected to the wheel. Due to its self-rein-
forcing effect, the drum brake features low 1 2
operating forces compared to the braking
forces, long maintenance periods and long-
lasting linings.
4 Brake pedal of
the footbrake
5 Lever of the
handbrake
Car braking systems History of the brake 35
Actuation device
The actuation device encompasses those parts 1 Layout of a car braking system
of a braking system that are used to initiate
and control the action of that braking system. Energy source (driver)
The control signal may be transmitted within
the actuation device, and the use of an addi- Service brakes Parking brake
tional energy source is also possible.
The actuation device starts at the point at Actuation (control) device Actuation (control) device
which the actuation force is directly applied. Brake pedal Hand-brake lever
Master cylinder
It may be operated in the following ways: Brake servo unit
쐌 by direct application of force by hand or
foot by the driver, Energy source
쐌 by indirect control of force by the driver. Hydraulic energy
Electrical energy
II configuration
d
This layout involves a front-axle/rear-axle
split – one circuit operates the rear brakes, the
other operates the front brakes. 1 2
Fig. 1
X configuration a II configuration
e
This layout involves a diagonal split – each b X configuration
c HI configuration
circuit operates one front brake and its diago-
æ UFB0544-1Y
d LL configuration
nally opposed rear brake.
1 2 e HH configuration
1 Brake circuit 1
2 Brake circuit 2
➔
Direction of travel
40 Car braking-system components Overview
12 2 3 4
Fig. 1
1 Front brake
(disk brake) 11 4 2
2 Brake hose
3 Connecting union
between brake pipe
and brake hose
4 Brake pipe 5 6 7 8
5 Master cylinder
6 Brake-fluid reservoir
7 Brake servo unit
8 Brake pedal
9 Hand-brake lever 9 4 10 3 12
(parking brake) 1 2 3 4
10 Hand-brake cable
(parking brake)
æ UFB0715Y
11 Pressure regulating
valve
12 Rear brake 3 2 1
(drum brake)
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_4, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Car braking-system components Brake pedal 41
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4
Fig. 1
1 Brake servo unit
2 Bulkhead
3 Return spring
4 Connecting rod
5 Pedal mount
6 Pedal spindle
7 Pedal
æ UFB0640-1Y
æ UFB0641-1Y
Fig. 2
1 Master cylinder
2 Brake servo unit
3 Pedal
4 Casing
42 Car braking-system components Brake servo unit
Fig. 1 3 4
1 Push rod
(transmits output 5
force to master 6
cylinder)
2 Compression spring 7
2
3 Vacuum chamber 8
with vacuum pipe
connection 1
9
4 Diaphragm and
diaphragm disk
5 Working piston 10
6 Sensing piston
11
7 Double valve
8 Valve body
9 Air filter 12
æ UFB0642-1Y
10 Connecting rod
(transmits pedal
force)
11 Valve seat
12 Working chamber
Car braking-system components Brake servo unit 43
(transmits pedal
16
force)
14 Valve seat
15 Working chamber I
16 Working chamber II
44 Car braking-system components Brake servo unit
Notes on use
쐌 Hydraulic oil is used in the brake servo cir-
cuit (A), the intake and return lines (B)
and the power-steering circuit (C).
Fig. 3 쐌 Brake fluid is used in the brake circuits (D).
æ UFB0679-1Y
1 Connection to
vacuum brake servo
2 Non-return valve
3 Connection to
engine
Car braking-system components Brake servo unit 45
A
3 6
5 Fig. 4
2 4 1 Steering pump
2 Oil reservoir with
B 7 filter
3 Pressure-controlled
flow regulator
C B D
4 Hydraulic
B accumulator
5 Master cylinder
6 Brake-fluid reservoir
7 Hydraulic brake
servo
B
8 Power-steering servo
8
Piping systems
1 A Brake servo circuit
æ UFB0644-1Y
B to oil reservoir
C1 from power-steering
flow of pressurised hydraulic oil. As a result,
pump the maximum degree of power assistance is
C2 to power-steering obtained.
servo
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Fig. 6 C2
1 Push rod
2 Return spring
3 Transfer piston
4 ... 6 Control edges
7 Control piston
8 Compression spring
9 Actuating piston
10 Connecting rod
æ UFB0646-1Y
Ports
B to oil reservoir
C2 from pressure-
controlled flow
regulator
Car braking-system components Master cylinder 47
16 Retaining screw
17 Support ring
12 13 14 15 16 17 13 18 19 20 18 Stop disk
19 Secondary seal
20 Circlip
48 Car braking-system components Master cylinder
19 Isolating seal
20 Support ring 15 16 17 18 19 20 17 21 22 23
21 Stop disk
22 Secondary seal
23 Circlip
Car braking-system components Brake-fluid reservoir, pilot-pressure valve 49
5 6 7 Fig. 4
1 From master cylinder
2 To wheel-brake
cylinders
8
æ UFB0649-1Y
æ UFB0660-1Y
Note on fitting:
The arrow on the
2 hexagonal valve body
must point away from
the master cylinder.
50 Car braking-system components Components for braking-force distribution
3 Channel
4 Outlet port (to brakes)
6 Compression spring 1 2 3 4 5
7 Graduated piston 1 2
3
Brake pressure, rear axle
8 Valve body
9 Valve 4
Fig. 2
1 Unregulated pressure
2 Ideal pressure curve
5
æ UFB0652-1Y
æ UFB0653-1E
(laden vehicle)
6 7 8 9
3 Regulated pressure
4 Ideal pressure curve
(unladen vehicle)
Brake pressure, front axle
5 Changeover point
Car braking-system components Components for braking-force distribution 51
1 Graduated piston
2 Control springs
3 Outlet port to brakes
3 Load-dependent pressure regulating valve 4 Load-dependent pressure regulating valve
4 Inlet port from master
cylinder
3 1 3 5 Linkage
1 6 Rear axle
6
4
Brake pressure, rear axle
a
Fig. 4
2 1 Non-reduced
2 pressure
2 Ideal pressure curve
(laden vehicle)
3 Reduced pressure
4 5 (laden vehicle)
æ UFB0353-2Y
æ UFB0354-2E
8 Channel
9 Inlet port 6 7 8 α 9
previously. Because of its light weight and small
(from master cylinder) dimensions (2), it can be integrated in the
α Angle to horizontal master cylinder (1) by being screwed into the
axis rear-wheel brake circuit connection (Figure 7).
1
5
Fig. 6
Brake pressure, rear axle
3
1, 2 Changeover points 4
(unladen vehicle)
3, 4 Changeover points 1
2
(laden vehicle)
5 Unregulated
pressure
æ UFB0656-1Y
æ UFB0356-2E
2
Fig. 7
1 Master cylinder
2 Integral pressure- Brake pressure, front axle
regulating valve
Car braking-system components Components for braking-force distribution 53
æ UFB0654-1Y
5 Compression spring
6 Valve piston
5 6 7 8 9
7 Compression spring
8 Valve seat
9 Outlet port (to brakes)
According to ISO 611, the total braking distance is the 쐌 the distance travelled under fully developed deceler-
distance travelled during the total braking time (see ation at a constant rate of deceleration.
chapter “Basic principles of vehicle dynamics”, “Defini-
tions” section). Thus, the point at which the driver first Alternatively, half the period of increasing deceleration
applies force to the actuation device is a decisive factor can be taken to be under fully developed deceleration
in determining the total braking distance. However, as at the rate a, and the remaining period taken to be under
far as the overall braking sequence is concerned, the zero deceleration. This time period is added to the other
distance travelled from when the driver first identifies a periods of zero deceleration (reaction time and brake-
hazard to when the brakes are first applied is also of system response time) to form the dead time, tvz. Thus
significance. This is the driver’s reaction time and is dif- the distance required for braking is defined by the formula
ferent for every driver.
s = υ · tvz + –υ2a
2
––
The total distance travelled from identification of a
hazard to the point at which the vehicle comes to a halt The maximum rate of deceleration is limited by the friction
is thus made up of a number of components consisting of between the tires and the road. Minimum rates of decel-
쐌 the distance travelled during the reaction time and the eration are defined by law.
brake-system response time at a constant velocity, υ, Assuming a dead time of 1s, the table below shows
쐌 the distance travelled during the brake-pressure the combined reaction and total braking distance at var-
build-up time at an increasing rate of deceleration, ious speeds.
2
æ UFB0719Y
Fig. 1
1 Brake pipe
2 Brake hose
Car braking-system components Brake fluid 55
Requirements Compressibility
Equilibrium boiling point The compressibility of the fluid must be small
The equilibrium boiling point provides an and its temperature-dependence as low as
index of the brake fluid’s resistance to thermal possible.
stress. Thermal stress can be particularly high
in the wheel cylinders (this is where the highest Non-corrosiveness
temperatures in the braking system occur). At According to FMVSS 116, brake fluid must not
temperatures above the brake fluid’s momen- be corrosive to the metals normally used in
tary boiling point, vapour bubbles are pro- braking systems. This can only be achieved by
duced. If that occurs, operation of the brakes the use additives.
is no longer possible.
Elastomer swelling
Wet boiling point The elastomers used in a braking system must
The wet boiling point is the brake fluid’s equi- be matched to the particular type of brake
librium boiling point after it has absorbed wa- fluid employed. A small amount of elastomer
ter under defined conditions. On hygro- swelling is desirable. However, it must not
scopic (glycol-based) fluids in particular, the under any circumstances exceed 16 %, as
effect is a substantial lowering of the boiling otherwise the strength of the components
point. will be impaired. Even small amounts of con-
The purpose of testing the wet boiling point tamination of a glycol-based brake fluid with
is to determine the properties of used brake mineral oils (mineral-oil-based brake fluid,
fluid, which can absorb water primarily by solvent) can result in damage to rubber com-
diffusion through the brake hoses. This is the ponents (such as seals) and consequently to
main reason why it is necessary to replace the brake failure.
brake fluid in a vehicle every 1 ... 2 years. This
is absolutely essential for the safety of the Chemical composition
braking system, which must always be bled Although alteration of the chemical composi-
afterwards. tion may improve one of the properties
referred to above, it normally brings about
changes to others at the same time.
1)
FMVSS: Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (USA),
DOT: Department of Transportation (USA).
1 Brake fluids
Testing standard FMVSS 1161) SAE J1703
Rating/version DOT3 DOT4 DOT5, DOT5.1 11.83
Dry boiling point min. °C 205 230 260 205
Wet boiling point min. °C 140 155 180 140
Cold viscosity at –40 °C mm2/s 1500 1800 900 1800
Table 1
56 Wheel brakes Overview
Wheel brakes
There are two types of brake used on cars – In order to be able to meet those requirements
disk brakes and drum brakes. New cars are while remaining acceptably economical, in Eu-
now fitted exclusively with disk brakes at the rope small cars and some medium-sized cars
front, and there is an increasing trend to- are fitted with disk brakes on the front wheels
wards disk brakes for the rear wheels as well. and drum brakes on the rear (drum brakes
Both types are friction brakes in which the represent a cost saving). The more expensive
braking energy transmitted by the braking mid-range cars, as well as executive/luxury
system acts by pressing the brake pads or and sports cars have disk brakes all round.
shoes against the brake disks/drums. This is because of the fact that the heavier
weights and higher speeds of those vehicles
are such that only disk brakes are capable of
Overview coping with the levels of heat generated. Con-
sequently, particular attention has to be paid
Requirements to
The demands placed on the brakes are 쐌 heat conduction,
extremely exacting and include: 쐌 brake ventilation and
쐌 short braking distance, 쐌 stable frictional properties of the brake pads.
쐌 fast response time,
쐌 short pressure build-up time Assessment of brakes
쐌 even braking effect, The brake coefficient C* is used as an assess-
쐌 precise control, ment criterion for brake performance, and in-
쐌 Insusceptibility to dirt dicates the ratio of braking force to application
and corrosion, force. It takes account of the effect of internal
쐌 high reliability, force transmission (ratio of input to output
쐌 durability, force) within the brake and of the frictional
쐌 resistance to wear, coefficient, which is chiefly dependent on the
쐌 ease of maintenance. parameters speed, braking pressure and tem-
perature. Figure 1 shows the brake coefficient
for various types of brake.
1 Brake coefficients C* as a function of coefficient of friction and road speed at start of braking
5 5
1 2
4 4
Brake coefficient C*
Brake coefficient C*
3
3 3
1
2 2
2
Fig. 1 4
1 Double-servo drum 3
1 1
æ UFB0309-2E
brake
4
2 Double-duplex drum
0 0
brake 0.2 0.4 0.6 20 40 60 80 100 km/h
3 Simplex drum brake Friction µ Speed at start of braking sequence
4 Disk brake
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_5, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Bosch test center at Boxberg 57
An important component of the development There are two ford sections (3) with lengths
process for vehicle systems are the practical of 100 meters and 30 meters respectively and
trials performed by the system supplier. Not depths of 0.3 and 1 meter.
all tests can be carried out on public roads. There are special sprayed sections (4) with
Since 1998 Bosch has performed this part the following surfaces:
of the development process at its test center 쐌 “chessboard” (asphalt and paving slabs)
near Boxberg between Heilbronn and 쐌 asphalt
Würzburg (south Germany). The 92-hectare 쐌 paving slabs
site provides facilities for testing all conceiv- 쐌 blue basalt
able handling, safety and convenience sys- 쐌 concrete
tems and components to the limit. Seven 쐌 an aquaplaning section and
different sections of test track allow systems 쐌 a trapezium-shaped blue-basalt section
to be tested to their physical limits under all
types of road conditions and driving situations The skid pan (5) for testing cornering charac-
– and under the safest possible conditions for teristics has an asphalt surface 300 meters in
the test drivers and vehicles. diameter. Parts of it can be watered to simu-
late ice and wet roads. It is surrounded by a
The rough-surface sections (1) are designed safety barrier made of tires in order to protect
for speeds of up to 50 km/h and 100 km/h drivers and vehicles.
respectively. The following types of surface The high-speed circuit (6) has three tracks
are provided: and can be used by commercial vehicles as
쐌 pot holes well as cars. This section is designed to allow
쐌 undulations speeds of up to 200 km/h.
쐌 high-vibration surface The handling track (9) incorporates two sec-
쐌 cobblestones, and tions – one for speeds of up to 50 km/h, and
쐌 variable-surface sections. one for speeds up to 80 km/h. Both sections
have corners of varying severity and degrees
The asphalted gradient sections (2) for of camber. The handling track is mainly used
hill-start and uphill acceleration testing with for testing handling-stability control systems.
gradients of 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% include
sprayable, paved sections of various widths.
Fig. 1
왘 View of the test-track section modules
1 Rough-surface
1 2 3 4 5 6 sections
2 Gradient sections
3 Ford sections
4 Special watered
sections
5 Skid pan
6 High-speed circuit
7 Building
– Workshops
– Offices
– Test benches
æ UAV0055-1Y
– Laboratories
– Filling station and
– Staff common
7 8 9 rooms
8 Access road
9 Handling track
58 Wheel brakes Drum brakes
Note: 1 Simplex drum brake with integral parking-brake mechanism (on right rear wheel)
Identical components in
Figures 1 and 2 have the
same index numbers.
9
10
Fig. 1 1 11
1 Wheel cylinder
2 Friction lining 2 2
3 Return spring 3
(brake shoe) 3
4 Return spring 4 4
(self-adjusting
mechanism) 5
5 Trailing shoe 12
6 Brake drum
13
7 Hand-brake lever 6
8 Hand-brake cable
9 Direction of drum
rotation 7
10 Bimetal strip
(self-adjusting
mechanism) 14
8
11 Adjuster wheel
(with elbow lever)
15
æ UFB0658-1Y
12 Leading shoe
13 Anchor plate
14 Return spring
(brake shoe)
15 Support bearing
Wheel brakes Drum brakes 59
Hand-brake lever
The hand-brake mechanism operates the drum
brake by means of a cable (8) that is attached
19
20 to the lower end of the hand-brake lever (7).
The hand-brake lever is pivoted at the top in
b the trailing brake shoe (5) and engages in the
adjusting screw (16) of the self-adjusting mech-
anism. When the hand brake is operated, the
cable pulls the hand-brake lever to the right
at the bottom. Its rounded upper right edge Fig. 2
10 Bimetal strip
levers against the self-adjusting mechanism
11 Adjuster wheel
and first of all pushes the trailing shoe (5) 16 Adjusting screw
outwards until it contacts the drum (6). It 17 Elbow lever
c then pushes the leading shoe (12) against the 18 Pressure sleeve
brake drum by levering through the adjusting 19 Adjusting dog
screw of the self-adjusting mechanism. 20 Adjusting lever
æ UFB0659-1Y
a Non-braking mode
b Braking mode
(t < 80 °C)
c Braking mode
(t > 80 °C)
60 Wheel brakes Drum brakes
a b
a
Fig. 3 1
a Brake shoe with
fixed pivot point 5
(single pivot)
b Brake shoe with
fixed pivot point
(double pivot) 2 3
c Parallel-anchor 6 7
brake shoe 4 4
d Sloping-anchor
brake shoe 8 8
Fig. 4
a Brake shoes with
2 single pivots
a Brake shoes with
1 double pivot b
One leading shoe,
c d
1
small degree of
self-augmentation 5
1 Direction of drum
rotation (when
travelling forwards)
2 Self-augmenting 2 3
effect 6 7
3 Self-inhibiting effect
4 Torque 4 4
5 Double-acting wheel 8
æ UFB0680-1Y
æ UFB0681-1Y
cylinder
6 Leading shoe
7 Trailing shoe
8 Anchor point
(pivot point)
Wheel brakes Drum brakes 61
æ UFB0682-1Y
5 effect
Duplex brake 4
3 Torques
Each brake shoe is operated by a single-acting 4 Wheel cylinder
wheel cylinder (Figure 5, Item 4). The sliding- 5 Anchor points
type brake shoes (6) are anchored against the 6 Brake shoes
back of the opposing wheel cylinder in each case.
The duplex brake is a single-acting brake, i.e. 6 Drum brake (duo-duplex brake)
7 3 Torques
by the primary shoe. When the vehicle is re- 4 Wheel cylinder
versing, the servo brake acts in the same way 5 Primary shoe
as a simplex brake. Self-augmenting factor: 6 Secondary shoe
up to approx. 6. 7 Pressure pin
62 Wheel brakes Drum brakes
4 Wheel cylinder
on the anchor bearings
5 Secondary shoe
6 Primary shoe
7 쐌 automatic adjusting mechanisms
7 Pressure pin (see above, Figures 1 and 2)
(anchor bearing)
1 2 3 4 3 2 1
Fig. 9
æ UFB0686-1Y
1 Brake shoes
2 Adjuster pin
3 Combined cylinder
cap/adjuster wheel
4 Wheel cylinder
Wheel brakes Drum brakes 63
cylinder
previously in the section dealing with the basic 4 Cup seal
principle of a drum brake (Figures 1 and 2). 5 Piston
6 Rubber dust cap
7 Movable pressure pin
1 2 3 4 1
Fig. 10
1 Brake shoes
2 Adjuster wheel
3 Support bearing
4 Adjuster wheel
5 Adjusting screws
6 Adjusting nuts
æ UFB0687-1Y
x Play between
adjuster wheel (2)
5 x 6 6 5 and anchor
bearing (3)
64 Wheel brakes Disk brakes
a b c
Fig. 1
a Fixed-caliper brake
æ UFB0677-1Y
(front view)
b Floating-caliper
brake (top view)
c Sliding-caliper brake
(front view)
Wheel brakes Disk brakes 65
æ UFB0665-1Y
1 Piston seal
pad clearance is kept constant and the disk 3 2 Caliper body
can rotate freely when the pad is not under 3 Inlet port from
pressure. 4 master cylinder
4 Piston
Expander spring
The expander spring used on fixed-caliper 3 Expander spring
surface in caliper
2a 1 5 4 opening
3 Piston gauge
4 Piston heel
5 Piston bore
66 Wheel brakes Disk brakes
5 Fixed-caliper brake
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10
Fig. 5
1 Caliper half (cap)
2 Caliper tie bolt
3 Piston seal
4 Hydraulic-fluid
connecting channel
5 Brake pad
6 Brake disk
7 Dust seal
8 Piston 11
æ UFB0668-1Y
9 Caliper half
(flanged)
10 Inlet port
from master cylinder
11 Mounting flange
Wheel brakes Disk brakes 67
6
A guide spring helps the caliper bracket and
floating caliper to slide smoothly and quietly 3
over each other. The brake fluid enters the 7
4
chamber between the cylinder body and the Fig. 6
piston via the inlet port (6). 8 1 Brake disk
5 2 Floating caliper
3 Bracket
9
4 Outer brake pad
5 Inner brake pad
æ UFB0664-2Y
1
2
3 7
8
4
9
Fig. 7 5
1 Bracket
2 Guide pin 10
3 Caliper body
4 Outer brake pad 6
5 Brake disk 11
6 Inner brake pad
7 Piston seal 2
æ UFB0670-1Y
Sliding-caliper brake with integral parking- then free to rotate again. When the parking
brake mechanism brake is applied, a cable pulls the hand-brake
Function lever (17) so that the cam (15) turns and
This sliding-caliper brake functions both as a presses the tappet (16) and the push-rod (12)
service brake and a parking brake. It produces against the piston, which then directly presses
the application force for the brake pads from the inner brake pad against the disk. The
the hydraulic pressure from the master cylin- outer brake pad is pressed against the other
der or the tension applied by the handbrake side of the disk by the reactive force.
lever. The sliding caliper holds the brake pads, In addition to the parking-brake mechanism
braces the brake forces and automatically ad- illustrated in Figure 8, there is also the BIR
justs the brake-pad clearance. (Ball in Ramp) mechanism. In that case, the
inner brake pad is not moved by means of a
Design tappet, but by balls instead. When the parking
The sliding-caliper body (Figure 8, Item 8) is brake is applied, the parking-brake mechanism
mounted on two guide pins (2) on which it is is caused to rotate, thereby moving three balls,
able to slide in and out. A bracket attached to each of which runs in a ramp-shaped groove.
the hub carrier holds the two guide pins. The Those ramps convert the rotation into a linear
piston (6) presses the inner brake pad (5) and movement by means of which the piston
the outer brake pad (3) against the disk (4) presses the brake pads against the disk.
directly and indirectly respectively. The piston
is hydraulically operated by the brake fluid
entering the inlet port (11).
A metal casing (10) and a sealing disk (13)
isolate the hydraulic system from the parking-
brake mechanism which is operated by the
hand-brake lever (17).
Method of operation
When the service brakes are applied, hydraulic Fig. 8
pressure from the master cylinder acts via the 1 Caliper-body base
inlet port (11) on the piston (6) which moves 2 Guide pin (rear
guide pin concealed)
out of the caliper and directly presses the inner
3 Outer brake pad
brake pad (5) against the
4 Brake disk
brake disk (4). At the same 8 Sliding-caliper brake with integral parking-brake mechanism
5 Inner brake pad
time, the hydraulic pres- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 6 Piston
sure acts with equal force 7 Dust seal
against the sliding caliper- 8 Caliper body
body base. The caliper 9 Self-adjusting
14 mechanism
body (8) then slides on
10 Metal casing
the guide pins (2) and 15
11 Inlet port from master
draws the outer brake pad 16 cylinder
(3) against the disk. The 12 Push-rod
brake-pad pressure is thus 13 Sealing disk
equal on both sides of the 14 Caliper-body cap
17 15 Cam
disk.When the brake is re-
æ UFB0672-1Y
16 Tappet
leased, the elastic piston
17 Hand-brake lever
seal (18) draws the pis- 18 Piston seal
ton back to its original 18 19 20 19 Compression spring
position and the disk is 20 Play
70 Wheel brakes Brake pads, shoes and disks
the required rigidity. To make them easier Raw material group Raw materials % by volume
to fit, brake shoes can be supplied as a pre- Metals Steel wool 14
assembled drum-brake kit comprising shoes, Copper powder
Fillers Aluminum oxide 23
wheel cylinder and accessories. Mica powder
Disk-brake friction pads consist of a friction Barite
Iron oxide
material and an intermediate layer that are Friction adjusters Antimony sulphide 35
glued to the metal backing plate. Graphite
Powdered coke
Organic Aramide fibre 28
components Resin filler powder
Table 1 Binding resin
1 Drum-brake friction lining attached to brake shoe 2 Disk-brake friction pad attached to backing plate
æ UFB 0693-1Y
æ UFB 0694-1Y
Wheel brakes Brake pads, shoes and disks 71
Approval of disk-brake pads Brake noises that occur during the braking
A requirements profile detailing vehicle speci- sequence are distinguished according to whether
fications, operating conditions and specific they are produced at the point when the brakes
customer requirements forms the basis for are applied, continuously while the brakes are
selection of a suitable base material. A bench on, or when they are released. Low-frequency
test checks the brake friction material for per- noises between 0 and 500 Hz are imperceptible
formance, noise/vibration characteristics and from inside the car. Noises with a frequency
wear. Once that test has been passed, the road of 500 ... 1,500 Hz are not distinguishable by
test follows. the driver as brake noises. High-frequency
The road test encompasses a performance noises of between 1,500 and 15,000 Hz are
test, an endurance test to check for wear, an recognisable by the driver as brake noises.
extreme-load test including a drive over a Table 2 contains a trouble-shooting chart
mountain pass, and a test for perceptible vi- for noisy brakes detailing fault causes and
brations and noise. If all the tests are success- remedies.
fully completed, the friction material is ap-
proved. If only the noise characteristics are
unsatisfactory, secondary modifications are
made to the friction pad such as application
of a rubber coating or attachment of damper
plates. On completion of those modifications,
the brake pads are put through the bench test 2 Trouble-shooting chart for noisy disk pads
Fig. 3
1 Ten-digit Bosch part
number BOSCH 0 986 469 080 251
2 Bosch production- 768
plant number
U 1160-514 GP
3 KBA (German
vehicle-registration
KBA 60068
authority) number
æ UFB 0696-1Y
4 Friction-material
manufacturer
number
5 Bosch 3 4 5
manufacturing date
Wheel brakes Brake pads, shoes and disks 73
4 Brake-disk types
a b c
1 1
Fig. 4
a Unventilated
b Ventilated from
æ UFB 0692-1Y
inside
c Ventilated from
outside
1 Cooling channel
74 Antilock braking system System overview
7 6 5 4 11 7 8 8 7
Fig. 1
11 Brake pedal
12 Brake booster
13 Master cylinder SB
A
14 Reservoir
15 Brake line
16 Brake hose
17 Wheel brake
with wheel-brake
cylinder
18 Wheel-speed
sensor
19 Hydraulic modulator
10 ABS control unit
(in this case,
æ UFB0697Y
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_6, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Antilock braking system System overview 75
setting
is transmitted directly to the brakes at each Outlet valve:
wheel. shown in closed
setting
76 Antilock braking system Requirements placed on ABS
1 Coefficient of friction, µHF, relative 2 Coefficient of friction and lateral-force coefficient, µS,
to brake slip, λ versus brake slip, λ, and slip angle
1.2
Coefficient of friction µ HF, Lateral-force coefficient µ S
1.2
1.0 α = 2° Fig. 1
1.0 1 1 Radial tire on
µ HF dry concrete
α = 10°
Coefficient of friction µ HF
æ UFB0362-2E
0 0 µS Lateral-force
0 20 40 60 80 % 0 20 40 60 80 %
coefficient
Brake slip λ Brake slip λ
α Slip angle
Blue shaded areas:
ABS active zones
78 Antilock braking system Dynamics of a braked wheel, ABS control loop
cylinder
5 Wheel-speed 2 1
sensor
6 Warning lamp
Antilock braking system ABS control loop 79
æ UFB0361-1E
λK Optimum
road-surface frictional torque, MR (torque brake slip
0 λK 100 %
that acts against the wheel through the fric- µHFmax Maximum
Brake slip λ
tion pairing of tire and road surface), and coefficient
time, t, as well as the relationships between of friction
the wheel deceleration (a) and time, t,
whereby the braking torque increases in lin- 3 Initial braking phase, simplified
ear fashion over time. The road-surface fric-
Road-surface frictional torque M R
æ UFB0363-1E
MR2 by a factor of 4)
(–a) Threshold for wheel
t1 t2
deceleration
Time t
M Torque difference
MB – MR
82 Antilock braking system Typical control cycles
During the initial phase of braking, the brake At the end of phase 2, the wheel speed, υR,
pressure at the wheel and the rate of wheel drops below the λ1 threshold. At that point,
deceleration (negative acceleration) rise. At the solenoid valves switch to the “reduce
the end of phase 1, the wheel deceleration pressure” setting so that the pressure drops,
passes the set threshold level (–a). and they remain at that setting as long as
υF
υ Ref
λ1
υR
+A
Wheel acceleration
+a
0
–a
Fig. 1
υF Vehicle speed
υRef Reference speed Phase 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
υR Wheel speed
Brake pressure p
λ1 Slip switching
threshold –∆p ab
Switching signals:
+A, + a Thresholds for
æ UFB0365-1E
wheel acceleration
–a Threshold for
wheel deceleration Time t
–∆ab Brake-pressure
drop
Antilock braking system Typical control cycles 83
Wheel locks
Vehicle no longer steerable
Brake pressure p
æ UFB0699E
Time t
the wheel deceleration is above the threshold In phase 6, the brake pressure is once again
(–a). held constant because the acceleration is
above the threshold (+a). At the end of this
At the end of phase 3, the deceleration rate phase, the wheel acceleration falls below the
falls below the threshold (–a) again and a threshold (+a). This is an indication that the
pressure-maintenance phase of a certain wheel has returned to the stable zone of the
length follows. During that period, the wheel curve for friction coefficient versus brake slip
acceleration has increased so much that the and is now slightly underbraked.
threshold (+a) is passed. The pressure contin-
ues to be maintained at a constant level. The brake pressure is now increased in
stages (phase 7) until the wheel deceleration
At the end of phase 4, the wheel acceleration passes the threshold (–a) (end of phase 7).
exceeds the relatively high threshold level This time, the brake pressure is reduced
(+A). The brake pressure then increases for as immediately without a λ1 signal being
long as the acceleration remains above the generated.
threshold (+A).
By comparison, Fig. 2 shows the progressions
for an emergency braking sequence without
ABS.
84 Antilock braking system Typical control cycles
Control cycle on slippery surfaces threshold, the brake pressure is reduced over
(low coefficient of friction) a short, fixed period.
In contrast with good grip conditions, on A further short pressure-maintenance
a slippery road surface even very light pres- phase follows. Then, once again, the wheel
sure on the brake pedal is frequently enough speed is compared to the slip switching
to make the wheels lock up. They then re- threshold λ1 and, as a consequence, the
quire much longer to emerge from a high- pressure reduced over a short, fixed period.
slip phase and accelerate again. The process- In the following pressure-maintenance
ing logic of the ECU detects the prevailing phase, the wheel starts to accelerate again
road conditions and adapts the ABS re- and its acceleration exceeds the threshold
sponse characteristics to suit. Fig. 3 shows (+a). This results in another pressure-main-
a typical control cycle for road conditions tenance phase which lasts until the accelera-
with low levels of adhesion. tion drops below the threshold (+a) again
In phases 1 to 3, the control sequence is (end of phase 5). In phase 6, the incremental
the same as for high-adhesion conditions. pressure-increase pattern seen in the preced-
Phase 4 starts with a short pressure-main- ing section takes place again until, in phase 7,
tenance phase. Then, within a very short pressure is released and a new control cycle
space of time, the wheel speed is compared starts.
with the slip switching threshold λ1. As the
wheel speed is lower than the slip switching
υF
Vehicle speed υ
υ Ref
λ1
υR
acceleration signals
+a
Slip/wheel
0
-a
-λ
Fig. 3
υF Vehicle speed
Phase 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
υRef Reference speed
υR Wheel speed
Brake pressure p
λ1 Slip switching
threshold
Switching signals:
+a Threshold for -∆pab
æ UFB0366-2E
wheel acceleration
–a Threshold for
wheel deceleration Time t
–ab Brake-pressure
drop
Antilock braking system Typical control cycles 85
In the cycle described above, the control logic Control cycle with yaw-moment
detected that following pressure release – buildup delay
triggered by the signal (–a) – two more When the brakes are applied in situations
pressure-reduction stages were necessary where the grip conditions differ significantly
to induce the wheel to accelerate again. between individual wheels (“µ-split” condi-
The wheel remains in the higher-slip zone for tions) – for example, if the wheels on one side
a relatively long period, which is not ideal for of the car are on dry tarmac while those on
handling stability and steerability. the other side are on ice – vastly different
In order to improve those two characteris- braking forces will be produced at the front
tics, this next control cycle and those that wheels (Fig. 4). That difference in braking
follow incorporate continual comparison of force creates a turning force (yaw moment)
wheel speed with the slip switching threshold around the vehicle’s vertical axis. It also gener-
λ1. As a consequence, the brake pressure is ates steering feedback effects of varying types
continuously reduced in phase 6 until, in dependent on the vehicle’s kingpin offset.
phase 7, the wheel acceleration exceeds the With a positive kingpin offset, corrective
threshold (+a). Because of that continuous steering is made more difficult, while a nega-
pressure release, the wheel retains a high level tive kingpin offset has a stabilizing effect.
of slip for only a short period so that vehicle
handling and steerability are improved in Heavy cars tend to have a relatively long
comparison with the first control cycle. wheelbase and a high level of inertia around
the vertical axis. With vehicles of this type,
the yaw effect develops slowly enough for the
driver to react and take corrective steering ac-
tion during ABS braking. Smaller cars with
4 Yaw-moment build-up induced by areas of short wheelbases and lower levels of inertia,
widely differing adhesion
on the other hand, require an ABS system
supplemented by a yaw-moment buildup de-
lay (GMA system) to make them equally con-
trollable under emergency braking in condi-
tions where there are wide differences in grip
between individual wheels. Development of
1 2 the yaw moment can be inhibited by delayed
pressure increase in the brake on the front
FB2 wheel that is on the part of the road offering
FB1
the higher level of adhesion (the “high”
wheel).
MYaw
Fig. 5 (overleaf) illustrates the principle of the
yaw-moment buildup delay:
Curve 1 shows the brake pressure, p, in the
master cylinder. Without yaw-moment
buildup delay, the wheel on the tarmac
quickly reaches the pressure phigh (curve 2)
and the wheel on the ice, the pressure plow
(curve 5). Each wheel is braked with the
æ UFB0290-1E
Fig. 4
specific maximum possible deceleration
μ HF1 = 0.8 μ HF2 = 0.1 Myaw Yaw moment
(individually controlled). FB Braking force
1 “High” wheel
2 “Low” wheel
86 Antilock braking system Typical control cycles
plow
cult to bring back under control (Fig. 6a).
6 Steering angle, α,
without GMA Time t
7 Steering angle, α,
with GMA
Antilock braking system Typical control cycles 87
In order to avoid this critical response to The ideal method of inhibiting yaw-moment
braking, the GMA also takes the lateral accel- buildup involves a compromise between good
eration into account. The GMA is deactivated steering characteristics and suitably short
at high lateral acceleration rates. As a result, a braking distance and is developed by Bosch
high braking force is generated at the outside individually for a specific vehicle model
front wheel during the initial phase of brak- through consultation with the manufacturer.
ing in a corner and creates a turning moment
towards the outside of the bend. That turning
moment balances out the turning moment
acting in the opposite direction that is pro-
duced by the lateral forces, so that the vehicle
slightly understeers and thus remains easily
controllable (Fig. 6).
a
FB1
FS1
M1
b
FB2
FS2
Fig. 6
a GMA activated (no
M2
individual control):
vehicle oversteers
b GMA deactivated
(individual control):
æ UFB0367-1Y
vehicle slightly
understeers
FB Braking force
FS Lateral force
M Torque
88 Antilock braking system Typical control cycles
Control cycle for four-wheel-drive (whereby the wheel with the lower degree of
vehicles adhesion, µHF, determines the brake pressure
The most important criteria for assessing the for both rear wheels) is thus canceled, and
various types of four-wheel-drive configura- both rear wheels utilize the maximum brak-
tion (Fig. 7) are traction, dynamic handling, ing force. As soon as the inter-axle lock is en-
and braking characteristics. As soon as differ- gaged, the system forces the front wheels to
ential locks are engaged, conditions are cre- assume the same average speed as the rear
ated that demand a different response from wheels. All four wheels are then dynamically
the ABS system. interlinked and the engine drag (engine brak-
ing effect when backing off the throttle) and
When a rear-axle differential is locked, the inertia act on all four wheels.
rear wheels are rigidly interconnected, i.e.
they always rotate at the same speed and re- In order to ensure optimum ABS effectiveness
spond to the braking forces (at each wheel) under those conditions, additional features
and friction levels (between each tire and the have to be incorporated according to the type
road surface) as if they were a single rigid of four-wheel-drive system (Fig. 7) in use.
body. The “select low” mode that would
otherwise be adopted for the rear wheels
7 Four-wheel-drive configurations
a b c
2 1
1 1
2 2
Fig. 7
a Four-wheel-drive 3
6
system 1
b Four-wheel-drive 4
system 2
c Four-wheel-drive
system 3
1 Engine
2 Transmission
3 Freewheel and
viscous clutch
Differential with
4 Manual lock or 4 5 7
æ UFB0368-1Y
viscous lock
5 Proportional lock
6 Automatic clutch
and lock
7 Automatic lock
Antilock braking system Typical control cycles 89
Fig. 1
a Chisel-type pole pin
æ SAE0974Y
1 2 3 4
Fig. 2
1 Permanent magnet
æ SAE0975Y
2 Solenoid coil
5 3 Pole pin
4 Steel pulse wheel
5 Magnetic field lines
Umax Umin
a
t
Fig. 3
b a Passive wheel-
t speed sensor
with pulse wheel
Voltage
b Sensor signal at
c constant wheel
æ SAE0977Y
æ SAE0976E
speed
c Sensor signal at
Time t
increasing wheel
speed
92 Antilock braking system Wheel-speed sensors
1 Wheel hub
1 1
2 Roller bearing
3 Multipole ring
4 Wheel-speed sensor
2
b
2 1
3
IMR
I
1
Fig. 6
æ SAE0980Y
æ SAE0979Y
1 Sensor element
2 Multipole ring with 4
alternating north and
south magnetization
Antilock braking system Wheel-speed sensors 93
This type of data-transmission using digital Compact dimensions combine with low
signals is less sensitive to interference than the weight to make the active wheel-speed sensor
signals from passive inductive sensors. The suitable for installation on and even within
sensor is connected to the ECU by a two-con- the vehicle’s wheel-bearing assemblies (Fig.
ductor wire. 10). Various standard sensor head shapes are
suitable for this.
8 Block diagram of Hall IC
ADC
Left
= (Left + Right)/2 - Center formation is also used for self-diagnosis.
쐌 Signal quality of the sensor:
Information about the signal quality of the
sensor can be relayed in the signal.
9 Signal conversion in Hall IC If a fault occurs the driver can be advised
that service is required.
a b
Fig. 9
Os1 a Raw signal
Voltage
Time t Time t
OS1 Upper switching
11 Coded information transfer with pulse-width-
modulated signals threshold
US1 Lower switching
a 90µs threshold
c 1440µs Fig. 11
a Speed signal when
reversing
0,74 s b Speed signal when
driving forwards
c Signal when vehicle
æ SAE0983Y
æ SAE0984Y
d 45µs is stationary
d Signal quality
of sensor,
self-diagnosis
94 Traction control system Tasks, function description
VL HL
V Front
H Rear
R Right
L Left
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_7, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Traction control system Function description 95
The TCS regulates the slip of the driven The last two interventions are rapid
wheels as quickly as possible to the optimum interventions, the first a slower means of
level. To do this the system first determines intervention (Fig. 2). The availability of
a reference value for the slip. This value these interventions depends on the vehicle
depends on a number of factors which are manufacturer and engine version.
intended to represent the current driving
situation as closely as possible. These factors In diesel-engine vehicles, the drive torque
include: MKar is influenced by the electronic diesel
쐌 the basic characteristic for TCS reference control system (EDC) (reduction of the
slip (based on the slip requirement of a tire quantity of fuel injected).
during acceleration),
쐌 effective coefficient of friction, The braking torque MBr can be regulated
쐌 external tractive resistance (deep snow, for each wheel via the braking system.
rough road, etc.), The TCS function requires the original ABS
쐌 yaw velocity, lateral acceleration, and steer- hydraulic system to be expanded because
ing angle of the vehicle. of the need for active pressure build-up
(see also “Hydraulic modulator”).
TCS interventions
The measured wheel speeds and the respective Fig. 2 compares the response times with
drive slip can be influenced by changing the various TCS interventions. The figure
torque balance MGes at each driven wheel. shows that exclusive drive torque regulation
The torque balance MGes at each wheel results by means of the throttle valve can be unsatis-
from the drive torque MKar/2 at this wheel, the factory due to the relatively long response
respective braking torque MBr and the road time.
torque MStr (Fig. 1).
2 Throttle-valve
intervention/
TCS response time ignition adjustment
3 Throttle-valve
intervention
96 Traction control system Structure of traction control system
VR HR
1
υR, MR
2
Engine Transversal
MKar , υKar differential
Fig. 3
1 Wheel Drive axle Transversal
speed differential
2 Wheel brake controller lock controller
V Front VL HL
H Rear
R Right
L Left
Traction control system Typical control situations 97
FL force on µh
µl
M Kar
Fig. 5
µh MBr,l υ Wheel speed
Fl
æ UFB0383-1Y
FBr*
æ UFB0765E
torque
MFahVorga Driver-specified
than the speed difference of the left and right
Symmetr.
drive torque
æ UFB0759E
(via accelerator
MBr, Sym wheel of the driven axle (transversal differen-
pedal position) Time t tial lock controller, see above).
L Left
R Right
Traction control system Traction control system for four wheel drive vehicles 99
Fig. 8 shows the expansion of the TCS Electronic differential locks designed as part
concept from Fig. 3 for an all-wheel drive of the TCS software have the advantage that
vehicle. As with a single-axle driven vehicle, they do not require additional hardware.
the drive axle speed controller uses the drive There are therefore very cost-efficient. They
axle speed υKar to regulate the drive torque are used for road vehicles, which is usually
MKar provided by the engine. As already de- the intended application of SUVs. When
scribed, the longitudinal differential lock used in true off-road cross-country vehicles,
controller distributes this torque to the front electronic differential locks reach their limit
and rear axle (MKar, VA and MKar, HA, respec- in tough off-road conditions, at the latest
tively). The transversal
differential lock con- 8 TCS controller concept for a four-wheel-drive vehicle
troller uses the differ-
ential speed υDif, XA to
regulate the distribu- Fig. 8
tion of the drive 1 Wheel
torque MKar, XA per axle VR HR 2 Wheel brake
to the driven wheels. 1 Drive axle
Engine υ Wheel speed
This must now be car- 2 speed controller
MVR,υVR MHR,υHR υKar Drive axle speed
ried out for both the MKar , υKar
Transversal differential Transversal differential MKar Drive axle torque
front and rear axle
Transversal differential Longitudinal Longitudinal Transversal differential
A Axle
(“X” = “V” (front) or differential differential V Front
lock controller lock controller lock controller
“X” = “H” (rear)). M ,υ M ,υ H Rear
VL VL HL HL
R Right
L Left
VL MKar, VA , υKar, VA MKar, HA , υKar, HA HL æ UFB0761E
Fig. 7
1 Engine with
transmission
2 Wheel
3 Wheel brake
7 Drive concept of a four-wheel-drive vehicle with TCS 4 Transversal
differential
5 Longitudinal
differential
6 Control unit with
VR 6 HR TCS functionality
7 Transversal
2
differential
3 M Br, VR M Br, HR
Engine, transmission,
Engine intervention gear ratios of differentials
1
and losses are combined
M Kar , υKar M Kar, HA , υKar, HA
4 5 7 into one unit
υ Wheel speed
υKar Drive axle speed
MKar Drive axle torque
M Kar, VA , υKar, VA MBr Braking torque
M Br, VL M Br, HL R Right
æ UFB0760E
L Left
V Front
VL HL
H Rear
A Axle
100 Traction control system Traction control system for four wheel drive vehicles
Ahen the brakes overheat. Vehicles for these Summary: Advantages of TCS
conditions are therefore often fitted with Below is a summary of the advantages of us-
mechanical locks (examples can be seen in ing TCS to prevent the driven wheels from
Figs. 9 and 10). The lock controllers of the spinning when starting off or accelerating on
TCS software are then only used as a backup slippery road surfaces under one or both
system and they do not intervene during sides of the vehicle, when accelerating when
normal operation. cornering, and when starting off on an
incline:
쐌 Unstable vehicle conditions are avoided
and therefore the driving safety is en-
hanced.
쐌 Increased traction due to regulating the
optimum slip.
쐌 Mimicking the function of a transversal
differential lock.
쐌 Mimicking the function of a longitudinal
9 Classic solution of a differential lock differential lock with four-wheel-drive
vehicles.
쐌 Automatic control of the engine output.
쐌 No “grinding” of the tires when driving
around tight corners (unlike with mechani-
cal differential locks).
쐌 Reduction of tire wear.
쐌 Reduction of wear to drive mechanism
(transmission, differential, etc.) especially
on µ-split or if a wheel suddenly starts to
spin on a road surface providing good grip.
쐌 Warning lamp informs the driver during
æ UFB0762Y
2 4
3 5
1 6
Fig. 10
1 Output shaft
2 Working piston
æ UFB0763Y
3 Lamella
4 Axial-piston pump
5 Control valve
6 Input shaft
Control Unit Basic principles of automotive control engineering 101
Many subsystems of a driving safety system control variance is decreased, i. e., yactual = yref
(e. g. ESP) influence the driving dynamics of at least approximately.
a vehicle by means of a controller i. e., they This task may be made more difficult by
form a control loop together with the relevant unknown natural dynamics of the controlled
components of the vehicle. system and other external factors z, which also
influence the controlled system.
Control loop
A simple standard control loop consists Example: TCS transversal differential
of controllers and a controlled system. The lock controller
objective is to influence the characteristic of The principle of a control loop can be ex-
the parameter yactual (controlled variable) of plained using the transversal differential lock
the controlled system using the controller controller of the TCS system as an example.
such that the parameter follows a reference The controlled variable yactual = υDif is the differ-
characteristic yref as closely as possible. To do ential speed of the two wheels of a driven axle.
this the controlled variable is measured and The reference value υSoDif is determined by the
passed to the controller. The actual value of TCS and adapted to the current driving situa-
the controlled variable is constantly compared tion. When driving straight ahead, this value is
with the current reference value by generating typically 0. The asymmetric braking torque is
the control variance e = yref – yactual. used as a correcting variable to influence the
The main task of the controller is to deter- controlled variable. The controlled system is
mine a suitable value for the correcting vari- the vehicle itself which is affected by external
able u for every control variance e so that the influences such as changing road surfaces.
왘 Standard control loop using TCS transversal differential lock controller as an example
z
Reference value for Asymmetr. Differential
differential speed υSoDif Transversal braking torque speed υDif yactual Controlled variable
differential Vehicle yref Reference variable
yref + e lock controller u
y actual e Control variance
(Controller) (Control loop)
æ UFB0764E
yref – yactual
u Correcting variable
z External disturbance
values
β
Fig. 1
1 Driver steers, lateral-
force buildup.
2 Incipient instability
because side-slip
4
angle is too large.
3 Countersteer,
driver loses control
of vehicle.
4 Vehicle becomes
uncontrollable. 3
β
MG Yaw moment
1 2
FR Wheel forces MG
æ UAF0085Y
β Directional deviation β
β
from vehicle’s FR
longitudinal axis
(side-slip angle)
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_8, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Electronic stability program Tasks and method of operation 103
Fig. 2
1 Driver steers, lateral-
force buildup.
β 2 Incipient instability,
ESP intervention at
4
right front.
3 Vehicle remains
under control.
4 Incipient instability,
ESP intervention at
left front, complete
3 stabilization.
β
MG Yaw moment
FR Wheel forces
1 2
MG β Directional deviation
β
æ UAF0021-1Y
from vehicle’s
FR β longitudinal axis
(side-slip angle)
Increased braking
force
104 Electronic stability program Maneuvers
-180°
Vehicle with ESP
+10 On this vehicle ESP brakes the left front
m/s2 wheel to counter the threat of instability
1
acceleration
0
(Fig. 4 on right, phase 2) that follows the ini-
Lateral
æ UAF0061-1E
Fig. 4
Increased braking
force
1 Driver steers, lateral-
force buildup.
2 Incipient instability
Right: ESP interven-
tion at left front.
3 Countersteer
Phase 4 Left: Driver loses
control of vehicle;
Phase 4
Right: Vehicle remains
Phase 3 under control.
4 Left: Vehicle becomes
Phase 3 uncontrollable,
Right: ESP interven-
tion at right front,
Phase 2 Phase 2 complete stabilization.
Fig. 5
æ UAF0060-1E
a Oversteering
Phase 1 behavior.
Phase 1
1 The rear end of the
vehicle breaks away.
2 ESP applies the
Over and understeering behavior when cornering brake at the outer
5
front wheel and this
a b reduces the risk of
skidding.
3 The vehicle without
3 ESP breaks into
3 a slide.
b Understeering
2 behavior
2
1 The front of the
1 vehicle breaks away.
1 2 ESP applies the
brake at the inner
rear wheel and this
with ESP with ESP reduces the risk of
understeering.
without ESP without ESP 3 The vehicle without
ESP is understeered
æ UAF0086E and leaves the road.
106 Electronic stability program Maneuvers
Lane change with emergency braking 쐌 one equipped solely with the Antilock
When the last vehicle in a line of stopped Braking System (ABS) and
traffic is hidden by a rise in the road, and thus 쐌 one that is also fitted with ESP.
invisible to traffic approaching from behind, Both vehicles
drivers closing on the traffic jam cannot reg- 쐌 are traveling at 50 km/h and
ister the dangerous situation until the very 쐌 on a slippery road surface (µHF = 0.15)
last second. Stopping the vehicle without col- at the moment when the driver registers
liding with the stationary traffic will entail a the dangerous situation.
lane change as well as braking.
7 Curves for dynamic response parameters for lane
change during an emergency stop at υ0 = 50 km/h
Figs. 6 and 7 show the results of this evasive and µHF = 0.15
action as taken by two different vehicles:
50
6 Lane change during emergency braking
km/h
Vehicle without Vehicle with ESP
Vehicle speed
ESP, with ABS 1
2
4 4 0
+300°
1
Steering-wheel angle
0
2
-300°
+40
°/s 1
Yaw velocity
3 3 2
0
Fig. 6
+16°
υ0 = 50 km/h
µHF = 0.15 1
2 2
Side-slip angle
0
2
Fig. 7
æ UAF0062-1Y
υ0 = 50 km/h
æ UAF0063-1E
1 2 3 4
µHF = 0.15 1 1
-16°
0 Time s 15
1 Vehicle without ESP
2 Vehicle with ESP
Electronic stability program Maneuvers 107
Vehicle with ABS but without ESP the complexity of the steering process and
Immediately after the initial steering input lowers the demands placed on the driver.
both the side-slip angle and the yaw velocity Yet another asset is that the ESP vehicle stops
have increased to the point where driver in- in less distance than the vehicle equipped
tervention – in the form of countersteer – has with ABS alone.
become imperative (Fig. 6, on
left). This driver action then 9 Oversteering and understeering when cornering
generates a side-slip angle in the 1
opposite direction (technically:
with the opposite operational
sign). This side-slip angle in-
creases rapidly, and the driver 2
must countersteer for a second
time. Here the driver is able –
but only just – to restabilize the
vehicle and bring it to a safe halt.
intervention, vehicle
follows driver’s
with ESP steering movements.
1 3 Vehicle almost
without ESP breaks away again
æ UAF0087E
when recentering
the steering wheel
씮 ESP intervention.
4 Vehicle is stabilized.
108 Electronic stability program Maneuvers
Extended steering and countersteering clearly seen during this kind of dynamic
sequence with progressively greater maneuver when the steering wheel has to
input angles be turned to progressively greater angles to
A vehicle traversing a series of S-curves (for negotiate each turn.
instance, on a snaking secondary road) is in Figs. 10 and 11 illustrate the handling
a situation similar to that encountered on a response of two vehicles (one with and
slalom course. The way the ESP works can be one without ESP) under these conditions
쐌 on a snow-covered road (µHF = 0.45),
10 Curves for dynamic response parameters for rapid 쐌 without the driver braking, and
steering and countersteering inputs with increasing
steering-wheel angles 쐌 at a constant velocity of 72 km/h.
1+2
tinually in order to maintain a constant road
Steering-
0
2
æ UAF0065-1E
1 2 3 4 5 6
Fig. 10 -10°
0 Time s 14
1 Vehicle without ESP
2 Vehicle with ESP
Electronic stability program Maneuvers 109
11 Vehicle tracking for rapid steering and countersteering inputs with increasing steering-wheel angles.
6
4 4
3 3
1 1
æ UAF0064-1Y
Fig. 11
Increased braking
force
110 Electronic stability program Maneuvers
Acceleration/deceleration during cornering for steering input starts to rise rapidly, while at
A decreasing-radius curve becomes progres- the same time the side-slip angle increases dra-
sively tighter as one proceeds. If a vehicle matically. This is the upper limit at which the
maintains a constant velocity through such driver can still manage to keep the car inside
a curve (as frequently encountered on free- the skid pad. A vehicle without ESP enters its
way/highway exit ramps) the outward, or cen- unstable range at roughly 98 km/h. The rear
trifugal force, will increase at the same time end breaks away and the driver must counter-
(Fig. 12). This also applies when the driver steer and leave the skid pad.
accelerates too soon while exiting a curve.
In terms of the physics of vehicle operation, Vehicle with ESP
it produces the same effects as the situation de- Up to a speed of roughly 95 km/h, vehicles
scribed above (Fig. 13). Excessive braking in with and without ESP display identical re-
such a curve is yet another potential source of sponse patterns. Because this speed coincides
radial and tangential forces capable of induc- with the vehicle’s stability limit, the ESP refuses
ing instability during cornering. to implement continued driver demand for
A vehicle’s handling response during further acceleration to beyond this point. ESP
simultaneous acceleration and cornering uses engine intervention to limit the drive
is determined by testing on the skid pad torque. Active engine and braking intervention
(semi-steady-state circulation). In this test the work against the tendency of the vehicle to un-
driver gradually accelerates dersteer. This results in minor deviations from
쐌 on a high-traction surface (µHF = 1.0) and the initially projected course, which the driver
쐌 attempts to stay on a skid pad with a can then correct with appropriate steering ac-
100 meter radius while circulating at pro- tion. At this point, the driver has assumed an
gressively faster rates; this continues until active role as an element within the control
the vehicle reaches its cornering limits. loop. Subsequent fluctuations in steering-
wheel and side-slip angle will now be a func-
Vehicle without ESP tion of the driver’s reactions, as will the final
During testing on the skid pad at approxi- speed of between 95 and 98 km/h as stipulated
mately 95 km/h the vehicle responds to the im- for the test. The vital factor is that ESP consis-
pending approach of its physical operating tently maintains these fluctuations within the
limits by starting to understeer. The demand stable range.
12 Vehicle tracking when cornering while braking with a constant steering-wheel angle
Fig. 12
æ UAF0066-1Y
Increased braking
force
Decreased braking
force
Electronic stability program Maneuvers 111
æ UAF0067-1Y
Fig. 13
Increased braking
force
æ UAF0089Y
112 Electronic stability program Closed-loop control system and controlled variables
Control variance
æ UAF0083E
10 Ignition-timing
intervention
11 Throttle-valve
intervention (ETC)
114 Electronic stability program Closed-loop control system and controlled variables
The ESP controller generates the specified 쐌 yaw velocity (measured parameter),
yaw moment by relaying corresponding 쐌 steering-wheel angle (measured para-
slip-modulation commands to the selected meter),
wheels. 쐌 lateral acceleration (measured parameter),
The subordinate-level ABS and TCS 쐌 vehicle’s linear velocity (estimated parame-
controllers trigger the actuators governing ter), and
the brake hydraulic system and the engine- 쐌 longitudinal tire forces and slip rates
management system using the data generated (estimated parameters)
in the ESP controller.
the monitor determines the following:
Design 쐌 lateral forces acting on the wheel,
Fig. 3 is a simplified block diagram showing 쐌 slip angle,
the design structure of the ESP controller. 쐌 side-slip angle, and
It portrays the signal paths for input and out- 쐌 vehicle lateral speed.
put parameters. Based on the
3 Simplified block diagram showing ESP controller with input and output variables
Vehicle
ESP controller
Monitor defines
estimated parameters
ABS controller
æ UAF0084E
TCS controller
EDTC engine drag torque controller
Electronic stability program Closed-loop control system and controlled variables 115
curve, and the specified yaw velocity is ex- Level 2 ABS controller
ceeded (the vehicle evinces a tendency to Task
rotate too quickly around its vertical axis), The hierarchically subordinated ABS con-
ESP responds by braking the left front wheel troller goes into operation whenever the
to generate a defined brake slip which shifts desired slip rate is exceeded during braking,
the yaw moment toward greater counter- and it becomes necessary for ABS to inter-
clockwise rotation thus suppressing the vene. During both ABS and “active” braking,
vehicle’s tendency to break away. the closed-loop control of wheel-slip rates
If a vehicle breaks into understeer while as applied for various dynamic-intervention
coasting into a right-handed curve, and the functions must be as precise as possible.
yaw velocity is below the specified yaw rate The system needs precise data on slip as a
(the vehicle evinces a tendency to rotate too precondition for dialing in the specified slip
slowly around its vertical axis), ESP responds rates. It must be pointed out that the system
by braking the right rear wheel to generate does not measure the vehicle’s longitudinal
a defined brake slip which shifts the yaw speed directly. Instead, this parameter is de-
moment toward greater clockwise rotation rived from the rotation rates of the wheels.
thus suppressing the vehicle’s tendency to
push over the front axle. Design and method of operation
By briefly “underbraking” one wheel, the ABS
ESP controller functions during ABS and controller performs an indirect measurement
TCS operation of vehicle speed. It interrupts the slip control
The entire spectrum of monitored and to lower the current braking torque by a
estimated data is relayed to the subordinate defined increment. The torque is then main-
controllers for continuous processing. This tained at this level for a given period. Assum-
guarantees maximum exploitation of the ing that the wheel has stabilized and is turn-
traction available between tire and road sur- ing freely with no slip at the end of this pe-
face for the basic ABS and TCS functions riod, it can serve as a suitable source for
under all operating conditions. determining (no-slip) wheel speed.
During active ABS operation (with wheels The calculated velocity at the center of
tending to lock) the ESP controller provides gravity can be used to determine the effective
the subordinate ABS controller with the fol- (free-rolling) wheel speeds at all four wheels.
lowing data: These data, in turn, form the foundation for
쐌 lateral vehicle velocity, calculating the actual slip rates at the remain-
쐌 yaw velocity, ing three – controlled – wheels.
쐌 steering-wheel angle, and
쐌 wheel speeds as the foundation for Level 2 engine drag-torque controller
providing the desired ABS slip. (EDTC)
Task
When TCS is active (wheels threatening to Following downshifts and when the accelera-
break into uncontrolled spin when moving tor is suddenly released, inertia in the engine’s
off or during rolling acceleration) the ESP moving parts always exerts a degree of brak-
controller transmits the following offset ing force at the drive wheels. Once this force
values to the subordinate TCS controller: and the corresponding reactive torque rise
쐌 change in the specified value for the beyond a certain level, the tires will lose their
drive-slip, ability to transfer the resulting loads to the
쐌 change in the slip tolerance range, and road. Engine drag-torque control intervenes
쐌 change in a value to influence the torque under these conditions (by “gently” accelerat-
reduction. ing the engine).
Electronic stability program Closed-loop control system and controlled variables 117
Fig. 2 Ω
1 Frequency-determin-
ing coupling spring
2 Permanent magnet
3 Direction of
oscillation
3υ
4 Oscillating element
5 Coriolis acceleration
2 N
sensor
S
6 Direction of Coriolis
acceleration 1
7 Retaining/guide B
æ UAE0706-1Y
spring
Ω Yaw rate
υ Oscillating velocity
B Permanent-magnet 7 6 5 4 0 2 mm
field
Electronic stability program Micromechanical yaw-rate sensors 119
tem serves to avoid undesirable coupling be- To avoid excessive damping of this move-
tween the two sections. In order to suppress ment, the sensor must be operated in a vac-
unwanted external acceleration effects, the uum. Although the chip’s small size and the
opposing sensor signals are subtracted from somewhat simpler production process result
each other. The external acceleration effects in considerable cost reductions, this minia-
can be measured by applying summation. turisation is at the expense of reductions in
The high-precision micromechanical con- the measuring effect, which in any case is not
struction helps to suppress the effects of high very pronounced, and therefore of the achiev-
oscillatory acceleration which is several fac- able precision. It also places more severe de-
tors of 10 higher than the low-level Coriolis mands on the electronics. The system’s high
acceleration (cross sensitivity far below flexural stability, and mounting in the axis of
40 dB). Here, the drive and measurement gravity, serve to mechanically suppress the ef-
systems are rigorously decoupled from each fects of unwanted acceleration from the side.
other.
CDrv1
CDrv2 1
CDrv Det1
CDrv Det2
0,5 mm
υ Fig. 3
1 Comb-like structure
2
2 Rotary oscillator
CDet1 CDet2
3 Measuring axis
Ω -FC +FC CDrv Drive electrodes
3 CDet Capactive pick-off
æ UKI0044-1Y
FC Coriolis force
υ Oscillatory velocity
Ω = ∆CDet, measured
yaw rate
120 Electronic stability program Steering-wheel-angle sensors
Hall-effect vane 6
switches
The LWS1 uses 14 Hall-effect vane switches
6 Fastening sleeve to register the angle and the rotations of the
for steering column steering wheel. The Hall-effect vane switch is
Electronic stability program Steering-wheel-angle sensors 121
which plausibility tests are performed and 2 AMR steering-wheel-angle sensor LWS3 (principle)
information on angular position decoded
and conditioned ready for the CAN-Bus.
The bottom half of the assembly contains 1
the step-down gearing and the remaining five
Hall-effect vane switches.
The LWS1 was superseded by the LWS3 Fig. 2
1 Steering-column
due to the large number of sensor elements
shaft
required, together with the necessity for the 2 5 2 AMR sensor
magnets to be aligned with the Hall-IC. 6 elements
3 3 Gearwheel with
Magnetoresistive steering-wheel-angle sensor 4 7 m teeth
LWS3 4 Evaluation
The LWS 3 also depends upon AMR (aniso- electronics
5 Magnets
tropic magnetoresistive sensors) for its opera-
æ UFL0030Y
6 Gearwheel with
tion. The AMR’s electrical resistance changes n > m teeth
according to the direction of an external mag- 7 Gearwheel with
netic field. In the LWS3, the information on m + 1 teeth
angle across a range of four complete rota-
tions is provided by measuring the angles of 3 AMR steering-wheel-angle sensor LWS3
two gearwheels which are rotated by a third
gearwheel on the steering-column shaft. The
first two gearwheels differ by one tooth which
means that a definite pair of angular variables
is associated with every possible steering-
wheel position.
By applying a mathematical algorithm (a
computing process which follows a defined
step-by-step procedure) referred to here as a
modified vernier principle, it is possible to
æ UFL0031Y
2 Steering box
up to 360°, a single AMR angle-of-rotation 3 Steering-wheel-
sensor (LWS4) on the end of the steering shaft angle sensor
would be accurate enough for ESP (Fig. 4). 4 Steering rack
122 Electronic stability program Hall-effect acceleration sensors
UH = const · a
V
4
U0
1
Output voltage UA
3
Φ
Fig. 2
N
S
1 Hall-effect sensor 2 3 2
2 Permanent magnet
3 Spring a
4 Damping plate 1
4
IW Eddy currents IW
(damping)
UH Hall voltage 0
æ UAE0645Y
æ UAE0796E
왘 Miniaturization
Thanks to micromechanics it has become possi- Bosch was the first to introduce a product
ble to locate sensor functions in the smallest with a micromechanical measuring element
possible space. Typically, the mechanical dimen- for automotive applications.
sions are in the micrometer range. Silicon, with
its characteristics has proved to be a highly suit- This was an intake-pressure sensor for mea-
able material for the production of the very small, suring load, and went into series production
and often very intricate mechanical structures. in 1994. Micromechanical acceleration and
With its elasticity and electrical properties, yaw-rate sensors are more recent develop-
silicon is practically ideal for the production of ments in the field of miniaturisation, and are
sensors. Using processes derived from the field used in driving-safety systems for occupant
of semiconductor engineering, mechanical and protection and vehicle dynamics control
electronic functions can be integrated with each (Electronic Stability Program ESP). The
other on a single chip or using other methods. illustrations below show quite clearly just
how small such components really are.
왔 Micromechanical acceleration sensor
æ UAE0787E
100 m
æ UAE0788Y
cm
3,3
124 Automatic brake functions Overview
1 Block diagram
ESP
Deceleration
ACC HBA management/
CAN CDP standstill
HHC management
HDC
CDD Braking force
HFC
HRB
BDW Braking-force
distribution
ABS Coordination
TCS of wheel
VDC braking torque
æ UFB0776E
Hydraulic model
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_9, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Automatic brake functions Overview 125
Engine-speed sensor
Engine torque
Transmission
information
Safety logic
Lateral-acceleration
æ UFB0777E
sensor
Tilt sensor
126 Automatic brake functions Standard function
3 1
4
Braking force, rear wheels
Fig. 2
1 Ideal braking-force
distribution
2 Design braking-force
distribution
æ UFB0711E
3 Electronic braking-
Braking force, front wheels force distribution
4 Gain in rear-wheel
braking force
128 Automatic brake functions Additional functions
Good driver
Average
driver
Delay
act
1 3 5
iva
ted
2 4 R
Activation dea
c tiva
• Stop on an incline (> approx. 2%) ted
• Press brake pedal
• Engage 1st gear
Deactivation
æ UFB0713E
ted
ctiva
a
Functions de
• Default speed 8 km/h
Speed range 5…35 km/h
(can be adjusted by driver)
• Brake activation only when driving downhill
• Designed for off-road conditions
• Full functionality and power
only in 1st gear or reverse gear ted
tiva
Activation ac
• Switch
æ UFB0714E
Deactivation
• Switch
• High speed (> 60 km/h)
Automatic brake functions Additional functions 131
on
Braking
deceleration
Emergency braking range
without HFC
Brake pressure
Current
deceleration
r
we
Brake pressure
ce po
tan ing
Pressure in wheel-
sis rak
brake cylinders
as ith b
æ UFB0778E
æ UFB0779E
w
Time 0
Pedal force
132 Automatic brake functions Additional functions
r
we
ce po
tan ing
sis ak
as th br
æ UFB0780E
wi
0
Pedal force
Electronic Control Unit Directional stability 133
왘 Directional stability
Satisfactory handling is defined according to face, the side-slip angle becomes excessive
whether a vehicle maintains a path that accu- (curve 3). Although with a controlled yaw ve-
rately reflects the steering angle while at the locity the vehicle will rotate just as far around
same time remaining stable. To meet this sta- its vertical axis as in curve 2, the larger side-
bility criterion, the vehicle must remain consis- slip angle is now a potential source of instabil-
tently secure and sure-footed, without “plow- ity. For this reason the electronic stability pro-
ing” or breaking away. gram controls the yaw velocity and limits the
Dynamic lateral response is a critical factor side-slip angle β (curve 4).
in the overall equation. The response pattern
is defined based on the vehicle’s lateral mo- Dynamic lateral response
2
tion (characterized by the side-slip angle) and
its tendency to rotate around its vertical axis
(yaw velocity) (Fig. 1). 3
β 4
Vehicle
longitudinal axis
Vehicle horizontal axis
Lateral acceleration
Linear acceleration
æ UFA0013-1E
Rolling
Steering movement
134 Hydraulic modulator Development history
Hydraulic modulator
The hydraulic modulator forms the hy- Development history
draulic connection between the master cylin-
der and the wheel-brake cylinders and is The transition from 3/3 to 2/2 solenoid valve
therefore the central component of elec- was a milestone in the development of ABS.
tronic brake systems. It converts the control With 3/3 valves, which were used in genera-
commands of the electronic control unit and tion 2, the control functions for building up,
uses solenoid valves to control the pressures maintaining and reducing pressure could be
in the wheel brakes. carried out using just one valve. The valves
had three hydraulic connections to carry out
A distinction is made between systems that these functions. The disadvantages of this
modulate the brake pressure applied by the valve design were extremely expensive electri-
driver (Antilock Braking System, (ABS)) and cal control and great mechanical complexity.
systems that can build-up pressure automati- Control with the 2/2 valves of the current
cally (Traction Control System (TCS) and generations offers a less expensive solution.
Electronic Stability Program (ESP)). The following section describes how these
All systems are only available as dual-circuit valves work.
versions for legal reasons. Generation 8, which was introduced onto
the market in 2001, is designed as a fully
modular system. The hydraulic system can
therefore be tailored to meet the require-
ments of the respective vehicle manufacturer
such as with regard to value added functions,
comfort and convenience, vehicle segment
(up to lightweight commercial vehicles), etc.
Generation 8 is immersion-proof which
means that the hydraulic modulator can
withstand brief immersion in water.
6 5 4 3 2 1
Fig. 1
1 Electronic control
unit
2 Coil grid 7
3 Coils/solenoid
group
4 Solenoid valves
5 Hydraulic block 8 9
æ UFB0750-1Y
6 DC motor
7 Plunger pump
8 Low-pressure
reservoir
9 Pressure sensor
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_10, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Hydraulic modulator Design 135
ABS hydraulic modulator Moreover, the system features one pump ele-
With a 3-channel ABS system, this block fea- ment (return pump) and one low-pressure
tures one inlet valve and one outlet valve for reservoir for each brake circuit. Both pump
each front wheel and one inlet valve and one elements are operated by a shared DC motor.
outlet valve for the rear axle – a total of six
valves. This system can only be used in vehi-
cles featuring a dual brake-circuit configura-
tion. The two wheels at the rear axle are not
controlled individually, rather both wheels
are controlled according to the select-low
principle. This means that the wheel with the
HZ
IV IV
PE
M
AC
Fig. 2
HZ Master cylinder
RZ Wheel-brake
OV OV cylinder
IV Inlet valve
OV Outlet valve
PE Return pump
M Pump motor
RZ RZ RZ RZ AC Low-pressure
æ UFB0749-1E
reservoir
V Front
HL VR VL HR
H Rear
R Right
L Left
136 Hydraulic modulator Design
HZ
HSV SV
P
U
Fig. 3 PE
HZ Master cylinder IV IV M
RZ Wheel-brake
AC
cylinder
IV Inlet valve
OV Outlet valve
SV Switchover valve
OV OV
HSV High-pressure
switching valve
PE Return pump
M Pump motor
AC Low-pressure
RZ RZ RZ RZ
æ UFB0752-1E
reservoir
V Front
H Rear HL VR VL HR
R Right
L Left
ABS versions 137
왘 ABS versions
Hydraulic-modulator development
ABS 2
ABS 5.0
ABS 5.3/5.7
Weight
6,200 g ABS 8
3,800 g 2,600 g
< 2,000 g
Development of electronics
ABS 2 ABS 5.0 ABS 5.3 ABS 5.3/5.7 ABS 8
Fig. 1
Historical development
of ABS showing techno-
æ UFB0700E
logical advances:
1989 1993 1995 2001 Decreasing weight
accompanied by
increasing processing
power.
138 Hydraulic modulator Pressure modulation
HL VR
V Front
H Rear eccentric element, reduces the pressure speci-
R Right fied by the driver. The motor is actuated
L Left based on demand i.e. the motor is actuated
Hydraulic modulator Pressure modulation 139
Pressure modulation with ESP hydraulic switching valve that is closed at zero current.
modulators These two valves are required for active/par-
Pressure is modulated with ESP control using tially-active brake intervention (Fig. 2).
ESP hydraulics in the same way as described
for ABS. Unlike with ABS, however, the Pressure generation with ESP
wheel-brake cylinder and master cylinder are The pressure generation chain consists
also connected via a switchover valve that is of two self-priming pumps and a motor.
open at zero current and a high-pressure Plunger pumps are used, as for ABS, but these
pumps can generate pressure without requir-
2 Pressure modulation in ESP hydraulic modulator ing the primary pressure applied when the
driver presses the brake pedal. These pumps
a are driven by a DC motor based on demand.
The motor drives an eccentric bearing located
HSV USV on the shaft of the motor.
P
U
V Front
H Rear
HL VR R Right
L Left
140 Hydraulic modulator Pressure modulation
a b
1 1
2 2
Fig. 1
3 3 a ABS2
4b
b ABS5
4a 4b 1 Damping chamber
2 Constrictor
æ UFB0545-2Y
3 Return pump
5 5 4a 3/3 solenoid valve
4b 2/2 solenoid valves
5 Accumulator
chamber
142 Sensors for Brake Control Automotive applications
Resistant to
Multiple interference A
1st integration level SE SA SG
tap-off (analog) D
Fig. 1
SE Sensor(s)
Immune to
SA Analog signal Bus-
2nd integration level SE SA A interference SG
conditioning D compatible (digital)
A/D Analog-digital
æ UAE0037-1E
converter Immune to
Bus-
SG Digital control unit 3rd integration level SE SA A MC interference SG
D compatible (digital)
MC Microcomputer
(evaluation
electronics)
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_11, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
springer-vieweg.de
Chassis fundamentals
and design
Bernd Heißing, Metin Ersoy (Eds.) Despite the assistance provided by electronic control systems,
Chassis Handbook the latest generation of passenger car chassis still relies heavily on
Fundamentals, Driving Dynamics, conventional chassis elements. This book examines these conven-
Components, Mechatronics, tional elements and their interactions with mechatronic systems
Perspectives
within the context of driving dynamics. Chassis fundamentals and
2011, XXIV, 591p. 970 illus. HC.
design are described in the initial chapters, followed by a practical
€ (D) 96,29 | € (A) 98,99 | *sFr 120,00
ISBN 978-3-8348-0994-0 examination of driving dynamics and detailed descriptions and
explanations of modern chassis components. A separate section is
devoted to axles and the processes used during axle development.
This first English edition features a number of improvements over
the latest German edition, including revised illustrations and several
updates in the text and list of references.
Prices indicated with * are recommended retail prices including VAT for books; the € (D) includes 7% for
Germany, the € (A) includes 10% for Austria. Prices are subject to change without notice. Errors and omissions
excepted.
Fig. 1
a Chisel-type pole pin
æ SAE0974Y
1 2 3 4
Fig. 2
1 Permanent magnet
æ SAE0975Y
2 Solenoid coil
5 3 Pole pin
4 Steel pulse wheel
5 Magnetic field lines
Umax Umin
a
t
Fig. 3
b a Passive wheel-
t speed sensor
with pulse wheel
Voltage
b Sensor signal at
c constant wheel
æ SAE0977Y
æ SAE0976E
speed
c Sensor signal at
Time t
increasing wheel
speed
146 Sensors for Brake Control Wheel-speed sensors
1 Wheel hub
1 1
2 Roller bearing
3 Multipole ring
4 Wheel-speed sensor
2
b
2 1
3
IMR
I
1
Fig. 6
æ SAE0980Y
æ SAE0979Y
1 Sensor element
2 Multipole ring with 4
alternating north and
south magnetization
Sensors for Brake Control Wheel-speed sensors 147
This type of data-transmission using digital Compact dimensions combine with low
signals is less sensitive to interference than the weight to make the active wheel-speed sensor
signals from passive inductive sensors. The suitable for installation on and even within
sensor is connected to the ECU by a two- the vehicle’s wheel-bearing assemblies (Fig.
conductor wire. 10). Various standard sensor head shapes are
suitable for this.
8 Block diagram of Hall IC
ADC
Left
= (Left + Right)/2 - Center formation is also used for self-diagnosis.
쐌 Signal quality of the sensor:
Information about the signal quality of the
sensor can be relayed in the signal.
9 Signal conversion in Hall IC If a fault occurs the driver can be advised
that service is required.
a b
Fig. 9
O s1 a Raw signal
Voltage
Time t Time t
OS1 Upper switching
11 Coded information transfer with pulse-width-
modulated signals threshold
US1 Lower switching
a 90µs threshold
c 1440µs Fig. 11
a Speed signal when
reversing
0,74 s b Speed signal when
driving forwards
c Signal when vehicle
æ SAE0983Y
æ SAE0984Y
d 45µs is stationary
d Signal quality
of sensor,
self-diagnosis
148 Sensors for Brake Control Hall-effect acceleration sensors
V
UH = const · a
4
U0
1
Output voltage UA
3
Φ
Fig. 2
N
2
S
1 Hall-effect sensor 2 3
2 Permanent magnet
3 Spring a
4 Damping plate 1
4
IW Eddy currents IW
(damping)
UH Hall voltage
æ UAE0645Y
0
æ UAE0796E
Robert Bosch GmbH (Ed.) Bosch Professional Automotive Information is a definitive reference for auto-
Bosch Automotive Electrics and motive engineers. The series is compiled by one of the world´s largest auto-
Automotive Electronics motive equipment suppliers. All topics are covered in a concise but descriptive
5th ed. (Reprint) 2014. IX, 521 p. way backed up by diagrams, graphs, photographs and tables enabling the
595 illus. in color.
reader to better comprehend the subject. There is now greater detail on elec-
Softcover *€ 49,99 | € (A) 51,39 | sFr 62,50
tronics and their application in the motor vehicle, including electrical energy
ISBN 978-3-658-01783-5
management (EEM) and discusses the topic of inter-system networking within
vehicle. The series will benefit automotive engineers and design engineers,
automotive technicians in training and mechanics and technicians in garages.
Fig. 2 Ω
1 Frequency-determin-
ing coupling spring
2 Permanent magnet
3 Direction of
oscillation
3υ
4 Oscillating element
5 Coriolis acceleration
2 N
sensor
S
6 Direction of Coriolis
acceleration 1
7 Retaining/guide B
æ UAE0706-1Y
spring
Ω Yaw rate
υ Oscillating velocity
B Permanent-magnet 7 6 5 4 0 2 mm
field
Sensors for Brake Control Micromechanical yaw-rate sensors 151
tem serves to avoid undesirable coupling be- avoid excessive damping of this movement,
tween the two sections. In order to suppress the sensor must be operated in a vacuum.
unwanted external acceleration effects, the Although the chip’s small size and the some-
opposing sensor signals are subtracted from what simpler production process result in
each other. The external acceleration effects considerable cost reductions, this miniaturi-
can be measured by applying summation. sation is at the expense of reductions in the
The high-precision micromechanical con- measuring effect, which in any case is not
struction helps to suppress the effects of high very pronounced, and therefore of the achiev-
oscillatory acceleration which is several fac- able precision. It also places more severe de-
tors of 10 higher than the low-level Coriolis mands on the electronics. The system’s high
acceleration (cross sensitivity far below flexural stability, and mounting in the axis of
40 dB). Here, the drive and measurement gravity, serve to mechanically suppress the ef-
systems are rigorously decoupled from each fects of unwanted acceleration from the side.
other.
CDrv1
CDrv2 1
CDrv Det1
CDrv Det2
0.5 mm
υ Fig. 3
1 Comb-like structure
2
2 Rotary oscillator
CDet1 CDet2
3 Measuring axis
Ω -FC +FC CDrv Drive electrodes
3
æ UKI0044-1Y
Hall-effect vane 6
switches
The LWS1 uses 14 Hall-effect vane switches
6 Fastening sleeve to register the angle and the rotations of the
for steering column steering wheel. The Hall-effect vane switch is
Sensors for Brake Control Steering-wheel-angle sensors 153
which plausibility tests are performed and in- 2 AMR steering-wheel-angle sensor LWS3 (principle)
formation on angular position decoded and
conditioned ready for the CAN-Bus. The
bottom half of the assembly contains the step- 1
down gearing and the remaining five Hall-
effect vane switches.
The LWS1 was superseded by the LWS3 Fig. 2
1 Steering-column
due to the large number of sensor elements
shaft
required, together with the necessity for the 2 5 2 AMR sensor
magnets to be aligned with the Hall-IC. 6 elements
3 3 Gearwheel with
Magnetoresistive steering-wheel-angle sensor 4 7 m teeth
LWS3 4 Evaluation
The LWS 3 also depends upon AMR (aniso- electronics
5 Magnets
tropic magnetoresistive sensors) for its opera-
æ UFL0030Y
6 Gearwheel with
tion. The AMR’s electrical resistance changes n > m teeth
according to the direction of an external mag- 7 Gearwheel with
netic field. In the LWS3, the information on m + 1 teeth
angle across a range of four complete rota-
tions is provided by measuring the angles of 3 AMR steering-wheel-angle sensor LWS3
two gearwheels which are rotated by a third
gearwheel on the steering-column shaft. The
first two gearwheels differ by one tooth which
means that a definite pair of angular variables
is associated with every possible steering-
wheel position.
By applying a mathematical algorithm (a
computing process which follows a defined
step-by-step procedure) referred to here as a
modified vernier principle, it is possible to
æ UFL0031Y
2 Steering box
up to 360°, a single AMR angle-of-rotation sen- 3 Steering-wheel-
sor (LWS4) on the end of the steering shaft angle sensor
would be accurate enough for ESP (Fig. 4). 4 Steering rack
154 Sensotronic brake control Purpose and function
1 2 3 4 1 1
Fig. 1
1 Active wheel speed
Motr
C
onic
sensor with direction
A
N
sensing
2 Engine management SB
C
ECU
3 SBC ECU
4 Yaw rate and lateral
acceleration sensor
5 Hydraulic modulator
CA
N
and ESP)
6 Actuator unit with
pedal travel sensor
7 Steering angle
5 1 6 7
sensor
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_12, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Sensotronic brake control Purpose and function 155
By using a high-pressure accumulator, SBC optimum friction value is fully utilized. This
is capable of extremely rapid dynamic pres- results in a significant reduction of total
sure increases and thus offers the potential braking distance for hesitant drivers. The
for achieving short braking distances and highly dynamic braking force build-up of
excellent vehicle handling stability. Brake SBC exceeds that of conventional systems in
pressure modulation and active braking are this regard.
silent and produce no brake pedal feedback.
Consequently, SBC also satisfies demands Soft stop assist
for greater levels of comfort. SBC provides comfortable braking that stops
Braking characteristics can be adapted to the car with no jerking by automatically
the driving conditions (e.g. sharper response reducing the pressure just before the car
at high speeds or with more dynamic dri- comes to a complete stop. If more decelera-
ving styles). “Duller” pedal characteristics tion is desired, this function is not activated
allow the reduction of the braking effect, and SBC minimizes the braking distance.
which is necessitated by physics, to be
signaled to the driver before fading due Traffic jam assist
to overheating occurs. When traffic jam assist is activated, SBC
builds up a higher drag torque, which means
Additional SBC functions that the driver does not have to constantly
The auxiliary functions provided by SBC alternate between the accelerator and brake.
make a significant extra contribution to The vehicle is automatically braked and, if
safety and convenience. necessary, brought to a complete stop and
kept at a complete stop. This function can be
Hill hold control activated at speeds of 50 - 60 km/h.
After hill hold control is activated by a sig-
nificant increase in brake pressure while the Brake wiping
vehicle is stationary, the vehicle remains “Brake wiping” is an operation whereby
braked without the need to keep the pedal the film of water is regularly removed from
down. The hill hold control is automatically the brake disks in wet weather. It results in
released as soon as the driver has built up shorter stopping distances in wet conditions.
sufficient engine torque by depressing the You can take the information for activating
accelerator. This allows the driver to start the this function from the windshield wiper
car on a hill, for example, without activating signal, for example.
the parking brake system. Likewise, in other
situations in which the vehicle would roll
out of position if not braked, the driver does 2 Evolution of brake systems
which monitors the plausibility of every sys- Braking in the event of system failure
tem state at all times. In this way, the driver For safety reasons, the SBC system is de-
can be notified of any failures before critical signed so that in the event of any serious
states occur. If components fail, the system errors (such as failure of the power supply),
automatically provides the optimal remain- the system is switched to a state in which the
ing partial function to the driver. An exten- vehicle can be braked even without active
sive fault memory allows prompt diagnostics brake force support. When de-energized, the
and repair in the event of a fault. isolating valves establish a direct connection
An intelligent interface with CAN bus es- to the actuator (Fig. 3) and thus allow a direct
tablishes the connection to the discrete ECU. hydraulic connection from the actuator unit
The following functions are integrated there: to the wheel brake cylinders.
쐌 ESP (electronic stability program), To maintain optimum function even if
쐌 TCS (traction control system), the system fails, the plunger pistons in the
쐌 ABS (antilock braking system), illustration serve as a medium separator be-
쐌 Driver brake request calculation and tween the active circuit of the SBC and the
쐌 SBC auxiliary functions (assist functions). conventional front axle brake circuit. These
prevent any gas that might escape from the
high-pressure accumulator from reaching
the brake circuit of the front wheels, which
would diminish the instantaneous braking
power in the event of a system failure.
Brakes
LF RF LR RR
158 Active steering Purpose, design
Active steering
The development of vehicle steering sys- Purpose
tems is characterized by the consistent
introduction of hydraulic servo assist and The newly developed active steering can
the replacement of ball-and-nut-type steer- affect the steering forces and the steering
ing in the car by the easier and more inex- angle set by the driver. It fulfills the wish for
pensive rack-and-pinion steering. Recently, a direct steering ratio to improve handling at
electromechanical power steering has been low speeds. It also meets requirements for
displacing hydraulic power steering in small ensuring comfort, drivability and straight-
and lightweight cars. By law, however, pure running stability at high speeds. Active steer-
“steer-by-wire” technology is not yet per- ing is an initial step towards a “steer-by-
mitted in motor vehicles. European Union wire” function. Although it does not let the
safety regulations still require a mechanical car drive itself, it provides correction func-
connection between the steering wheel and tions and added comfort and convenience.
the wheels of the vehicle.
Design
All of these developments have the goal of
making vehicle handling as easy as possible The primary difference between active steer-
and to limit steering forces to a logical ing and a “steer-by-wire” system is the fact
amount. The best possible feedback about that the steering train, and thus the driver’s
the contact of the tires to the road is to be mechanical control of the steered front
ensured. This has a decisive impact on the wheels, is maintained during active steering.
driver’s ability to manage his or her task in
the control loop between driver, vehicle and
environment.
iv
iv max indirect
Fig. 1
Changing the ratio
iv mechanical
between the steering
wheel angle and the
iv min direct
median angle of the front
æ SFL0033E
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_13, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Active steering Purpose, design 159
Mechanical system smaller than that set by the driver (Fig. 1).
The steering train consists, as usual, of the When the electric motor is inactive, the
steering wheel, steering column, steering steering wheel controls the vehicle’s wheels
gear and tie rods. The special feature of the directly, as with conventional steering
new active steering is a differential gearbox systems.
(Fig. 2). For this purpose, a planetary gear
(6) is integrated with two input shafts and Hydraulic system
one output shaft in the steering gear. One The principle of differential steering usually
input shaft is connected to the steering requires a hydraulic servo assist to limit the
wheel, and the other drives an electric motor forces applied by hand to a logical amount.
(4) via a worm gear pair (3) as a reduction This is accomplished using an “open center”
stage. The connected ECU processes the steering valve specially adapted to the high
necessary sensor signals, controls the electric performance requirements. The vector su-
motor and monitors the entire steering perimposition of the positioning rates of the
system. drivers and engine can, in certain cases,
cause significantly higher rack-and-pinion
The electric motor and differential gearbox speeds than those of conventional steering
allow steering intervention at the front axle systems. The geometric flow of the vane-
to take place independently of the driver. type power steering pump with flow rate
At low speeds, the effective steering angle controller is designed for the theoretical
at the wheels is greater than the angle set maximum positioning rate. Regulation at
on the steering wheel, as the system adds a the output side provides a highly dynamic
part that is proportional to the steering and quiet energy supply for the active
angle. At high speeds, it subtracts a corre- steering system.
sponding amount so that the wheel angle is
1 2
Other vehicle sensors
(e.g. ESP): Fig. 2
• Steering wheel angle 1 Servotronic II valve
• Wheel speeds 2 Electromagnetic
• Reference speed block
3 4 3 Worm
4 Electric motor
5 Steering rack
1 6 Planetary gear
7 7 Worm gear
6 2
7 Fig. 3
1 Electronic
4 3 control unit
6 2 Pinion angle sensor
5 3 Substructure
æ SFL0034Y
æ SFL0035E
Braking forces
Lateral forces
æ SFL0036E
Fig. 4
Example: braking on
non-uniform road surface
Active steering Method of operation, safety concept, benefits of active steering for the driver 161
2 Passenger front
dissipated in a rela-
airbag tively gradual manner.
3 Driver front airbag This protects occu-
4 ECU pants from injury
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_14, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Occupant protection systems Seat belt, seat belt pretensioners 163
5 6 7 8 4 Airbag filled
80 – – Without passenger
40
Speed υ
restraint systems
s ––– With passenger
30 60 restraint systems
υ
20 40
1 2 3 4 Fig. 3
s 1 Firing cable
10 20
2 Firing element
3 Propellant charge
4 Piston
æ UKI0040-3Y
æ UKI0034-3E
0 20 40 60 80 ms
5 Cylinder
Time t 6 Wire rope
7 Belt reel
8 Belt webbing
164 Occupant protection systems Seat belts, seat belt pretensioners, front airbag
into contact with it. On contact with the up- 4 “Dynamic” inflation of a
per body, the airbag partly deflates in order driver airbag
to “gently” absorb impact energy acting on 0 ms
the occupant with noncritical (in terms of
injury) surface pressures and declaration
forces. This concept significantly reduces or
even prevents head and chest injuries.
æ UKI0041-1
flated is approx. 12.5 cm, corresponding to a
period of approx. 10 ms + 30 ms = 40 ms after
the initial impact (at 50 km/h with a solid
obstacle) (see Fig. 2). It takes 10 ms for elec-
tronic firing to take place and 30 ms for the 10 ms
airbag to inflate (Fig. 4).
In a 50 km/h crash, the airbag takes ap-
prox. 40 ms to inflate fully and a further
80-100 ms to deflate through the deflation
holes. The entire process takes little more
than a tenth of a second, i.e. the bat of an
eyelid.
Impact detection
æ UKI0041-2
Optimum occupant protection against the
effects of frontal, offset, oblique or pole
impact is obtained (as mentioned above) 20 ms
through the precisely coordinated interac-
tion of electronically detonated pyrotechni-
cal front airbags and seat belt pretensioners.
To maximize the effect of both protective
devices, they are activated with optimized
time response by a common ECU (trigger
unit) installed in the passenger cell. This in-
æ UKI0041-3
been optimized with the aid of crash data In the USA, the “low-risk” deployment
simulations. The first seat belt pretensioner method is currently preferred. This means
trigger threshold is reached within 8-30 ms that in “out-of-position” situations, only
depending on the type of impact, and the the first front airbag stage is triggered. In
first front airbag trigger threshold after ap- heavy impacts, the full gas inflator output
prox. 10-50 ms. can then be brought into effect by trigger-
ing both inflator stages. Another way of
The acceleration signals, which are influenced implementing “low-risk” deployment
by such factors as the vehicle equipment and with single-stage inflators and control-
the body’s deformation characteristics, are lable deflation vents is to keep the defla-
different for each vehicle. They determine the tion valve constantly open.
setting parameters which are of crucial im- 3. “Intelligent airbag systems”. The introduc-
portance for sensitivity in the analysis algo- tion of more and improved sensing func-
rithm (computing process) and, ultimately, tions and control options for the airbag
for triggering the airbag and seat belt preten- inflation process, with the accompanying
sioner. Depending on the vehicle manufac- improvement in protective effect, is in-
turer’s production concept, the deployment tended to result in a gradual reduction
parameters and the vehicle’s equipment level in the risk of injury. Such functional im-
can also be programmed into the ECU at the provements are:
end of the assembly line (“end-of-line pro- – Impact severity detection by improve-
gramming”). ments in the deployment algorithm or the
use of one or two upfront sensors, refer to
In order to prevent injuries caused by airbags “restraint system electronics”, RSE (Fig. 5)
or fatalities to “out-of-position” occupants These are acceleration sensors installed in
or to small children in child seats with auto- the vehicle’s crumple zone (e.g. on the ra-
matic child seat detection, it is essential that diator crossmember) which facilitate early
the front airbags are triggered and inflated in detection of impacts that are difficult to
accordance with the particular situations. detect centrally, such as ODB (offset de-
The following improvement measures are formable barrier) crashes, pole or under-
available for this purpose: ride impacts. They also allow an assess-
1. Deactivation switches. These switches can ment of the impact energy:
be used to deactivate the driver or passen- – Seat belt usage detection
ger airbag. The status of the airbag func- – Occupant presence, position and weight
tion is indicated by special lamps. detection
2. In the USA, where approximately 160 – Seat position and backrest inclination
fatalities have been caused by airbags, detection
attempts are being made to reduce aggres- – Use of front airbags with two-stage gas
sive inflation by introducing “depowered inflators or with single-stage gas inflators
airbags”. These are airbags whose gas in- and pyrotechnically triggered gas dis-
flator power has been reduced by 20-30%, charge valves (see also “low-risk” deploy-
which itself reduces inflation speed, infla- ment method)
tion severity and the risk of injury to – Use of seat belt pretensioners with
“out-of-position” occupants. “Depowered occupant-weight-dependent belt force
airbags” can be depressed more easily by limiters
large and heavy occupants, i.e. they have a – CAN bus networking of the occupant
reduced energy absorption capacity. It is protection system for communication and
therefore essential – above all with regard synergy utilization of data from “slow”
to the possibility of severe frontal impacts sensors (switches) in other systems (data
– for occupants to fasten their seat belts. on vehicle speed, brake operation, seat
Occupant protection systems Front airbag, side airbag 167
Fig. 5
1 Airbag with gas
inflator
2 iVision™ passenger
compartment
5 “Restraint system electronics” (RSE) electronic impact protection system
camera
1 1 3 1 2 1 1 3 OC mat
4 Upfront sensor
5 Central electronic
control unit with
integrated rollover
sensor
6 iBolt™
7 Peripheral pressure
sensor (PPS)
8 Seat belt
pretensioner with
propellant charge
9 Peripheral
æ UKI0039-4Y
acceleration sensor
(PAS)
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10 Bus architecture
(CAN)
168 Occupant protection systems Components
æ UKI0050Y
BLRL Belt lock (switch)
rear left
BLRC Belt lock (switch)
rear center
BLRR Belt lock (switch)
rear right
Terminal 30 Sleep ER
BL3SRL Belt lock (switch) PIC
Terminal 15R Switch CG 980
3rd seat row left 4
Up-/Down-
EEPROM FLIC +
BL3SRR Belt lock (switch) Terminal 31 CG 987 4
Converter 5V
3rd seat row right Terminal 31 Stabilizer 3.3V µC ADC R1...R4
PPSFD Peripheral pressure
Reset 1.8V TMS 470 R1 +4 FP FP FP FP
CROD Crash-Output (Titan F05)
4 13-16 9-12 5-8 1-4
sensor front driver OC/ACSD K-wire/Lin SPI 1 SPI 2
or
PPSFP Peripheral pressure SOS/ACSD CAN
sensor front passenger CAN
CAN low transreceiver
UFSP Up-front sensor CAN high TJA 1014 FLIC + 4
CG 987
passenger CAHRD 4
CAHRP R5...R8
PPSRD Peripheral pressure
UFSD, PASFD, 3 3xPAS4 WD +4
sensor rear driver PASFP Enable 4
SCON-CG 975
PPSRP Peripheral pressure 7 Switch Plausi-
BLFD, BLFP, Input bility FP FP
sensor rear passenger BLRL, BLRC, 17-20 21-24
FP Firing pellets 1-4 and
BLRR,
BL3SLR
BL3SRR Speed Y/Z sensor FLIC + 4
21-24 sensor SMB 100 CG 983
PAS4 SMG060-MM2R 4
3 interface
(triple)
Other abbreviations: PPSFD, CG 974
PPSFP, UFSP X/Y sensor X/Y sensor CG 987 + 4
FLIC Firing loop integrated PAS4
æ UKI0036-4E
Combined ECUs for seat belt is in the ignition switch. At present, prox-
pretensioners, front and side airbags imity-type seat belt buckle switches are
and rollover protection equipment used, i.e. Hall-effect IC switches which
The following functions are incorporated in detect the change in the magnetic field
the central ECU, also referred to as the when the buckle is fastened.
trigger unit (current list): 쐌 Setting of multiple triggering thresholds
쐌 Crash sensing by acceleration sensor and for two-stage seat belt pretensioners and
safety switch or by two acceleration two-stage front airbags depending on the
sensors without safety switch (redundant, status of belt use and seat occupation.
fully electronic sensing). 쐌 Watchdog (WD): Airbag triggering units
쐌 Rollover detection by yaw rate and low g, must meet high safety standards with re-
y and z acceleration sensors (refer to the gard to false activation in non-crash situa-
section on “Rollover sensing”). tions and correct activation when needed
쐌 Prompt activation of front airbags and (crashes). For this reason, the ninth-gen-
seat belt pretensioners in response to dif- eration airbag triggering unit (AB 9), in-
ferent types of impact in the vehicle longi- troduced in 2003, incorporate three inde-
tudinal direction (e.g. frontal, oblique, pendent, intensive monitoring hardware
offset, pole, rear-end). watchdogs (WDs):
쐌 Activation of rollover protection equip- WD1 uses its own independent oscillator
ment. to monitor the 2-MHz system clock.
쐌 For the side airbags, the ECU operates in WD2 monitors the realtime processes
conjunction with a central lateral sensor (time base 500 µs) for correct and com-
and two or four peripheral acceleration plete sequence. For this reason, the safety
sensors. The peripheral acceleration sen- controller (SCON; refer to the AB 9 block
sors (PAS) transmit the triggering com- diagram) sends the microcomputer 8 dig-
mand to the central ECU via a digital inter- ital messages, to which it must respond
face. The central ECU triggers the side by sending 8 correct replies to the SCON
airbags provided the internal lateral sensor within a time window of (1 ± 0.3) ms.
has confirmed a side impact by means of a WD3 monitors the “background”
plausibility check. Since the central plausi- processes such as the “built-in self-test”
bility confirmation arrives too late in the routines of the ARM core for correct op-
case of impacts into the door or above the eration. The microcomputer’s response to
sill, peripheral pressure sensors (PPS) in- the SCON in this case must be provided
side the door cavity are to be used in the within a period of 100 ms.
future to measure the adiabatic pressure On AB 9 sensors, analyzer modules and
changes caused by deformation of the output stages are linked by two serial pe-
door. This will result in rapid detection of ripheral interfaces (SPIs). The sensors
door impacts. Confirmation of “plausibil- have digital outputs whose signals can
ity” is now provided by PAS mounted on be transmitted directly via SPIs. Signal
supporting peripheral structural compo- changes can then be detected by line con-
nents. This is now unquestionably faster nections on the printed circuit board, or
than the central lateral acceleration else they have no effect and a high level of
sensors. functional reliability is achieved. Deploy-
쐌 Voltage transformer and energy accumu- ment is only permitted if an independent
lator in case the supply of power from the hardware plausibility channel also detects
vehicle battery fails. an impact and enables the output stages
쐌 Selective triggering of the seat belt preten- for a limited period.
sioners, depending on monitored belt 쐌 Diagnosis of internal and external func-
buckle status: firing only takes place if key tions and of system components.
170 Occupant protection systems Components
쐌 Storage of fault types and duration with element from the DC current. This isolation
crash recorder; readout via the diagnostic from the vehicle system voltage prevents in-
or CAN bus interface. advertent triggering, even after an accident
쐌 Warning lamp activation. when the airbag remains untriggered and
the occupants have to be freed from the
Gas inflators deformed passenger cell by emergency
The pyrotechnical propellant charges of the services. It may even be necessary to cut
gas inflators for generating the airbag infla- through the (permanent +) firing circuit
tion gas (mainly nitrogen) and for actuating wires in the steering column wiring harness
seat belt pretensioners are activated by an and short-circuit them according to positive
electrically operated firing element. and ground.
The gas inflator in question inflates the
airbag with nitrogen. The driver airbag built Passenger compartment sensing
into the steering wheel hub (volume approx. Occupant classification mats (“OC mats”),
60 l) or, as the case may be, the passenger which measure the pressure profile on the
airbag fitted in the glove box space (approx. seat, are used to distinguish whether the seat
120 l) is inflated in approx. 30 ms after deto- is occupied by a person or by an object. In
nation. addition, the pressure distribution and the
pelvic bone spacing are used to indicate the
AC firing occupant’s size and thus indirectly the occu-
In order to prevent inadvertent triggering pant’s weight. The mats consist of individu-
through contact between the firing element ally addressable force sensing points which
and the vehicle system voltage (e.g. faulty in- reduce their resistance according to the FSR
sulation in the wiring harness), AC firing is principle force sensing resistor) as pressure
used. This involves firing by alternating-cur- increases.
rent pulses at approx. 80 kHz. A small capac-
itor with a capacitance of 470 nF incorpo- In addition, absolute weight measurement us-
rated in the firing circuit in the firing ele- ing four piezo-resistive sensors or wire strain
ment plug electrically isolates the firing gauges on the seat frame is also under devel-
opment. Instead of using deformation ele-
7 Force sensing “iBolt” (functional principle) ments, the Bosch strategy for weight mea-
a
surement involves the use of “iBolts” (“intel-
F=0N
6 ligent” bolts) for fixing the seat frame (seat
cradle) to the sliding base. These force sens-
ing “iBolts” (Fig. 5 and 7) replace the four
fixing bolts otherwise used.
SN
They measure the weight-dependent
change in the gap between the bolt sleeve
1 and the internal bolt with integral Hall-
Fig. 7 2 3 4 5
a Initial position
element IC connected to the sliding base.
F 1000 N
b In function, i.e. in b Four different concepts are under considera-
overload stop tion for detecting “out-of-position” situa-
tions:
1 Sliding base 쐌 Determining the position of the occu-
2 Sleeve SN
pant’s center of gravity from the weight
3 Solenoid holder
æ UKI0048-1Y
– “Time of flight” (TOF) principle. This 8 Quick activation of retractable head restraints during
system sends out infrared light signals a convertible rollover test
and measures the time taken for the re- a
flected signals to be received back, which
is dependent on the distance to the oc-
cupant. The time intervals being mea-
sured are of the order of picoseconds!
– “Photonic mixer device” (PMD)
method. A PMD imaging sensor sends
out “ultrasonic light” and enables spatial
æ UKI0042-1
vision and triangulation.
– “iVision” passenger compartment stereo
video camera using CMOS technology
(the option favored by Bosch, see system
diagram of “restraint system electronics, b
æ UKI0042-2
ment sensing has yet been able to establish
itself. Jaguar, for example, uses occupant
classification mats combined with ultrasonic
sensors.
c
seat belt pretensioners and head airbags are locks initiate an automatic passenger airbag
activated. In convertibles, the extendable shutoff, which must be indicated by a special
rollover bars or the extendable head lamp.
restraints are also triggered. For further improvement of the deploy-
ment function and better advance detection
Method of operation of the type of impact (“pre-crash” detection),
The earlier sensing concepts (from mid- microwave radar, ultrasound or lidar sensors
1989) were based on an omnidirectional (optical system using laser light) will be used
sensing function. In other words, a rollover to detect relative speed, distance and angle of
in any direction from the horizontal should impact for frontal impacts (Fig. 9).
be detectable. For this purpose, manufactur- In connection with pre-crash sensing, re-
ers used either all-around-sensing accelera- versible seat belt pretensioners are being devel-
tion sensors that were AND-wired to an om- oped. They are electromechanically actuated,
nidirectional tilt sensor or level gauge (water i.e. they take longer to tighten, and must be
level principle) and gravitation sensors (sen- triggered earlier, i.e. 150 ms before initial impact,
sor closes a spring-assisted reed switch when by pre-crash sensing alone (prefire function).
contact with the ground is lost). A further improvement in the restraining
effect will be provided by airbags integrated
Current sensing concepts no longer trigger in the thorax section of the seat belt (“air
the system at a fixed threshold but rather at belts”, “inflatable tubular torso restraints” or
a threshold that conforms to a situation and “bag-in-belt” systems), which will reduce the
only for the most common rollover situa- risk of broken ribs in older occupants.
tion, i.e. about the longitudinal axis. The The same path for improving protective
Bosch sensing concept involves a surface functions is being pursued by engineers de-
micromechanical yaw sensor and high-reso- veloping “inflatable headrests” (adaptive
lution acceleration sensors in the vehicle’s head restraints for preventing whiplash
transverse and vertical axes (y and z axes). trauma and cervical injuries), “inflatable car-
The yaw rate sensor is the main sensor, pets” (prevention of foot and ankle injuries),
while the y and z-axis acceleration sensors two-stage seat belt pretensioners and “active
are used both to check plausibility and to seats”. In the case of “active seats”, an airbag
detect the type of rollover (slope, gradient, made of thin steel sheet (!) is inflated to pre-
curb impact or “soil-trip” rollover). On vent occupants sliding forwards under the
Bosch systems, these sensors are incorpo- lap belt (“submarining effect”).
rated in the airbag triggering unit.
Deployment of occupant protection sys- To reduce wiring harness size and complex-
tems is adapted to the situation according to ity, firing circuit networking is being devel-
the type of turnover, the yaw rate and the oped. The “Safe-by-Wire” bus (originally de-
lateral acceleration, i.e. systems are triggered veloped by Philips) is an example of a prod-
after between 30 and 3000 ms by automatic uct for such applications. More recently, a
selection and use of the algorithm module consortium of companies, including Bosch,
appropriate to the type of rollover. has been formed with the aim of developing
a line production “Safe-by-Wire” firing bus.
Outlook The current designation for the “Safe-by-
Wire” bus is the “ASRB2.0” bus, short for
In addition to front airbag shutoff using de- “Automotive safety restraints bus 2.0”. The
activation switches, soon there will also be DSI bus (developed by Motorola for TRW)
an increasing number of child seats with also continues to be used. However, it is still
standardized anchor systems (“ISOFIX child entirely uncertain whether a firing bus con-
seats”). Switches integrated in the anchoring cept will become established.
Occupant protection systems Outlook 173
Signals from “slow" sensors or switches (e.g. regarding transmission reliability and speed
the seat belt buckle or ISOFIX switches) can are extremely high.
also be transmitted by the firing bus. The first phase of legally required mea-
Efforts are currently underway in the USA sures for improving pedestrian protection
to standardize the “ASRB2.0” bus concept. can be expected in 2005. Therefore, OEMs
Standardization is imperative in order to en- urgently need to develop solutions for their
sure market penetration and the potential new models to meet the pedestrian trauma
usability of standardized firing elements limits which will then be in force and which
with standardized bus device electronics. in most cases will be achievable by passive
Efforts are underway to integrate the re- design features (body shape, use of impact-
ceiver electronics in the firing elements, absorbing materials). Enactment of the
without increasing diameter and while second stage of the legislation (in approxi-
maintaining a maximum cap extension of mately 2010) providing for even lower
5 mm. This would increase the usability of trauma limits will then require active safety
standard gas inflators. features, i.e. pedestrian impact will have to
be detected and protective actuators
In addition to the “firing bus”, there will actuated.
also be a “sensor bus” for networking the
signals of “fast” sensors. This will make it Pedestrian impact sensing will initially be im-
possible to combine inertial sensors, for in- plemented by deformation or force sensors in
stance, in a “sensor cluster”. The overall pic- the fender and possibly the front of the hood,
ture of vehicle dynamics can then be made e.g. in the form of
available via CAN to the evaluation chips of 쐌 Fiber-optic cables which utilize the
various vehicle systems. Conceivable sensor “microbending” effect
buses include TT CAN time-triggered 쐌 Film pressure sensors (as in occupant
CAN), TTP time-triggered protocol) and classification mats)
FlexRay, the option currently favored by 쐌 Acceleration sensors or knock sensors on
Bosch. The requirements of a sensor bus the fender crossmembers
Fig. 9
150 ms before impact:
“Prefire” (triggering of
reversible seat belt
pretensioner)
æ UKI0051Y
10 ms before impact:
“Preset” (determining
the trigger thresholds of
the airbags)
174 Occupant protection systems Outlook
At a later date contactless sensors will be 3. Networking of passive and active safety
used to reliably distinguish between a pedes- features.
trian and an object. These might, for in- The first example of the synergetic use of
stance, be: sensors in different safety systems will be
쐌 Ultrasonic sensors or implemented in ROSE II (rollover sensing
쐌 External stereo video cameras II). ROSE II will utilize the signals avail-
able on the CAN from the speed vector
The protective actuators consist of A-pillar sensor for improved detection of soil trip
airbags and hoods which can be raised by rollover situations. The speed vector sen-
approx. 10 cm so that, if impacted by a sor is part of the ESP system and is used
pedestrian’s head, they are not depressed far to measure the deviation of the vehicle
enough to come in contact with the rigid motion vector from the vehicle’s longitu-
engine components due to the greater clear- dinal axis. The ESP, on the other hand,
ance. As a result, the trauma suffered is less can utilize the signals from the ROSE II
severe. low-g acceleration sensors (y and z axes)
for improved detection of unstable
In Europe, 7000 pedestrians are killed every dynamic handling situations.
year. That Figure represents 20% of the total
number of road accident fatalities. In Japan,
for example, there are 17,000 pedestrian
deaths a year. For this reason, legislators in
Japan are deliberating whether to make
safety features for pedestrians a legal
requirement as in Europe.
Application
Piezoelectric bimorphous bending elements
and two-layer piezoceramic elements are
used as acceleration sensors in passenger-
restraint systems for triggering the seat-belt
tighteners, the airbags, and the roll-over bar.
æ UAE0797Y
bending stress results (Fig. 1).
The voltage resulting from the element
bend is picked off at the electrodes attached Fig. 2
to the sensor element’s outside metallised 1 Bending element
surfaces.
The sensor element shares a hermetically- For signal conditioning, the acceleration
sealed housing with the initial signal-ampli- sensor is provided with a hybrid circuit
fication stage, and is sometimes encased in comprised of an impedance converter, a fil-
gel for mechanical protection. ter, and an amplifier. This serves to define
the sensitivity and useful frequency range.
The filter suppresses the high-frequency sig-
nal components. When subjected to acceler-
1 Bending element from a piezoelectric ation, the piezo bending elements deflect to
acceleration sensor
such an extent due to their own mass that
they generate a dynamic, easy-to-evaluate
non-DC signal with a maximum frequency
a 1 which is typically 10 Hz.
a =0
UA= 0
By “reversing” the actuator principle and ap-
plying voltage, the sensor’s correct operation
can be checked within the framework of
OBD “on-board diagnosis”. All that is re- Fig. 1
quired is an additional actuator electrode. a Not subject
b 1 to acceleration
a=0
Depending upon installation position and b Subject
UA>0
to acceleration a
direction of acceleration, there are single
æ UAE0293-1Y
1 Piezoceramic
or dual sensors available (Fig. 2). Sensors bimorphous bending
are also on the market which are designed element
specifically for vertical or horizontal mount- UA Measurement
ing (Fig. 2). voltage
176 Occupant protection systems Surface micromechanical acceleration sensors
a b
1
3
2
Fig. 1
a Side-airbag sensor
3
b Front-airbag sensor
æ UAE0799Y
1 Casing
1 2
2 Sensor and evalua-
tion chip
3 Cover
Occupant protection systems Surface micromechanical acceleration sensors 177
either integrated with the sensor on the Dual micromechanical sensors (4) are used
same chip, or is located very close to it. for instance in the ESP Electronic Stability
Closed-loop position controls with electro- Program for vehicle dynamics control: Basi-
static return are also available. cally, these consist of two individual sensors,
The evaluation circuit incorporates func- whereby a micromechanical yaw-rate sensor
tions for sensor-deviation compensation and a micromechanical acceleration sensor
and for self-diagnosis during the sensor are combined to form a single unit. This re-
start-up phase. During self-diagnosis, elec- duces the number of individual components
trostatic forces are applied to deflect the and signal lines, as well as requiring less
comb-like structure and simulate the room and less attachment hardware in the
processes which take place during acceler- vehicle.
ation in the vehicle.
2 Comb-like structure of the sensor measuring element 4 Lateral-acceleration sensor combined with yaw-rate
sensor (dual sensor)
100 m
3 Fig. 2
2 1 Spring-mounted
seismic mass with
1 electrode
2 Spring
3 Fixed electrodes
æ UAE0678Y
a Fig. 4
a Acceleration in
sensing direction
Ω Yaw rate
1 2 3
C2 CM C1
Fig. 3
1 Spring-mounted
seismic mass with
electrodes
a
2 Spring
3 Fixed electrodes
with capacity C1
4 Printed Al conductor
5 Bond pad
6 Fixed electrodes
with capacity C2
æ UAE0801Y
C1 C2 CM
7 Silicon oxide
a Acceleration in
4 5 6 7
sensing direction
CM Measuring capacity
178 Occupant protection systems Seat occupancy sensing
1 Sensor mat with OC-ECU 2 Installation of the OC sensor mats in the front seats
2
Fig. 1 1
1 ECU
æ UAE0894Y
æ UAE0895Y
1
Fig. 2 1
1 OC-ECU
2 Airbag ECU
Occupant protection systems Seat occupancy sensing 179
Dynamic response:
Change of the profile as a function of time.
3 Seat profile of the human body (a), with assignment of the distance between hip-bones to the person’s weight (b)
a A b cm
B
22
Distance between hip-bones
X1
18
B A
14 Fig. 3
a Seating profile
X1 X2 b Diagram
X2 10 A Child with distance
between hip-bones
æ UAE0896E
X1
0 B Adult with distance
20 40 60 80 100 kg
between hip-bones
Weight
X2
180 Driving assistance systems Critical driving situations, accident causes, measures
1 Fatalities (a) and economic cost (b) resulting from road traffic accidents in 2001
a b
50 200
'000 1 1 bn
40 160
Road deaths
30 120 3
Costs
3
20 80 4 4
Fig. 1
1
æ UAE0967-2E
1 Total fatalities 10 40 3 4
2 2
(in thousands) 2
2 Ratio of pedestrians 0 0
3 Personal injuries EU U.S.A Japan EU U.S.A Japan
4 Property damage
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_15, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Driving assistance systems Accident causes, measures, application areas, safety and convenience 181
Driving assistance systems with multiple 2 Causes of accidents outside built-up areas in
Germany in 2000
applications (Fig. 3) fall into these two
categories: Failure Rear-ending
쐌 Safety systems aimed at preventing to keep
in lane
accidents
Fig. 2
쐌 Comfort and convenience systems with 1 Changing lanes
the long-term goal of “semi-automated 2 Failure to stay
driving”. in lane
A further distinction is made between: 3 Rear-ending
쐌 Active systems which intervene in vehicle 4 Frontal impact
Other 5 Collision with object
dynamics
æ UAE0968-1E
Blind-spot detection
Collision
warning Lane-changing Assisted
alarm night vision
ing the vehicle during the parking maneu- ent sensors to enable complete linear control
ver based on the measurement it has taken even in city areas (ACC Stop & Go) and at
of the parking space. The long-term aim for high vehicle speeds. The basis for this is a
Bosch in the development of parking sys- complex fusion of radar and video data.
tems is the autonomous parking assistant – By combining the linear control system
a system that actively intervenes in vehicle with a (similarly video-based) lateral
handling and automatically maneuvers the control (lane-following assistance) system,
vehicle into the parking space. Detection of an autonomous vehicle handling system is
potentially dangerous objects in the blind conceivable in theory. The lane-following
spot is performed by close-range sensors assistance system is a further development
(ultrasound sensors, radar sensors or lidar of the lane-changing alarm.
sensors). Video sensors can be effectively
used to improve visibility for the driver at The active safety functions (top left quadrant
night. Lane change alarms use a video cam- of diagram) encompass all features intended
era to extrapolate the course of the lane in to prevent accidents. The high demands
front of the vehicle and warn the driver if placed on them regarding functionality and
the vehicle leaves its lane and the direction reliability extend from the simple parking as-
indicators have not been operated. The sistance brake, which automatically brakes the
warning can be an acoustic signal through vehicle before it hits an obstruction, to com-
the sound system speakers or a mechanical puter-aided driving maneuvers for the pur-
indication in the form of a small turning pose of avoiding collisions. Intermediate
force applied to the steering wheel. stages are represented by “predictive safety
ACC, which is already installed in vehi- systems” (PSS). They extend from pre-pres-
cles, is among these vehicle handling systems surizing the brakes when a potential hazard is
(upper right quadrant). A further develop- detected, to brief sharp application of the
ment of this system aims to relieve the bur- brakes, through to automatic emergency brak-
den on the driver in slow-moving congested ing, which always triggers full braking force if
Fig. 4 traffic – first by braking the vehicle to a the vehicle computer detects that a collision is
1 77 GHz long- complete stop, and then by moving it for- unavoidable.
range radar ward again at low speed (ACC LSF: ACC low Comfort and convenience systems and
Long range ≥150 m speed following). driver support systems (such as ParkPilot
Horizontal
A later stage of development aims to uti- and adaptive cruise control, or “ACC”) are
aperture angle: ±8°
2 Infrared
lize interaction between a number of differ- the foundations on which Bosch will be
night vision range
≤150 m 4 Vehicle all-around visibility, detection range of sensors
Horizontal
aperture angle: ±10°
3 Video medium range
≤80 m 5
Horizontal
aperture angle: ±22°
4 Ultrasound 4
ultra-close-range
≤3 m
Horizontal
aperture angle: ±60° 3
(individual sensor)
æ UAE0989Y
5 Video 1 2
rear-end
Horizontal
aperture angle: ±60°
Driving assistance systems Safety and convenience, electronic all-around visibility 183
developing safety systems to full production cally applies the brakes to maintain the dis-
maturity over the next few years. In the tance previously specified by the driver. As
medium term the aim of these systems is to soon as the scanned area is clear of vehicles,
reduce the severity of accidents, while the ACC accelerates the vehicle again up to the
longer-term objective is to prevent accidents preset cruising speed. In this way, the vehicle
altogether. integrates harmoniously within the traffic
flow. It not only allows the driver to reach
Electronic all-around visibility his/her destination in a more relaxed state, it
also increases the level of attention that can
Using “electronic all-around visibility”, be devoted to traffic conditions. The ACC
numerous driving assistance systems are data can also be used to warn the driver if
achievable – both for warning and for active the vehicle is approaching too close to the
intervention purposes. Fig. 4 shows the pro- vehicle in front.
tection areas covered by present and future
all-around visibility sensors. The current Bosch ACC version meets these
requirements by automatically intervening
Close range in the braking and engine management
Due to the limited availability of sensors, systems at speeds of > 30 km/h. At lower
only a few driving assistance systems have speeds, the system is deactivated.
been able to become established on the mar- The second generation (ACC2, beginning
ketplace so far. One of them is “ParkPilot”, in 2004) features a doubling of the horizon-
which uses ultrasound technology to moni- tal scanning range to ± 8° and a substantial
tor the close-range area. Ultrasound sensors reduction in size. The device is thus the
integrated in the vehicle’s fenders ensure that smallest radar distance control system with
the driver is given an acoustic or optical integrated ECU.
warning if the vehicle approaches an obstruc-
tion. The sensors have a range of ≤ 1.5 m. The ACC is the first driving assistance system
next (fourth) generation of ultrasonic sen- which not only warns the driver but also
sors will have a range of ≈ 2.5 m. These sen- actively intervenes in vehicle dynamics.
sors will then be suitable for the future, more The current version of ACC is designed par-
demanding, advanced functions of parking ticularly for use on expressways. Due to its
space measurement and parking assistant. larger beam width, ACC2 will be able to as-
The close-range system now in wide- sess the traffic situation better, in particular
spread use has been well accepted by users when negotiating curves or filtering in, and
and is already standard equipment on some will also be usable on highways with tight
models. curves.
Fig. 1
1 ACC sensor &
control unit
6
2 Engine management
ECU
3 Active brake 2 4
intervention via ESP 6
6
C
6
A
N
3
æ UAE0732-1Y
engines) or EDC
(diesel engines)
6 Sensors
7 Transmission shift
control (optional)
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_16, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Adaptive cruise control (ACC) System overview 187
2 ACC function. The main application of the ACC is driving in low to high-density traffic
a b c
200
180
140 160
120
100
80
200
180
140 160
120
100
200
80
180
140 160
120
100
80
Fig. 2
a Approaching
a vehicle in front
while driving at a
constant speed
200
(desired cruising
180
speed)
b Braking and driving
140 160
behind a slower
vehicle
c After the vehicle in
front turns, the ACC
æ UFS0011Y
120
vehicle accelerates
returns to the
100
desired cruising
80
change, for example because another vehicle 쐌 Engine management with electronic
veers in or out and thus becomes the rele- torque control, such as Motronic with
vant object being followed, this changeover ETC (gasoline engine) or EDC (diesel
is also automatic and requires no driver engine) and
intervention. 쐌 Electronic brake modulation with active
pressure build-up (generally based on the
The ACC system adjusts the speed by elec- electronic stability program, ESP).
tronically accelerating, within certain limits,
via the engine management system or elec- So that ACC functions reliably (even in
tronically activates the brake system for curves) ESP provides, in addition to the de-
braking deceleration. celeration capacity, important sensor signals
for variables related to vehicle dynamics.
Components Furthermore, for complete driving comfort,
The system needs a ranging sensor to detect ACC should ideally be combined with an
vehicles driving ahead and to measure the automatic transmission.
distance and speed of these vehicles. In Special switches for control and display
Europe, a millimeter wave radar (frequently allow the driver to activate the function and
called a microwave radar) is used for this set both the desired speed and the desired
purpose. The sensor function and controller time gap. The instrument cluster then
logic are built into a single unit which, for displays the set values and additional ACC
this reason, is called the “ACC sensor & information.
control unit” (ACC-SCU).
Radar Engine
sensor
Gearbox
Brake
Adaptive cruise control (ACC) Ranging radar 189
υ2
Fig. 1
fD
d d Distance
fC Carrier frequency
Lights ! fC fD Differential
frequency
υ1 Driving speed of
æ UFS0001Y
vehicle 1
υ1 υ2 Driving speed of
vehicle 2
υrel = υ2- υ 1 υrel Relative speed
190 Adaptive cruise control (ACC) Ranging radar
fp Positive frequency
shift due to Doppler d
effect Distance
τ Propagation time
Adaptive cruise control (ACC) Ranging radar 191
Frequency f
mentioned previously, this ambiguity fC ftot2
effect
hits the target (Fig. 4). d ~ fp + fn Distance
Distance υrel ~ fp – fn Relative
speed
192 Adaptive cruise control (ACC) Ranging radar
4 Antenna diagrams of various radar beam lobes radar lobes. The quality of the amplitude
comparison depends on the overlapping
a area of the individual antenna diagrams
(Fig. 4a).
1 2 3 To “illuminate” an angle range of 8°, three
radar lobes arranged in parallel with a full
width at half maximum of +/– 2° are used
(Fig. 4b).
Signal amplitude
Radar modules
Function
The actual measuring unit of the ACC-SCU
is the radar transceiver(RTC).
It has the following tasks:
0
Angle
쐌 Generating high-frequency radar radia-
b tion in the 76-77 GHz range
100 쐌 Dividing and emitting three radar beam
lobes simultaneously
쐌 Subsequently receiving the echoes of this
10 radiation reflected by objects
Fig. 4 쐌 Preparing these echoes for the down-
Signal amplitude ratio
a Overlapping area of
stream digital electronic signal processing
the antenna diagram
1
b Illumination range of
the radar beam In addition, an electronic circuit is included
lobes for highly accurate stabilization of the trans-
2 /1
0.1 mit frequency and for generating a linear
3 /2
1 Left beam frequency modulation.
2 Center beam 3 /1
æ UFS0014E
3 Right beam 0.01 A Bosch radar unit has the following specifi-
2/1 Signal amplitude - 8° - 4° 0 4° 8°
ratio of beam lobe 2
cations (Table 1):
Angle
to beam lobe 1 etc.
On the other hand, the reflective properties 1 Characteristic data of a Bosch radar unit
for a located target are unknown. There-
First generation Second generation
fore, no direct conclusion can be made as
Range 2 to 120 m 2 to 150 m
to the angle of incidence of the wave from
Measurable
the information provided by the radar
relative speed –50 to +50 m/s –50 to +50 m/s
beam.
Angle range ±4° ±8°
On the contrary, these prerequisites are met Separability 0.85 m; 1.7 m/s 0.85 m; 1 m/s
æ UFS0015Y
+ 8V supply
Switch on signal for
VCO Gunn oscillator
Voltage- FLL-ASIC frequency
control circuit Input for saw-tooth
controlled control voltage
oscillator Harmonic
mixer DRO Frequency monitoring
Mic.
+ 5V supply
12.65GHz
2 Radar signal, left
3-channel
pre-amplifier ASIC 2 Radar signal, center
Directional coupler
Lens Antenna Mixer Ground
æ UAE0705-1E
component
10 Frequency tuning 8 11 quency energy generated is fed to a distribu-
10 9 tion network via a rectangular hollow con-
pin
11 Power tuning pin ductor integrated into the oscillator block.
received signals
4 Three antenna separate transceiver branches with identical
patches structure. Each of these branches contains a
5 Seven mixer diodes double-ring structure and terminates in a
rectangular element called the antenna
Gunn oscillator patch, each of which has the function of
The heart of the oscillator (Fig. 7) is an elec- emitting and receiving one radar beam lobe.
tronic semiconductor component that con- Attached to the antenna patches are ele-
sists of gallium arsenide and which, because ments made of dielectric material that pre-
of its doping, has the property of generating focus the emitted energy and beam it to an
electromagnetic oscillations at a very high antenna lens which, in a way similar to an
frequency when direct current is applied. optical lens, causes the radar radiation to
The component is called the “Gunn focus sharply into three superimposed
diode”, named after American physicist cones, each with an aperture angle of
I. G. Gunn. In 1963, Gunn discovered the ef- approx. 4° (8° for second generation ACC).
Adaptive cruise control (ACC) Ranging radar 195
2
Fig. 9
5
A Transmit beam
B Receive beam
1 Microstripline circuit
5 3 on fused quartz
2 Wilkinson power
splitter with two
surface resistances
3 Directionally
selective separation
4 of transmitted and
æ UFS0002Y
received signals
4 Three antenna
patches
A B
5 Seven mixer diodes
The electronic circuit of the radar trans- 12.65 GHz, and which has the structure of a
ceiver receives the useful signals over two DRO (dielectric resonator oscillator). This is
signal lines each. an electronic oscillator circuit consisting of a
power transistor and a dielectric resonator
Preamplifier element for frequency stabilization (like
The total transmission power of the ACC quartz clock circuits, this oscillator is highly
radar is only about 1 mW. Therefore, the stable with regard to service life and temper-
electric voltages of the useful signal are so ature).
small that before it is processed further, the
signal must be amplified by a factor of sev- The energy of the DRO is fed to a “har-
eral million in a specially designed, three- monic mixer” located on the distribution
channel, integrated amplifier circuit. network. There it is mixed, at six times its
basic frequency (6 · 12.65 = 75.9 GHz), with
The frequency-dependent amplification a small portion of the power taken from the
curve of the amplifier circuit ensures accu- main oscillator, resulting in mixed frequen-
rate processing of echo signals, even from cies from 100-1100 MHz.
faraway objects.
This signal is the input variable for the elec-
Echoes from faraway objects return higher tronic frequency control. After being split
mixed frequencies and low voltage ampli- again (the frequencies are still too high for
tudes, as the more distant the reflecting further processing with standard electron-
object is, the less radar radiation is received. ics), it is fed to a “discriminator” and con-
Therefore, these echoes must be amplified verted to a voltage proportional to the fre-
even more. quency. The difference from the setpoint
value, which is also in the form of a voltage,
Frequency control electronics is measured. In case of deviations, the sup-
Because all important information is con- ply voltage of the oscillator is modified until
tained in the frequency of the useful signal, the setpoint value is again reached.
fluctuations of the transmission frequency The setpoint value itself is a changing
would falsify measurement results, as would variable. The signal processing unit sets this
deviations from the time linearity of the variable to attain the change of the transmit
transmitted frequency ramp. frequency of 200 MHz during one millisec-
ond; this change is required for the measure-
The Bosch ACC radar is thus equipped with ment.
fast frequency control electronics which,
approximately every millionth of a second, Furthermore, fixed, programmed maximum
compare the emitted frequency with the and minimum values ensure that even if the
current setpoint value and adjust it accord- frequency control fails, the frequency cannot
ingly. leave the permitted range.
1 ACC sensor and control unit (ACC-SCU) 2 ACC sensor and control unit (ACC-SCU)
(second generation) (cross-section diagram, first generation)
1 2 3 4
Fig. 2
1 Printed circuit
board 1
2 Oscillator block
3 Beam sources
(dielectric rod
antenna)
4 Lens
5 Contact of the
lens heater
6 Printed circuit
board 3
æ UFS0039Y
æ UFS0005Y
8 7 6 5 7 Printed circuit
board 2
8 Radar transceiver
unit
198 Adaptive cruise control (ACC) ACC sensor and control unit
Fig. 3
Dual printed circuit
board concept for first-
3 ACC sensor and control unit (ACC-SCU) (electrical components)
generation ACC, single
printed circuit board
concept for second- Plus (Term. 87)
76,5 GHz Signal- Regulation Plus (Term. 15)
generation ACC
Radar Processing Processing Unit
CAN
transceiver Unit + voltage regulator
11 Dielectric resonator Diagnosis
oscillator (DRO) (2 W) (2 W) (1 W + 8 W) Ground
12 Dielectric rod
antenna 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
13 SRAM
14 Flash
15 16-bit
microcontroller
16 Terminal,
5V (digital)
17 Switch, 3A
18 MQS plug with CAN
transceiver
19 Gunn oscillator
10 ASIC CC610
11 Switching controller,
4.1 V 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
12 DSP 56002
æ UFS0003E
13 Regulator, 8V Radar transceiver unit Circuit board 1 Circuit board 2 Circuit board 3
14 Terminal, 5V
with connector
(analog)
15 K-line interface
Adaptive cruise control (ACC) ACC sensor and control unit 199
tion to the vehicle electrical system and the 5 ACC adjustment in horizontal and vertical directions
vehicle CAN bus, as well as interference sup- (front view)
y
pression chokes and capacitors.
Due to the integrated connections, all
three conductors form one electrical unit.
These flexible connections allow the entire
printed circuit board assembly to be folded
and thus arranged in a space-saving way in Fig. 5
1
1 Adjusting screw 1
the overall unit (Fig. 4).
for vertical
adjustment
Housing and adjustment device 3
2 Screw 2
The Bosch radar sensor controller unit has (fixed bearing)
a die cast aluminum housing. The way in 3 Lens
which the electronic printed circuit boards 4 Adjusting screw 3
for horizontal
are installed in the housing ensures opti-
adjustment
mum dissipation of heat losses.
æ SFS0019Y
2 x x Axis for vertical
adjustment
On the outside of the housing, three pivot 4 y Axis for horizontal
eyes with plastic ball joint shells as fastening adjustment
elements. They hold three ball head screws
with threads that grip the plastic elements These screws are arranged at an angle
of the holder. that allows the unit to pivot in two levels
(Fig. 5). In a vertical direction, this occurs by
turning on screw 1 (the x-axis is the pivot
axis) and in a horizontal direction by turn-
4 ACC sensor and control unit (ACC-SCU) ing on screw 3 (the y-axis is the pivot axis).
(mechanical structure)
Here, screw 2 serves as the fixed bearing and
does not move.
1
8 Adjusting screws
9 common wheel alignment check procedures. (for the specific
The accuracy of ACC sensor adjustment, vehicle)
meaning the accuracy with which the sensor 9 Sensor holder
200 Adaptive cruise control (ACC) ACC sensor and control unit
is aligned to the vehicle axis, is very impor- The requirements for the accuracy of the
tant for the correct function of the ACC. alignment are determined by the lane pre-
diction, angle evaluation and plausibility
Horizontal misalignment can impair loca- algorithms (calculation processes). Mis-
tion of the target, because this in particular alignment of the sensor has the same effect
causes the angle determination of vehicles on these functional components as an offset
driving ahead to be misinterpreted. As a error. When the horizontal misalignment is
result, the proximity behavior would be about 0.3° or more, the impaired function
diminished, possibly causing a vehicle in a becomes noticeable to the driver. Therefore,
neighboring lane to be selected as the target the required alignment accuracy should be
object. significantly less than this value.
Vertical misalignment of the sensor can
negatively affect the sensor range and cause
errors in determining the angle.
3
1
Fig. 6
1 Lens
æ UFS0020Y
2 Radar transceiver
3 Beam sources
(dielectric rod
antenna)
Adaptive cruise control (ACC) ACC sensor and control unit 201
EEPROM
CC 610
Input saw−tooth Flash
control voltage D/A
10 bit ADR
SRAM 2 CANH
16 DSP 16−bitµC
CAN
24 4
K line
CONTROL Sc
Right radar signal SDADC
12 bit 3 2
2
XTAL
æ UFS0006E
Ground Ground
Q SPU RPU Q
202 Adaptive cruise control (ACC) ACC sensor and control unit
An additional integrated DAC (digital-to- where are carried out. The duration of one
analog converter) outputs a staircase-shaped cycle is 80-100 ms. The program required
voltage ramp. It serves as the setpoint value for this sequence is stored in a separate SPU
for the FLL regulation (frequency locked Flash EEPROM.
loop, refer to the section on “Frequency con- The objects with the attributes “distance”,
trol”) and generates a linear modulation of “speed”, “angle” etc. are transmitted to the
the transmit frequency. While this voltage is RPU via the serial interface. The function of
ramping up, the three mixed radar signals the RPU is described in a separate section.
are amplified by the preamplifier and digi-
tized with a resolution of 12 bits, filtered and The single-chip controller of the RPU con-
subjected to a FFT (fast Fourier transform). tains all switching modules such as the CPU
The FFT allows the time signals to be con- core, RAM, CAN controller, ADC (analog/
verted to frequency signals very quickly digital converter), counter, digital interfaces
(Fig. 8). to the EEPROM (programmable, non-
The DSP controls the chronological se- volatile read/write memory), the SPU, the
quence of the modulation and retrieves the diagnosis module and the clock generating
results from the CC610 control circuit via oscillator.
the parallel interface. The data are stored The program stored on an integrated flash
temporarily in an SRAM with fast read/write EEPROM can also be modified by the vehi-
access. Once the two double ramps for fre- cle manufacturer in the vehicle if additional
quency modulation have been run through, interfaces are provided.
the arithmetic operations described else
1.5
V
Voltage
-1.5
0 0.0002 0.0006 0.001 s
Time
mV
60
Voltage level (absolute)
40
20
æ UFS0021E
0
Fig. 8 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 Hz
a Time signals Frequency
b Frequency signals
Adaptive cruise control (ACC) ACC sensor and control unit 203
The analog/digital converters monitor the The control function for the lens heater
voltages. If, for example, the measured sup- activates the heating wire in the lens in cold
ply voltage falls below a certain value, the weather. Once the lens surface is heated, no
ACC function is no longer permitted. Like- snow or ice can settle on it. Both ice and
wise, the stabilized supply voltages that are snow can, to a certain extent, dampen the
generated are tested for certain limit values. radar beams and limit the intended range.
In case of an error, the ACC function is Although a monitoring function would
disabled, a “disabled” message sent to the ensure that the ACC function would be
display, and a fault code stored in the EEP- disabled in such a case, this would limit
ROM. the availability of the system under these
extreme ambient conditions. Pulse width
The CAN interface module allows reliable modulation allows the lens heater to be flex-
digital communication with the partner ibly activated depending on the temperature
ECUs in the vehicle. The CAN bus has be- and the supply voltage.
come established as the standard serial data
transfer method in motor vehicles. The Voltage regulators
usual transfer rates are 250 to 500 Kbit/s. The digital and analog components need a
These high transfer rates require special constant voltage supply in order to work
precautions to be taken. These include suit- without errors. This is provided by several
able filter components, which prevent inter- voltage regulators. The battery voltage sup-
ference from harmonic waves that could, plied by the battery and generator would
for example, impair radio reception in the destroy the sensitive components. Due to
vehicle. the threat of malfunction, any voltage peaks
of ±100 V would have to be filtered out, as
To allow diagnosis in the workshop, it is would a superimposed alternating voltage
necessary to store any faults that occur. An of ±2 V. The ACC-SCU must also withstand
EEPROM is installed in the ACC-SCU for polarity reversal of the battery or starting of
this purpose. Part of it is dedicated as fault the vehicle with a 24V car battery.
storage memory. In conjunction with a test The division into two voltage regulators is
device, its contents can be read out and in- necessary to dissipate the heat loss gener-
terpreted for workshop diagnosis. In addi- ated. They supply the analog and digital
tion, the vehicle manufacturer can store components of the RPU, SPU and RTC with
other typical data for the vehicle in the voltage.
EEPROM.
The diagnosis module is the bidirectional The Gunn oscillator is supplied by an 8V
interface to the diagnostic tester. If the diag- voltage regulator.
nostic tester sends the “read fault memory”
command, this message is interpreted by the
controller of the RPU. The controller reads
out the data from the EEPROM and con-
verts them into a protocol that the diagnos-
tic tester can understand. The diagnosis
module also has a protective function to
protect the sensitive controller from the
rough operating environment of the vehicle.
204 Adaptive cruise control (ACC) Composite system
CAN
ESP electronic stability program Displays and controls
Electronic Sensor Deceleration Set "speed" Selected "Target object
stability signal pre- control "time gap" detected"
program (ESP) processing
æ SFS0022E
indication
Sensors
Adaptive cruise control (ACC) Composite system 205
Method of operation of the safety concept In the case of an ACC error shutoff, the
The error messages of the individual moni- vehicle can continue to be used with no
toring functions are centrally evaluated in restrictions of other functions. The vehicle
the ECU. The fault response takes place in does not need to be immediately brought
a differentiated manner according to the into the workshop for service.
severity of the faults that occur and the
momentary driving situation. In principle, there are only a few compo-
nents in the ACC ECU that can be detected
The possible responses are as follows: by only one monitoring function. In most
쐌 ACC control continues with no restric- cases, depending on the nature of the
tions, no fault display, fault code storage fault, various monitoring systems may be
for workshop diagnosis activated.
쐌 An ACC deceleration intervention ends,
followed by fault display and fault code The following example demonstrates how
storage for workshop diagnosis the monitoring levels complement each
쐌 ACC control aborts immediately with other. Let us assume a fault in the power
fault display and fault code storage for supply for the controller units:
workshop diagnosis. The component monitoring system provi-
des a voltage test for this purpose by feeding
Furthermore, a distinction is made between the voltage into a monitoring path and com-
reversible and irreversible faults: paring it to fault thresholds. However, this
쐌 Reversible faults disable the ACC control requires that the controller to be monitored
for the duration of the fault detection still works correctly, despite the assumed
only voltage deviation.
쐌 Irreversible faults disable the ACC control However, if the assumed fault leads to a
for the duration of the driving cycle. malfunction of one of the two controller
units, this can be detected by the mutual
Therefore, in all fault events, ACC is again control of the internal communication.
available if no more faults are detected after However, in this example the most likely
the next “ignition on”. The sole exception: scenario is total failure of both controllers,
after misalignment of the sensor is detected, which will be detected by function monito-
the ACC function must be re-enabled in the ring in the partner ECUs as a CAN timeout.
workshop.
Most entries into fault code storage for
workshop diagnosis fall into one of the
following groups:
쐌 ECU faults (which require the ECU to be
replaced)
쐌 Deviations of the operating voltage
쐌 Overheating
쐌 Misalignment of the sensor
쐌 Hardware errors of the CAN bus
쐌 Errors in communication with the
partner ECUs
쐌 Receiving an error signal from a partner
ECU.
Adaptive cruise control (ACC) History of radar 209
왘 History of radar
Technology borrowed from the animal world While radar systems used in aviation and ship-
RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) is a ping operate at frequencies between 500 MHz
system that uses radio waves to locate distant and 40 GHz, the frequency band approved for
objects and is traditionally employed primarily ACC is 76...77 GHz.
in aviation and shipping. It has also been widely
used for military applications since the devel- Stages in the development of RADAR
opment of radar-assisted air defences in the The development of electromagnetic detecting
Second World War. More recent areas of ap- and ranging equipment with long-range capa-
plication include space exploration, weather bilities was an enormous challenge to the de-
forecasting and, now, motor vehicles where it is signers. Only a minute part of the energy origi-
used to measure the distance between vehicles nally transmitted was reflected back by the tar-
for the ACC (Adaptive Cruise Control) system. get. For that reason a very high-energy signal
that is concentrated in as narrow a beam as
The idea for RADAR came from the sonar possible has to be produced. This demands
(Sound Navigation and Ranging) system which highly sensitive transmitters and receivers using
uses sound echoes to determine the distance signals with a wavelength that is shorter than
and position of objects, and which itself was the dimensions of the target.
copied from the navigation techniques of certain The development of radar technology was
animals. Bats, for example, make high-pitched marked by the following milestones and per-
sounds with frequencies in the ultrasonic range sonalities:
of 30...120 kHz. The echoes that bounce back 1837 Morse: The telegraph becomes widely
off solid objects are picked up by the bat’s highly established. Here, electrical currents are
sensitive ears. That information then helps the used for the first time in communicating
bat to find its way around and to locate its prey. over longer distances.
1861/1876 Reis and Bell: Replacement of the
telegraph by the telephone provides a
much more direct and user-friendly method
of telecommunication
1864 Maxwell, Hertz and Marconi:
Existence of “radio waves” is theoretically
and experimentally confirmed. Radio
waves are reflected off metal objects in
precisely the same way as light is reflected
by a mirror.
1922 Marconi: The pioneer of radio provides
the impetus for the continuation of earlier
research into radio ranging
æ UFS0038Y
1
Fig. 1
1 Speedometer;
LEDs for displaying
the desired cruising
speed (“ACC
active”)
2 Relevant target
object detected
(“ACC active”)
3 “Selected distance”
display with vehicle
symbols (lights up
for 6 seconds after
ACC is activated or
entries are made)
or “ACC inactive”
æ UFS0007Y
error message
or “Clean sensor”
prompt 2 3 4
4 “Standby”
Adaptive cruise control (ACC) Control and display 211
æ UFS0008Y
shown that drivers find it more useful to (“ACC passive”)
have larger increments for ACC. For exam- Select and display
ple, instead of increments of approximately the setpoint
1 km/h used for conventional cruise control, distance for three
distance increments
increments of 5 or 10 km/h haven proven
(“ACC active”)
useful for ACC. 3 ACC control elements on the steering wheel (example)
2 “+” button:
These larger increments make it easier to Activate the speed
adjust the desired cruising speed over wider displayed by the
ranges, for example when changing from a speedometer
construction zone to “open-road” driving on (“ACC passive”)
Select the desired
the expressway and vice versa. 1
cruising speed
in increasing
There are four functions for setting ACC: increments of
10 km/h
1. Accepting the actual speed as the desired 2 (“ACC active”)
cruising speed (Set). 3 “–” button:
Similar function
3 to the “+” button,
2. Accepting the next higher increment than
but selects the
the actual speed (Set +). desired cruising
4 speed in decreasing
3. Accepting the next lower increment than increments of
the actual speed (Set –). 10 km/h
4 “I/O” button:
Switch the ACC
4. Accepting the stored desired cruising
system on and off
æ UFS0009Y
speed (R Resume).
in “off” status
and switching
“ACC active” to
“ACC passive”
212 Adaptive cruise control (ACC) Control and display
STEP–
ation range, all manufacturers offer at least
Off 0 three different settings in the range of 1.0 to
– 2.0 s (time gap).
be displayed.
1 2 3
Fig. 5
“Object detected” display
a Small knob
b Step switch
In addition to the absolutely necessary
c Button for stepping displays of the “desired cruising speed” and
through a program “desired distance”, the “object detected”
sequence display has also proven useful. It informs
Some combination of these is offered de- the driver when the ACC sensor has found
1 “Green” area,
pending on the operating concept. After it is a relevant object (such as a car driving ahead
long distance
initially set, the desired cruising speed can of it).
2 “Yellow” area,
medium distance be adjusted by holding down and/or tap-
3 “Red” area, ping, in the increments mentioned above
short distance (Step +)/(Step –).
Adaptive cruise control (ACC) Control and display 213
If a detected object is moving slower than 6 Display of settings for “desired distance” and
the currently set desired cruising speed, it is “desired time gap”
classified as a control object.
æ SFS0025E
2 “Yellow” area,
Specifically, if the sensor’s view is impaired, medium distance
for example by a thick coat of wet snow, 3 “Red” area,
there is a shutoff with an indication of the short distance
impairment.
7 Versions of the “Object detected” display
Deactivation
As with conventional cruise control, ACC is
deactivated by pressing an off button or us- a
ing the brake pedal. Deactivation also occurs
in case of impermissible operational states
of the vehicle or if the vehicle falls below the
minimum control speed.
A No relevant object
B Relevant object
detected
214 Adaptive cruise control (ACC) Detection and object selection
3 xS Sensor axis
C α Angle of deviation of
the object from the
sensor axis
216 Adaptive cruise control (ACC) Detection and object selection
Thus the determination of dyc depends on In the example shown in Fig. 2, a vehicle
the type of description of the vehicle’s own driving in the left lane in a stationary curve
course, for which various methods exist. with the curvilinear course A has an ACC
Some of them are described in greater detail control system that homes in on object 1, a
below. vehicle driving ahead of it. The ACC vehicle
follows this vehicle as desired by the driver.
In a second step, a lane probability “lp” is cal- The straight course B, on the other hand,
culated for each measuring cycle. This speci- mistakenly considers a slower object 2 in the
fies the probability with which the radar ob- right-hand lane, for example just prior to a
ject ahead is in the vehicle’s own lane. Here, curve. As a result, the driver of the ACC
the vehicle’s own lane is described using vehicle experiences an inconvenient and
geometric principles that take into consider- implausible deceleration of his or her own
ation both the “lane width” and variables vehicle.
such as “uncertainty of course definition”.
Therefore, to lessen the risk of incorrect
The lane probability “lp” is the input vari- object selection illustrated in this example,
able for the integral variable “plausibility” of reliable curve prediction is of great benefit.
an object “plaus”. This variable is a ratio that
determines the relevance of the object de- The basic variable for determining the
pending on the frequency and certainty of course is the “trajectory curvature”. It de-
the measurement. It also takes into account scribes the change of direction of the ACC
characteristics of the sensors such as “accu- vehicle as a function of the path the vehicle
racy of angle determination” and “detection has already driven. To determine the future
capability.”
If there is a positive lane probability for
the vehicle’s own lane, the variable “plaus” 2 Course prediction and object selection
(plausibility) can be based on it. However, if
the object in the current measurement is not
in the vehicle’s own lane or is not measured B
at all, “plaus” is reduced.
1
course, this information can be supple- ESP sensor data for calculating the curvature
mented with the current and past positions Common ESP systems have, in addition to
of moving or stationary objects. the yaw rate sensor, three other sensors that
allow the following curvature calculation:
Future ACC systems will use navigation sys-
tems and video systems with image process- To calculate the curvature ks from the steer-
ing capabilities to determine the curvature. ing wheel angle δ, two other parameters are
required, the steering gear reduction ratio isg
Determining the curvature and the wheelbase dax. These parameters al-
The curvature k describes the change of di- low a very good approximation of ks under
rection of a vehicle as a function of the path the typical conditions for ACC:
already traveled. It is calculated as follows:
ks = δ /(isg · dax)
R = 1/k Also, to calculate the curvature ka from the
lateral acceleration ay, the driving speed υx is
The curvature of the vehicle trajectory can used:
be determined by various sensors on the
ka = ay/υx2
vehicle, but the prerequisite for all calcula-
tions is that they are used outside certain To calculate the curvature kv from the wheel
limit ranges of vehicle dynamics. Therefore, speeds, the relative difference of the wheel
they do not apply to situations in which the speeds ∆υ/υx and the lane width day are
vehicle skids or a greater wheel slip occurs. needed. To keep influences from the drive to a
minimum, the difference ∆υ = (υl – υr) and
To determine the course, currently available the driving speed are also measured on the
ACC systems use an offset-corrected yaw non-driven axis.
rate. This is obtained either directly from the
kv = ∆υ/(υx · day)
ESP system from the signals of the steering
wheel angle sensor, lateral acceleration sen- Although all of the specified methods can be
sor, wheel speed sensor and yaw rate sensor used to determine the curvature, not all are
or determined by the ACC system itself equally well suited to different operating
using an offset correction. conditions. They particularly differ in cross-
wind, banked roads, and tolerances of the
The yaw rate dψ/dt as the rotation of the wheel radius and with regard to measure-
vehicle around its vertical axis, describes the ment sensitivity in various speed ranges.
current curvature ky as the driving trajectory As Table 1 shows (grid), the curvature ky
with the driving speed υx: from the yaw rate is the best suited for the
methods considered as a whole.
ky = (dψ/dt) / υx
Generally, the trajectory curvature is aver- However, there is a further increase in signal
aged, for example using simple low-pass quality if one or all signals are used for mu-
filtering. tual comparison. Specifically, this is possible
if the ACC is equipped with a vehicle
dynamics control system (such as ESP).
Then, all of the sensors listed above are
components of the system.
218 Adaptive cruise control (ACC) Detection and object selection
Method Curvature
from from yaw rate from lateral from wheel
steering wheel angle acceleration speeds
ks ky ka kv
Robustness against –– + + +
crosswind
Robustness against –– + –– +
banked roads
Robustness against o + + –
wheel radius tolerances
Measuring sensitivity at ++ o –– –
low speeds
Measuring sensitivity at – o ++ –
high speeds
Suitability of each + + very well suited, + well suited, o moderately well suited,
curvature – not well suited, – – not at all suited
Table 1
4 Test setup in Bosch research lab: Using radar sensors to detect moving objects
æ UFS0030Y
220 Adaptive cruise control (ACC) ACC control
Radar Determination of
Level 2
object detection course curvature
Object selection
Level 3
course prediction, tracking
쐌 While ACC is operating, the driver can one vehicle is in the range of this predicted
disable the ACC control by depressing the course, usually the vehicle directly ahead is
accelerator. Thus he or she can attain a used for the control system.
much higher speed than the set desired
cruising speed. Ideally, the vehicle selected is the one that
provides the lowest setpoint acceleration at
In both situations, the driver may not be the controller output. However, this requires
aware of the great difference between the a feedback loop linking the controller value
actual and set speeds. The ACC vehicle to the target vehicle selection. Once the target
speed control system assists the driver in vehicle is selected, a setpoint acceleration is
these situations by means of a moderate calculated based on the distance and relative
control response. speed. The setpoint distance results from the
desired or setpoint time gap τSet set by the
Tracking control driver:
The second step selects the vehicle driving
dSet = τSet · υF
ahead that is to be used for the measure-
ment. To do so, the object data are com- The setpoint time gap is usually in the range
pared to the geometry of the vehicle’s own from 1 to 2 seconds; the values tend to be
predicted (predefined) course. If more than larger at slower speeds.
Actuation systems
(engine management Longitudinal
Vehicle with braking system control
ESP sensors transmission control)
Wheel speed
Yaw rate
Steering wheel angle Acceleration
Acceleration signal
ACC controller
This range can be logically divided into 쐌 The limited detection range of the sensor
three steps so that the driver can be offered in tight curves also leads to situations in
three time gap settings: which the tracking control can no longer
쐌 “Close” detect a selected target vehicle. In this sit-
쐌 “Medium” uation, the curve control of ACC prevents
쐌 “Far” the car from immediately accelerating
An example of these is illustrated in Fig. 3. again.
A k Curvature
C 1
C 2αRange Radar detection
range
dRange ⬵ 2αRange/k
224 Adaptive cruise control (ACC) ACC control
2d ·莦
υrel = –冪莦莦 a
υ2 υ1 > υ2 a
υ rel = υ 2 - υ 1 æ UFS0035E
d
For various value pairs of d and a, the table shows the maximum approach speed that can be compensated for.
Medium deceleration must be based on a smaller value than the maximum deceleration, as the deceleration is generally
attained slowly.
d a –υrel –υrel
m m/s2 m/s km/h
50 –1 10 36
100 –1 14 51
150 –1 17 62
50 –2 14 51
100 –2 20 72
Table 1 150 –2 24 88
Adaptive cruise control (ACC) Further developments 227
1 Environment sensors
ranlose
ge
Fig. 1
3
C
Assistance systems
with multisensors gain
widespread use in
motor vehicles
2
a Measurement trip
with video sensors
that recognize traffic
signs
b Driving with ACC on
expressways or in
1
“stop-and-go” traffic.
1 Long range:
The 77-GHz radar
maintains contact
to the next vehicle
m
ahead in the lane;
id u
it detects distance
e e
and relative speed
M ng
ra
as a basic function
for driving with ACC
(range 150 m,
detection angle
±8°). g e
2 Close range:
a n
One or more close- r
range sensors g
(enhanced ultra-
Lon
sonic sensors, radar,
lidar) measure the
wide environment in
front of the vehicle;
this provides good
detection of tight
cut-in maneuvers.
3 Medium range:
A camera measures
the course of the
lane ahead of the
car for driving with
æ UFS0036Y
object dimensions.
Adaptive cruise control (ACC) Further developments 229
Fully automatic starting with ACC full speed Predictive safety functions
range (FSR) ACC2 is the core of future predictive safety
An even more future-oriented system than systems (PSS). If ACC detects a critical
ACCplus is ACC full speed range (FSR) traffic situation in the first level (PSS1), the
from Bosch. In addition to the signals from brake linings are applied to the brake disks
the long-range radar, the system processes and the brake assist is set for a possible panic
information from a video camera and, in braking. Then, if the driver hits the brakes,
some cases, close-range sensors. fewer valuable fractions of a second are
The system detects obstacles in front of required for full deceleration effect.
the vehicle – particularly those at close range
– even more quickly than ACCplus. Thus Further expansion stages of the predictive
ACC FSR is even better suited to stop-and- safety system will include functions for
go traffic, even on city thoroughfares. warning the driver of impending collisions
by means of a short, sharp brake impulse
When the vehicle in front restarts, the addi- (PSS2) and automatic emergency brake
tional information obtained using the video interventions to reduce the severity of
camera allows fully automatic startup with- unavoidable accidents (PSS3).
out driver confirmation. For legal reasons,
however, this function will be restricted to a
relatively short period, up to approximately
ten seconds after the vehicle comes a com-
plete stop. After that, the driver must restart
manually without any assistance.
Parking systems
On virtually all motor vehicles, the bodies Vehicles with rear-end protection normally
have been designed and developed in such a have only 4 ultrasonic sensors in the rear
way as to achieve the lowest possible drag fender. Additional front-end protection is
coefficient values in order to reduce fuel provided by a further 4 to 6 ultrasonic sen-
consumption. Generally speaking, this sors in the front bumper (Fig. 3).
trend has resulted in a gentle wedge shape The system is automatically activated when
which greatly restricts the driver’s view reverse gear is engaged or, for systems with
when maneuvering. Obstacles can only be additional front protection, when the speed
poorly discerned – if at all. falls below a threshold of approximately
15 km/h. During operation, the self-test
Parking aid function ensures continuous monitoring of
with ultrasonic sensors all system components.
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_17, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Parking systems Parking aid with ultrasonic sensors 231
æ UKD0084-2E
to have a smaller angle in order to avoid in-
terference from ground reflections. A com- Comparator Bandpass Amplifier
promise is needed here so that obstacles can
be reliably detected.
2 Calculating the distance from a single obstacle 5 Antenna radiation diagram of an ultrasonic sensor
(example)
3
0°
0 dB
-30° 30°
-10
dB
c a b 1 2
Fig. 5
-60° - 20 60° 1 Horizontal
dB 2 Vertical
2 1
æ UKD0085-2Y
æ UKD0083-1Y
a= 冑
c2 –
(d2 + c2 – b2)2
4d2
æ UKD0082-1Y
Fig. 3
æ UKD0093Y
1 Sensor
2 Decoupling ring
3 Installation housing
4 Bumper
232 Parking systems Parking aid with ultrasonic sensors
Warning elements
The warning elements display the distance Range Distance Visual indicator Acoustic
from an obstacle. Their design is specific to s LED indicator
the vehicle, and they usually provide for a I < 1.5 m green beeping
combination of acoustic signal and optical sound
display. Both LEDs and LCDs are currently II < 1.0 m green + yellow beeping
used for optical displays. sound
Term.15,30, 31 Usensors
Ustab. UWarning
elements
VDD
Vehicle C Sensor
signal interface
interface CPU 1
CAN- RAM Acoustic
interface EEPROM warning
interface 2
ROM
Diagnostics Visual
æ UKD0086-1Y
External
æ UKD0087-1E
æ UKD0094Y
æ UKD0095Y
Further development 11 Parking space measurement
1
Extended range
The present sensor range of about 150 cm
is sometimes perceived to be too short by 2 3
accustomed parkers. For this reason, a new
sensor with a range up to 250 cm is cur-
rently under development. Due to greater
levels greater packaging density of the elec-
tronics, it is also much smaller in size than
the present generation of devices. This is a
welcome improvement, particularly with
regard to increased pedestrian safety a
requirements for fenders.
Oscil- Trans-
1 2 lator former
Fig. 1
3 Receive/
1 Piezoceramic transmit Ultrasonic
2 Decoupling ring logic transducer
3 Housing with plug 4
4 ASIC module
æ UKD0084-1E
When in 1902, Ohio native Walter C. Baker awkward to use, they sometimes allowed the
rolled over in his electric car, he was the first occupants to slip through underneath the belt
racecar driver to have his life saved by a “seat in the event of an accident.
belt”. Help in both respects was provided by
The seat belt – in Baker’s day, a simple the three-point belt, patented in 1958, which
leather belt used primarily by racecar drivers today remains the basis for all modern belt
to literally strap themselves to the vehicle – systems.
has had a consistent evolution over the last
hundred years. The goal has always been to As early as the 1960s, experiments proved
make the belt safer and more comfortable and the usefulness of the seat belt. In addition, the
convenient to use. invention of the automatic seat belt retractor
allowed occupants to fasten their seat belts in
Although the first shoulder belts used in cars mere seconds. However, even after seat belt
held the occupants in their seats, they did not use was mandated by law in Germany in
protect their head and upper body from im- 1976, only half of front seat passengers buck-
pact against the steering wheel. To prevent led up. Only when a fine was introduced in
this “jackknife” effect, suspender-like belts 1984 to remind drivers and passengers of the
crossed over the chest came into use at an benefits of seat belts did their use rate rise to
early stage. However, these were not only over 90 %.
1903 1959
The French inventor Lebeau is awarded the Volvo launches its P 121 “Amazon”, which
first patent for a seat belt for automobile and features static three-point belts as standard
airplane occupants. equipment.
1949 1969
American automaker Nash equips its The belt becomes more convenient: Volvo
Ambassador model with front seat shoulder presents the three-point seat belt with auto-
belts as standard equipment. matic seat belt retractor for the front seats.
1953 1979
The seat belt arrives in Europe: the Spanish The Mercedes-Benz S-Class features
Pegaso Z-102 sport coupe is equipped with variable-height belts.
a two-point belt. 1980
1956 Mercedes-Benz offers the steering wheel
The belt is introduced in Germany: the airbag for the driver and the seat belt with
Porsche 356A features a shoulder belt as a seat belt pretensioner for the passenger.
special option. 1995
1958 The first belt force limiter models from
Sweden’s Nils Bohlin, safety engineer for Mercedes-Benz decrease the risk of injury
Volvo, patents the three-point belt. from the belt.
236 Instrumentation Information and communication areas, driver information systems
Instrumentation
Drivers have to process a constantly in- 쐌 Instrument cluster
creasing stream of information originating 쐌 Windshield
from their own and other vehicles, from the 쐌 Center console
road, and from telecommunications equip- 쐌 Vehicle rear compartment
ment. All this information must be con-
veyed to drivers in the information and The display features in these areas are deter-
communications areas of the vehicle on mined by the available range of information
suitable display and indicating equipment and the necessary, useful, or desirable infor-
that comply with ergonomic requirements. mation for the occupants.
In the future, in-car cellular phones, naviga-
tion systems, and distance control systems 1. Dynamic information and monitoring in-
will join automotive sound systems and formation (e.g. fuel level), to which the
vehicle monitoring systems as standard driver should respond, is displayed on the
equipment in motor vehicles. instrument cluster as close as possible to
the driver’s primary field of vision.
Information and
communication areas 2. A head-up display (HUD), which projects
the information onto the windshield, is ide-
In any vehicle, there are four information ally suited to engage the driver’s attention
and communication areas which must sat- and displaying information such as warn-
isfy different requirements in terms of their ings from a radar distance control system
display features: (ACC) or route directions. The display is
supplemented acoustically by voice output.
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_18, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Instrumentation Driver information systems 237
tion and antireflection qualities. So that a con- time the amount of information that has to
tinually increasing amount of information be displayed in the installation space avail-
could be accommodated in the available able has increased. This creates the need for
space, today’s instrument cluster evolved over additional display modules with graphics ca-
time, featuring several needle instruments and pabilities and display areas that can show any
numerous indicator lamps (Fig. 1, Item 1). information flexibly and in prioritized form.
This tendency results in instrumentation
Digital displays featuring a classical needle instrument but
Digital instruments supplemented by a graphics display. The
The digital instruments fitted up to the 1990s central screen is also at the level of the in-
displayed information using vacuum fluores- strument cluster (Fig. 1, Item 3). The impor-
cence display (VFD) technology and, later, tant issue for all visual displays is that they
liquid crystal (LCD) technology, but they can be easily read within the driver’s pri-
have now largely disappeared. Instead, con- mary field of vision or its immediate vicinity
ventional analog needle instruments are used without the driver having to look away from
in combination with displays. At the same the road for long periods, as is the case, for
time, there is an increase in the size, resolu- instance, if the displays are positioned in the
tion and color representation of the displays. lower area of the center console.
The graphics modules in the instrument
Central display and operator unit cluster permit mainly the display of driver
in the center console and vehicle-related functions such as service
With the advent of automotive information, intervals, check functions covering the vehi-
navigation, and telematics systems, screens cle’s operating state, as well as vehicle diag-
and keyboards on the center console are nostics as needed for the workshop. They
now becoming widespread. Such systems can also show route direction information
combine all the additional information from from the navigation system (no digitized
functional units and information compo- map excerpts, only route direction symbols
nents (e.g. cellular phone, car radio/CD, such as arrows as turnoff instructions or in-
controls for heating/air conditioning tersection symbols). The originally mono-
(HVAC) and – important for Japan – the chrome units are now being superseded on
“TV” function) into a central display and higher-specification vehicles by color dis-
operator unit. The components are inter- plays (usually TFT screens), which can be
connected in a network and are capable of read more quickly and easily because of
interactive communication. their color resolution.
Positioning this terminal, which is of uni- For the central display monitor with an
versal use to driver and passenger, in the integrated information system, the tendency
center console is effective and necessary is now to switch from a 4 : 3 aspect ratio to a
from both ergonomic and technical stand- wider format with a 16 : 9 aspect ratio (film
points. The optical information appears in a format), which allows additional route di-
graphics display. The demands placed by TV rection symbols to be displayed as well as
reproduction and the navigation system on the map.
the video/map display determine its resolu-
tion and color reproduction (Fig. 1, Item 2). Individual module with computer
monitor
Graphics modules Beginning around 2006, TFT displays will be
Fitting vehicles with a driver’s airbag and used to represent analog instruments for the
power-assisted steering as standard has re- first time (Fig. 1, Item 4). For cost reasons,
sulted in a reduction in the view through the however, this technology will only gradually
top half of the steering wheel. At the same replace conventional displays.
238 Instrumentation Instrument clusters
Design
Microcontroller technology and the ongoing
networking of motor vehicles have mean- 1
while transformed instrument clusters from
2 5
precision mechanical instruments to elec-
tronically dominated devices. A typical in- 6
Fig. 1
strument cluster (LED-illuminated, with
TN-type segment LCDs using conductive 3
11 Warning lamp
12 Circuit board rubber, see Fig. 1) is a very flat component 7
13 Stepper motor (electronics, flat stepping motors), and vir- 8
14 Reflector 4
tually all the components (mainly SMT) are 9
15 View cover
directly contacted on a printed circuit
æ UKD0078-1Y
16 Needle
17 LED
board. 10
18 Dial face
19 Optical waveguide Method of operation
10 LCD While the basic functions are the same in
most instrument clusters (Fig. 2), the parti-
tioning of the function modules in (partly Since instrument clusters are part of the
application-specific) microcontrollers, basic equipment of any vehicle, and all bus
ASICs, and standard peripherals sometimes systems come together here in any case, they
differs significantly (product range, display also incorporate gateway functions to a
scope, display types). certain degree; in other words, they act as
Electronic instrument clusters indicate bridges between different bus systems in the
measured variables with high accuracy vehicle (e.g. engine CAN, body CAN, and
thanks to stepping motor technology, and diagnostics bus).
take over “intelligent” functions such as
speed-dependent oil pressure warning, pri- Measuring instruments
oritized fault display in matrix displays, or The vast majority of instruments operate
service interval indicator. Even online diag- with a mechanical needle and a dial face. Ini-
nostic functions are standard and take up a tially, the compact, electronically triggered
significant part of the program memory. moving magnet quotient measuring instru-
ment replaced the bulky eddy current combining a blue LED chip with an orange-
speedometer. Nowadays, more durable emitting luminescent material (yttrium-
geared stepping motors, which are very slim- aluminum granulate).
fitting, have become the preferred choice. However, special technologies are also
Due to a compact magnetic circuit and being used for specialized configurations:
(mostly) 2-stage gearing with a power output 쐌 CCFL (cold cathode fluorescent lamps):
of only about 100 mW, these motors allow Mainly for “black screen” instruments,
swift and highly accurate needle positioning. which appear black when they are deacti-
vated. When combined with a tinted view
Lighting cover (with e.g. 25% transmission), these
Instrument clusters were originally lit by very bright lamps (high luminance, high
frontlighting technology in the form of incan- voltage) produce a brilliant appearance
descent lamps. Backlighting technology has with outstanding contrast. Since color
meanwhile gained acceptance on account of LCDs have very low transmission (typi-
its attractive appearance. Bulbs have been cally about 6%), it is imperative that
replaced by long-lasting light emitting diodes CCFLs are used to backlight them in
(LEDs). LEDs are also suitable as warning order to obtain good contrast even in
lamps and for backlighting scales, displays daylight.
and, via plastic optical waveguides, needles 쐌 EL (electroluminescent) film: This flat film,
(refer to Table 1, “Overview of lighting which lights up when an alternating volt-
sources”). age is applied and achieves an extremely
The efficient yellow, orange, and red even light pattern, has only been available
InAllnGaP technology LEDs are now in in a form suitable for automobiles since
widespread use. The more recent InGaN about 2000. It offers extensive freedom of
technology has produced significant effi- design for color combinations and/or for
ciency improvements for the colors green, superimposing dial faces on display sur-
blue, and white. Here, white is obtained by faces.
Black screen
instruments
for in h
inst. clust.
electrode
5 Color layers 3
widely used are the thin film transistor LCDs
6 Black matrix 8 7
(TFT LCDs) addressed by thin film transis-
7 Glass substrate tors. Display monitors with diagonals of 4″
8 Pixel electrode to 7″ in the center console area and an ex-
Instrumentation Display types 241
4 windshield
and the driver can read the information 3 LCD and illumination
with very little distraction, without having (or CRT, VFD)
5
to divert his eyes from the road to the instru- 4 Optical system
ment cluster. 5 Electronics
242 Orientation methods Orientation, position-finding, navigation
Orientation methods
In order to be able to understand various system, which is familiar from maps and
terms applied in road traffic, such as posi- town/city street plans.
tion-finding by means of satellite, and vehi-
cle navigation, a number of the important The earth’s spherical shape means that when
basic terms associated with orientation and a very large area is concerned, locations can
navigation methods are dealt with below. no longer be defined using cartesian coordi-
nates. A geographic coordinate system is
needed with a network of circular lines:
Orientation The coordinate lines from North to South
all start and end at the poles and are termed
The word orientation is derived from the “Meridians”. At the equator, depending
Latin word “oriens” (rising [sun]). It stands upon angular distance, these are divided
for navigation using the four points of the into East and West degrees of longitude (the
compass. prime meridian passes through Greenwich
near London). The second group of coordi-
Position-finding nates run from East to West and cut all the
Meridians at right angles. The Equator
Assignment marks the starting point for counting in the
Position-finding is used to determine one’s North and South degrees of latitude.
own position or that of a searched-for ob- Slight modifications are needed before
jective by means of measurement, direction these coordinate lines apply on the actual
finding, or radiolocation techniques. terrestrial globe. They are then no longer
circles but rather complicated curves by
Reference systems means of which every point on the earth’s
If considerable distances and areas are in- surface can be defined using two digits.
volved, directions and locations can only be
determined using a reference system that Navigation
provides suitable, repoducible reference di-
rections (for instance, the starry sky (firma- Applications
ment) and the direction of the sun or of a Navigation is the continual definition of lo-
mountain peak which is visible from a long cation and direction as needed to arrive at a
distance). desired destination. Position-finding is such
an essential component in the process of
The reference system for direction must be navigation that very often no difference is
defined referred to a single, main direction made between them and one simply speaks
(North, for instance, which can easily be de- of navigation, although navigation goes far
fined using the Pole (North) Star). A name further.
or a number suffices for the input of any Among other things, navigation requires
other direction. that the globe be represented on a smaller
scale and that individual locations are clearly
In order to define a location, the reference shown in their respective positions. Com-
system for specifying and defining locations pared to a map though, a globe is far too un-
relies upon at least two related numbers. In wieldy for entering routes, directions, and
addition, a system starting point and a sys- distances. The problem is that spherical fig-
tem zero point are needed as well as a main ures cannot be transferred to a flat surface
or principle direction. In practice, these without distortion of the distances involved.
stipulations are complied with by using a
coordinate system. One of these systems is
the rectangular, linear cartesian coordinate
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_19, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Orientation methods Navigation 243
æ SKR0085Y
earth’s spherical surface on a cylindrical
Fig. 1
generated surface. In one case it is applied 1 Projection cylinder
to the equator, and in the other case turned (based on the equator)
through 90° and applied to a meridian 2 Projection lines/beams
(Figs. 1 and 2 respectively). In the subse-
quent calculations, the unavoidable distor- 2 UTM Universal Transversal Mercator Projection
This is not a new method, although today Map matching is impossible in areas which
computers are used to carry out the calcula- are not covered digitally, and here naviga-
tions electronically. Unfortunately, unavoid- tion takes place solely by means of satellite
able discrepancies in determining the direc- data. The display indicates the direction to
tion being taken and the distance travelled be taken, and the distance to destination is
inevitably lead to an error in the location shown as a straight-line distance. The dis-
definition. Since the error increases along play also indicates “OFF-ROAD”, in other
with the length of the journey, it becomes words an indication that the vehicle is not
necessary to carry out corrections from time driving on roads covered by the digital map.
to time. That is, a specific reference point
must be identified and its coordinates in- Satellite navigation system GPS
putted into the system so that a comparison At present, the GPS (Global Positioning Sys-
can be made between the location and the tem) navigation system is used by all auto-
digital map (Map Matching), and the accu- motive navigation systems for determining
mulated errors compensated for. the vehicle’s position. The GPS is based on a
network of 24 intercommunicating Ameri-
In an automotive navigation system, the can satellites which are used all over the
navigation computer applies the signals world for this purpose (Fig. 4).
from the tachometer sensor, or the wheel- These satellites are uniformly distributed
speed sensors, in determining the distance at an altitude of approx. 20,000 km. They
travelled and the changes in direction. This orbit the earth every 12 hours in six differ-
information is used to derive the data on the ent paths, and 50 times per second transmit
route taken by the vehicle. Composite navi- special position, identification, and time sig-
gation results from the above interaction. nals. Since May 2000, civilian users have also
The navigation computer performs map been able to take advantage of accuracies of
matching several times per second, and the about ± 10 m.
road map stored on a CD-ROM is compared
with the vehicle’s route. As a result, accuracy Due to the differences in transit times, the
increases to ± 5 m (15 ft) within towns and signals from the different satellites reach the
villages covered digitally in the CD-ROM vehicle with a given time offset. Once the
road map, and ± 50 m (150 ft) on country signals from at least 3 satellites are received,
roads and autobahns/motorways. the navigation system’s computer calculates
its own geographical position (at least two-
4 Satellite positioning system GPS dimensionally).
(Global Positioning System)
If the signals from at least 4 satellites
are received, 3-dimensional positioning is
16
10 possible. Depending upon satellite position,
a vehicle’s navigation system is able to re-
13 9
22 20 6
5 ceive up to as many as 8 satellite signals
18
3 simultaneously.
14
24 11
Reception of GPS signals can be interfered
23 4
2 with, or even interrupted, by the following
15 7 influences:
17
19
1 21 쐌 Ionospheric and atmospheric interfer-
Fig. 4
æ SKR0088Y
ence,
1...24 12 8
24 satellites are used in
쐌 Mismatch of the combination antenna for
defining the vehicle’s GPS and telephone,
position 쐌 Signal shadowing in valleys, due to
Orientation methods Navigation 245
houses, trees, tunnels, high-rise buildings the composite navigation is able to bridge
etc. (Fig. 5), the GPS reception interference by applying
쐌 Multipath reception due to the transit- the information from the vehicle sensors to
time differences of reflected signals, improve the positioning accuracy.
쐌 Influencing of the satellite clocks.
This means that on the one hand the com-
Even though these interference factors can posite navigation is used to overcome the
lead to inaccuracies in calculating position, GPS reception interference, and on the other
the vehicle’s own information sensors can the GPS position is applied to check the
nevertheless determine the vehicle’s posi- composite navigation.
tion.
Vehicle navigation
Since composite navigation and satellite
navigation each have their specific advan-
tages and disadvantages, a combination of
both methods is used in the vehicle (Fig. 6).
5 Shadowing of a GPS signal (example)
Navigation systems
Navigation in the vehicle is defined as the Method of operation
process of directing the driver to his/her
intended destination by means of direction The basic functions “Position finding”, “Selec-
arrows and voice-output instructions. Guid- tion of destination”, “Route calculation”, and
ance along the route uses a digital road map “Navigation to destination” are common to all
and navigation satellites. Dynamic navigation systems. Devices at the upper end of the scale
also makes use of digitally coded traffic also provide colored map presentation. All
reports. functions require a digital road map, which is
generally stored on a CD-ROM or DVD.
Assignment
Navigation systems for automotive applica- 1 Example of visual-signal navigation
Application
In recent years, navigation systems have
achieved widespread popularity. Initially,
the systems on the market were mostly
retrofit systems, but have since become
available as standard equipment or as an
option for integration into new vehicles.
Fig. 1 This means that the sensors from a number
a Large pictograms of different systems can be used jointly and c
support the voice- networked with other components. In the
guided navigation
driver's primary field of view, instrument-
b Colored road maps
provide information
cluster displays present him/her with the
on parking lots, gas important information needed to navigate
stations, and points the vehicle to its destination.
of interest (POI)
c Traffic information Many vehicle manufacturers have incorpo-
(e.g. traffic jams) is
rated the navigation system into a compre-
shown in the map as
æ UKR0124D
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_20, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Navigation systems Method of operation 247
by continually com-
signals by means of the Doppler effect. paring the sensor
data with the digital
road map
248 Navigation systems Method of operation
Selecting the destinations The recalculation of the route when the driver
Map directories leaves the recommended route is even more
The CD’s digital map contains directories critical with regard to time. By the time the
which are used for inputting the destination driver reaches the next intersection, he or she
in the form of an address. This necessitates must have received updated recommenda-
lists of all available locations. In turn, all these tions. A “traffic jam” button must make it
locations need lists of the stored streets. Fur- possible to exclude a certain road ahead and
ther precision in the definition of the destina- calculate an alterative route.
tion is attained by the inclusion of street
crossings/intersections and house numbers. Dynamic routes
The evaluation of RDS-TMC coded traffic re-
Normally, the driver is unaware of the ad- ports provides the basis for automatically cir-
dresses for such destinations as airports, rail- cumventing traffic jams and congestions. Such
way stations, gas stations, and car parks etc. coded reports are received through RDS or
Therefore, to make it easier to find them, the- GSM. The necessary TMC codes are restricted
matic directories are provided that list these to expressways and major national highways.
destinations, which are frequently referred to An extension of the possibilities for using
as POIs (Points of Interest). These directories new methods to make the system more dy-
allow POIs such as a gas station in the area of namic is in development.
the vehicle to be located (Figure 1b on preced-
ing pages). Navigation to destination
It is also possible to select a destination by Defining the route
directly marking it on the map display or by Navigation is a matter of comparing the vehi-
calling it up from a destination memory in cle’s actual position with its calculated posi-
which it had already been stored. tion. The stretches of road which the vehicle
has just driven along, and the stretches of road
Guidebooks still in front it on the planned route, are used
The logical consequence is the provision of in making the decision as to when the driver
guidebooks on CD, which has resulted from must turn off.
the cooperation between publishing houses
and the producers of the digital road maps. Route and direction recommendations
This allows searches for POIs such as hotels During the journey itself, and in good time
near the destination. Information is also avail- before turn-off points or lane changes, a voice
able about the size, prices, and furnishings/ gives the driver the corresponding instruc-
equipment level of the POIs (Fig. 3). tions. This audible instruction principle en-
ables the driver to comply with the recom-
Route calculation mendations without distracting his/her atten-
Standard calculation tion from the surrounding traffic. A route and
The calculation of routes can be adapted to direction arrow appears on a display at the
the driver’s wishes. This includes the settings same time.
for optimizing the route according to driving Simple graphics, which as far as possible
time or distance as well as the ability to cir- are inside the driver’s primary field of vision
cumvent expressways, ferries or toll roads. (instrument cluster), provide for even more
Driving recommendations along the route clarity.
are expected within about 30 seconds after
entering the destination.
Navigation systems Method of operation 249
Map presentation
Depending upon the particular sys-
tem, the road map can be displayed
on the color monitor with a scale of
between approx. 1:8000 and 1:16
million. This is a great help in ob-
taining an overview of the routes in
the nearer vicinity or further away.
Orientation is made easier by back-
ground information such as lakes,
built-up areas, railway tracks and
æ UKR0128E
wooded areas.
250 Navigation systems Method of operation
8 Road inspectors carry out detailed on-site checks of the traffic routing
æ UKR0133Y
Navigation systems Method of operation 251
GDF Basis CD
GDF (Geographic Data Files) is a standard- For a number of European countries,
ized international exchange format for pre- Blaupunkt and Tele Atlas have cooperated in
senting geographic features in the form of producing basic CDs which serve as the basis
vectors (refer below to “Vector map”). Among for navigation in the particular region. They
other things, the GDF format ensures that the incorporate the complete road network in
vehicle navigation unit outputs the familiar digital form (minor roads and overland or
driving instructions notwithstanding the pe- cross-country roads), and all traffic-related in-
culiarities of the particular country’s road net- formation such as one-way roads, “no turns”,
work. The “Tele-Atlas Co.”, played a decisive limited-access roads etc.).
role in the drawing up of the GDF format. For instance, for Germany, for all the major
economic areas and for all cities with more
Vector map than 50,000 inhabitants, all road/street names
The vector map generates geographic ele- are incorporated on the basis CD. And for
ments by means of a succession of straight Berlin. Hanover, Munich, and Stuttgart, even
lines (vectors). The beginning and end of each the house numbers are included. In addition,
vector is clearly defined by geographic coordi- many other destinations such as railway sta-
nates and by specific attributes (e.g. name, tions, airports, car-hire companies, hospitals,
classification etc.). Vector maps are imperative and holiday/vacation areas are also available.
for mathematical calculation of the route.
Guidebooks
GIS Together with Varta, Michelin, Merian scout,
GIS (Geografic Information System) is a soft- ANWB, and De Agostini, Tele Atlas has also
ware application which applies geographic in- issued “Travel Guides” for selected countries
formation for analytic and planning purposes. and cities/towns. Using such a Travel Guide, it
For instance, the calculation of radio cells for is possible to compile a selection of destina-
mobile-radio networks would be impossible tions according to one’s personal tastes.
without GIS. As a rule, the information is listed under
specific categories (e.g. overnight stays, food
Geo coding and drink, the arts, architecture, touristic in-
By allocating them a coordinate pair (latitude formation, entertainment etc.). Information
and longitude), Geo coding can incorporate is also provided on hotels and restaurants
additional objects or POI in the digital maps. (together with special quality awards such as
“stars” and “chef’s hats” etc.), and points of in-
TravelPilot format terest (POI). Of course, the system is also able
This is an application format for the navi- to navigate the driver to these destinations.
gation CD of the Bosch/Blaupunkt navigation
systems, as covered by the TravelPilot logo. Special guides
The data of the GDF exchange format must Such guides restrict themselves to points of
be converted to the TravelPilot format. special touristic interest. For instance, together
with Merian scout, Tele Atlas has drawn up a
special “Golf” guide.
252 Navigation systems Piezoelectric tuning-fork yaw-rate sensor
4 Coriolis force 5
5
5 Upper piezo elements
(sensing)
7
6 Bottom piezo 7
æ UAE0877Y
6
elements (drive) 6
7 Excitation oscillation
7
direction 7
Yaw
Micromechanics 253
왘 Micromechanics
b
Fig. 1
a Diaphragms
æ UAE0696-1E
b Openings
c c Beams and webs
1 Etching mask
2 Silicon
æ UAE0794Y
C
C
Fig. 3
1 Fixed electrode
D
D 2 Gap
3 Spring electrodes
254 Workshop technology Workshop business
Workshop technology
More than 30,000 garages/workshops 쐌 The amount of electronic components
around the world are equipped with work- in vehicles is increasing – vehicles are
shop technology, i.e. test technology and becoming “mobile computers”
workshop software from Bosch. Workshop 쐌 Internetworking of electronic systems is
technology is becoming increasingly impor- increasing, diagnostic and repair work
tant as it provides guidance and assistance covers systems which are installed and
in all matters relating to diagnosis and networked in the entire vehicle
troubleshooting. 쐌 Only the use of the latest test technology,
computers and diagnostic software will
Workshop business safeguard business in the future
Trends Consequences
Many factors influence workshop business. Requirements
Current trends are, for example: Workshops must adapt to the trends in or-
쐌 The proportion of diesel passenger cars is der to be able to offer their services success-
rising fully on the market in the future. The conse-
쐌 Longer service intervals and longer service quences can be derived directly from the
lives of automotive parts mean that vehi- trends:
cles are being checked into workshops less 쐌 Professional fault diagnosis is the key to
frequently professional repairs
쐌 Workshop capacity utilization in the over- 쐌 Technical information is becoming the
all market will continue to decline in the crucial requirement for vehicle repairs
next few years 쐌 Rapid availability of comprehensive tech-
nical information safeguards profitability
æ SWT0112Y
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_21, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Workshop technology Workshop business 255
2 Workshop processes
a
Inquiry Date Checking
Contact Vehicle Feasibility availability Acceptance Drawing up
of service scheduling &
coordination assessment check of parts for repair of job order
& parts
b
All
Forwarding Implementation problems Yes Completion Final inspec- Handover of ve- Cash
of job order of work order solved? of work order tion/test drive hicle to customer desk
Yes
No All
problems
No solved?
Interface
æ UWT0111E
Diagnostic technology
Parts Figure 2
Create info collection/ Implementation of
job-order extension/ Customer info on job-order extension/ Information a Job order acceptance
rework job-order extension rework b Service and repair
implementation
256 Workshop technology Workshop business
ponent. This enables this component to be The diagnostic tester provides the data
tested while it is still installed. needed for direct comparisons of specified
results and current readings, without the
Measuring equipment need for supplementary entries. ESI[tronic]
Workshop personnel can choose from uses the results of the diagnosis as the basis
various options for diagnosis and trouble- for generating specific repair instructions.
shooting: the high-performance, portable The system also provides displays with other
KTS 650 system tester or the workshop- information, such as component locations,
compatible KTS 520 and KTS 550 KTS exploded views of assemblies, diagrams
modules in conjunction with a standard PC showing the layouts of electrical, pneumatic
or laptop. The modules have an integrated and hydraulic systems etc. Working at the
multimeter, and KTS 550 and KTS 650 also PC, users can then proceed directly from the
have a 2-channel oscilloscope. For work exploded views to the parts lists with part
applications on the vehicle, ESI[tronic] is numbers to order the required replacement
installed in the KTS 650 or on a PC. components. All service procedures and re-
placement components are recorded to sup-
Example of the sequence in the port the billing process. After the final road
workshop test, the bill is produced simply by pressing
The ESI[tronic] software package supports a few keys. The system also provides a clear
workshop personnel throughout the entire and concise printout with the results of the
vehicle repair process A diagnosis interface vehicle diagnosis. This offers the customer
allows ESI[tronic] to communicate with the a full report detailing all of the service
electronic systems within the vehicle, such as operations and materials that went into the
the ESP electronic control unit. Working at vehicle’s repair.
the PC, the technician starts by selecting the
SIS (service information system) utility to
initiate diagnosis of on-board control units
and access the ECU’s fault memory.
Read out and display fault memory Once the fault information has been re-
trieved in the workshop and the fault cor-
Start component testing from fault rected, the fault memory can be cleared
code display again using the tester.
Display SD actual values and multimeter A suitable interface must be defined for
actual values in component test communication between the control unit
and the tester.
Fig. 1
Setpoint/actual value comparison allows
The CAS[plus] system
(computer aided service)
fault definition Actuator diagnostics
combines control unit The control unit contains an actuator diag-
diagnosis with SIS Perform repair, nostic routine in order to activate individual
troubleshooting define parts, actuators at the customer service workshop
instructions for circuit diagrams etc. in ESI[tronic] and test their functionality. This test mode is
even more efficient started using the diagnostic tester and only
troubleshooting. The
Renew defective part functions when the vehicle is at a complete
decisive values for
diagnostics and repair
stop below a specific engine speed, or when
then appear immediately Clear fault memory the engine is switched off. This allows an
on screen. acoustic (e.g. valve clicking), visual (e.g. flap
Workshop technology Diagnostics in the workshop 259
Example
The assignment test checks that the elec-
tronic stability program (ESP) activates the
wheel brake cylinders of the correct wheels.
For this test, the vehicle is driven into the
brake tester. After the technician starts the
b
function, the diagnostic tester indicates how
to proceed. After the brake pedal is acti-
vated, individual channels of the ESP
hydraulic modulator are brought, one after
another, to the pressure drop position.
This allows a determination to be made
of whether the corresponding wheel can be
rotated. The diagnostic tester indicates the
wheel for which the system has reduced the
brake pressure. In this way, it can be deter-
mined whether the circuitry of the hydraulic
modulator and wheel brake cylinders is c
correct.
Fig. 2
a Display of the fault
memory contents
b Procedure
instructions
for workshop
æ UWT0113E
diagnostic functions
c Check of pressure
maintenance
function
260 Workshop technology Testing equipment
Fig. 1 a b
a Multimedia-capable,
mobile KTS 650
diagnostic tester
b Universal,
convenient solution
for vehicle
c
workshops;
KTS 550 in
conjunction with
PC or laptop
c Universal solution
for vehicle
æ UWT0108Y
workshops;
KTS 520 in
conjunction with
PC or laptop
Workshop technology Testing equipment 261
Multimeter function
Electrical current, voltage and resistance can
be tested in the same way as with a conven-
tional multimeter.
Additional information
Specific additional information relevant to
the faults/components displayed can also be
shown in conjunction with the electronic
service information (ESI[tronic]) (e.g. trou-
bleshooting instructions, location of com-
ponents in the engine compartment, test
specifications, electrical circuit diagrams).
c
Printout
All data (e.g. list of actual values or docu-
ment for the customer) can be printed out
on standard PC printers.
Programming
The software of the ECU can be encoded
using the KTS 650 (e.g. variant coding of the
ESP ECU).
measuring actual
values
d Measuring the wheel
speeds
262 Workshop technology Brake testing
damage is not excessive. When doing so, the special rubber compound. They are respon-
maximum allowable internal drum diameter sible for creating the seal between the piston
for the particular vehicle must not be ex- and the cylinder wall. Corrosion, which can
ceeded. If the degree or nature of the dam- develop as a result of water absorption by
age is such that regrinding the drums is not the brake fluid, causes pitting of the cylinder
possible, the only option is to replace them. wall. That roughness then damages the pis-
Drums must always be reground or replaced ton seals by abrading them so that they start
on both sides (both front or both rear to leak.
wheels) at the same time in order to ensure Depending on the severity of the prob-
even braking. lem, this can result in partial or even total
loss of brake pressure. The response of the
Master cylinder brake pedal when depressed will indicate
The wearing parts of the master cylinder are whether the primary or the isolating seal is
primarily the cup seals, which are made of a leaking.
æ UFB0716Y
Workshop technology Brake testing 265
Maintenance checklist
Maintenance tasks
The components of hydraulic brake systems
1) Caution: are subjected to considerable stresses. Heat, Brake fluid reservoir 1)
If the level of fluid in the cold and vibration can all lead to material
reservoir is very low, fatigue in the course of time. Splash water, Cap P/N
simply adding more fluid Reservoir P/R/N
especially salt water, and dirt cause corro-
must on no account be Attachment P/I
sion and diminish the ability of components
viewed as the solution. Warning lamp switch (if present) P/I/N
The cause of the fluid and mechanisms to operate smoothly. Brake fluid
loss must be established Consequently, impairment of function Level P/S
and rectified. Dark or can result. Appearance, color P/N
cloudy brake fluid must For safety reasons, therefore, specific Moisture content P/S
be replaced immediately.
regular checks and maintenance work are Handbrake lever (parking brake)
absolutely essential.
The best time for carrying out such work Travel, no. of ratchet notches P/S
is at the end of the winter season because the Ratchet function P/I
Freedom of action P/G/F
exposed components of the brake system are
Lever stop (if present) P/S/I
subjected to the most extreme weather con- Return spring (if present) P/S/F
ditions in the winter.
Braking force limiter
The checks and maintenance operations External damage P/N
include Attachment P/I/N
쐌 visual inspections Pipe connections P/I/N
쐌 function checks Function P/N
쐌 leakage tests Limited pressure
쐌 internal examination of brakes (observe testing conditions) P/S
쐌 efficiency tests. Braking force regulator
External damage P/N
This maintenance checklist details the vari-
Attachment P/I/N
ous components in alphabetical order and Pipe connections P/I/N
indicates the checks and tests required for Linkage, lever P/I/F
each one. The abbreviations used are ex- Travel spring P/N/F
plained below. Function P/N
Limited pressure
(observe testing conditions) P/S
Brake servo unit
2) Caution:
Suitability for vehicle P/N Braking force, rear wheels P/I Minimum thickness for
Braking force difference (rear) P/I disk brake pads is 2 mm,
Disk brakes (brake caliper) excluding backplate.
Actuating force P/I
External damage R/P/N
Parking brake efficiency test
Attachment R/I/N
Brake pad channels P/R Braking force P/I
Guides P/G/F Braking force difference P/I
Piston freedom P/I/N
Piston position P/S
Dust seals P/N
Small parts
(expander springs, bolts etc.) P/N
Bleed valve, dust cap P/G/N
268 Index
Index
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
Index 269