JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF

AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

FIRST SEMESTER LECTURE NOTES FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF
SCIENCE IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING AND
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ELECTRONIC and COMPUTER ENGINEERING

EEE 2502 Control Engineering III 2017/2018 Academic Year

STATE SPACE REPRESENTATION

The time domain and analysis of control systems utilizes the concept of state of a system.
The state of a system is a set of numbers such that the knowledge of these numbers and the
input functions will, with the equations describing the dynamics, prove the future state and
the output of the system.

Definitions:

STATE: state of a dynamic system is the smallest set of variables (called state variable) such
that the knowledge of the variables as t=t0, plus the knowledge of the input for t ≥t0, this
information determines the behavior of the system for any time t≥t0.

STATE VARIABLES: These are variables making up the set of variables that determine the
state of the dynamic system. Let the dynamic system have n- variables x1x2,x3,…xn ,to
describe the behavior of the system (while the input is given for t≥t0 and the initial state at
t=t0 is specified ,the function state of the system is completely determined) then, such n -
variables are a set of state variables.

STATE VECTOR: The behavior of a given system is described by n – variables and therefore
these n – state variables can be considered the n – components of a vector such a vector is
called a state vector. A state vector is thus a vector that determines uniquely the system
state x(t) for any time t>t0,once the state at t=t0 is given and the input u(t) for t≥t0 is
specified.

STATE SPACE: the n-dimensional space whose coordinates consist of the x1 axis, x2 axis ….xn
is called a state space. Any state can be represented in a state space and its analysis require
only three-types of variables as shown below:

1. Input variables
2. State variables

1
 3. Output variables

The above dynamic system assumes a multi-input, multi-output and therefore it

involves n-integrators. Assume that there are r- inputs, u1(t),u(t)2…...ur(t) and m-
outputs y1(t),y2(t)….ym(t). Using above information, then description of the system is
as shown below

ẋ1(t) =f1(x1, x2...xn; u1, u2….ur; t)

ẋ2(t) =f2(x1, x2...xn; u1, u2….ur; t) …. (1)

xn (t) =fn(x1,x2...xn;u1,u2….ur; t)

The output of the system, y1(t), y2(t)…..ym(t) may be functions of state variables , input
variables and time. Thus the output maybe expressed as

y1 (t) =g1(x1, x2...xn; u1, u2….ur; t)

y2 (t) =g1(x1, x2...xn; u1, u2….ur; t) …. (2)

ym(t) =gm(x1,x2...xn;u1,u2….ur; t)

Definitions of x (t), u (t) and y(t) can be expressed as

X 1 (t)

X (t) = X2(t) STATE VECTOR

Xn (t)

u1 (t)

u (t) = u2(t) ⇒ INPUT VECTOR

2
 u r (t)

y1 (t)

y (t)= y2 (t) ⇒ OUTPUT VARIABLES

Using the above vectors, then equations (1) and (2) becomes

(t) = f (x,u,t) State Equation …..(3)

y (t )= g(x,u,t) Output Equation .… (4)

If the system is time varying, then equation (3) and (4) results to:

x(t)=A(t)x(t)+B(t)U(t) ....(7)

y(t)=C(t)x(t)+D(t)U(t) …..(8)

Where A (t) -------called the state matrix

3
 B (t) -------called the input matrix

C (t) -------called the output matrix

D (t) -------called the DIRECT transition matrix

If the vector function f and g do not involve time, the system is a time-invariant system
giving rise to Equitation (3) and (4) modification

(t) =f(x,u) .… (8)

y (t) =g(x,u) …. (9)

Assume equation (7) and (8) are linear, then

x(t) =A x (t) + B u (t) …. (10)

y (t) =C x (t) + D u (t) ….. (11)

Where A, B, C and D are constant matrix.

Example

Obtain a state-space representation for the system described by the following differential
equations;

+6 + + 6y = 6u

Where y is the output and u is the input of the system.

Solution

The knowledge of y (0), (0) and y(̇ 0) together with the input u(t) for t≥0 determines

completely the future behavior of the system. Thus, we may take y (t), (t) and (t) as a set
of state variables. Let the state variables be;

x1=ẏ

x2=ẏ

X3=ẏ ̇

Then obtain; ẋ1=x2

4
 Ẋ 2=x3

Ẋ 3=-6x1-11x2-6x3+6u

The last of these three equations was obtained by solving the original differential equation
for the highest derivative term ẏ ̇ ̇ and then substituting y=x1,ẏ=x2 and ẏ ̇=x3 into the
resulting equation. By use of vector matrix notation these three first order differential
equations can be combined into one as follows;

 x1   0 1 0   x1  0
x    0 0 1   x 2   0u.............................................................(12)
 2 
 x3  66  11  6  x3  6

The output equation is given by

 x1 
y  1 0 0 x 2 ...............................................................(13)
 x3 

Equation (12) is the STATE equation and equation (13) is the output equation.

In standard form, Equation (11) and (12) can be expressed as

ẋ= A x + Bu …… (14)

y= C x + Du ….. (15)

Mechanical

TRY: model the system shown below and obtain a state space representation for the
system.

5
Non-uniqueness of a SET of STATE variables.

Suppose that x1, x2……xn are set of state variables. Take any set of variables i.e.


x1  X 1 ( x1 , x 2 .................x n )


x2  X 2 ( x1 , x 2 .................x n )
.
.


xn  X n ( x1 , x 2 ..................x n )

  

Provided that for every set of values x1 , x2    xn , there corresponds a


unique set of values, x1 x2…..xn there vice-versa. Thus if x is a state vector, then x can be
expressed as


x =px ……… (16)

Equitation (16) is also a STATE VECTOR provided that P is nonsingular.

EIGENVALUES

The eigenvalues of an n x m matrix A are the roots of the C.E.

I –A = 0

The eigenvalues are also called the characteristic roots.

Consider matrix A given below.

A=

6
C.E.is

|𝜆I - A| = 𝜆3 +6𝜆2+11𝜆+6

= )( )

Now, the eigenvalues of A are the roots of C.E. or 1=-1, 𝜆2=-2 and 𝜆3=-3

Example:

Consider example shown earlier, show that Equitation (12) is NOT the only possible state
equation for this system if P-matrix is given as given as shown

X1 1 1 1 q1

X2 = -1 -2 -3 q2 OR x = P q ……… (17)

X3 1 4 9 q3

Substitute Equation (17) into equation (14)

P =A P q + Bu … (18)

= p-1APq + p-1Bu ….. (19)

NB: New state variables q1, q2 and q3 is obtained by the use of TRANSFORMATION
techniques.

Block diagram representation of the state model is shown

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 SIMILARITY TRANSFORMATION
A state variable model can be obtained from either the system d.e. or the system T.F.A
single output system has only one input-output model(T.F) but the number of internal
models(state models) is unbounded. The state-model of a single input, single out model is
shown below:

(t)=Ax (t) +B u(t) ……(1)

y (t)=C x(t)+Du(t) ……(2)

Taking the Laplace transform of Equation (1) & (2) results to

=G(s) =C(s -A)-1B+ D ….. (3)

NB many combinations of the matrices A, B, C and D that will satisfy equation (3) for a given
G(s) and the number of the combination is unbounded. Suppose that we are given a state
model of a system as indicated by equations (1) & (2).Now, define a different state vector
v(t) that is of the same order as x(t), such that the elements of the v(t) are linear
combinations of the elements of x(t), that is

8
V1 (t) =q11 x1(t) +q12 x2(t) + ……………..q1n x (t)

V2 (t) =q21 x1(t) +q22 x2(t) + ……………..q2n x (t) …. (4)

Vn (t ) =qn1x1(t) +qn2x2(t) + ……………..qnn x(t)

In general form, equation (4) can be rewritten as

V (t) = Q x(t) = P-1 x(t)

Where the matrix Q has been defined as the inverse of matrix P, to satisfy common
notations. Hence, the state vector x (t) can be expressed as

X (t)=P x(t) …… (5)

Where the matrix P is called a TRANSFORMATION matrix.

Example

Consider the system described by the transformation function

G(s) = (s) = let =

The observer-canonical form is used to develop a state model for this example and the flew
graph form of simulation diagram is shown below

U (s) ▪ s-1 ▪ 1 ▪ s-1

X2 (s) -3

-2

The state equations are then

(t) = x (t) + u (t).

y (t) = x (t)

From Mason`s gain formula yields the correct transfer function.

9
Suppose that the elements of v (t) are arbitrary defined as

V1 (t) =x1(t) +x2(t)

V2 (t) =x1(t) +2x2(t)

Then above signal flow can be modified a s shown

▪U2(s) 1

▪ v1 (s)

u(s) 1> ○ >s-1 ○ >1 ○ >s-1 x1(s)=y (s)

From figure above, v (t) =Q x(t) = x(t) and

P-1=Q P=

Thus the components of x (t) can be expressed as functions of v (t).

x1(t) =2v1 (t) - v2 (t)

x2(t) =-v1 (t) + v2 (t)

From the exercise, it can be observed that, given the vector x(t), we can solve for the vector
v(t) or given the vector V(t), can solve for the vector X(t).

Assume a state model of multivariable system of form of

(t)=A x (t) +B u(t) ….(8)

x (t)=P v(t) .…(9)

Re-organizing equation (8) & (9) results to

P (t) = AP v(t) + B u(t) …..(9a)

(t)=P-1AP v (t) + P-1 B u (t) …… (10)

10
The output equation for the multivariable system is expressed as

y(t)=C x(t) + D u(t) …… (11)

Substituting for x (t) in equation (11) results to

Y (t) =CP v (t) + D u (t) .… (12)

Now, from the above equations, it can be noted that the state equation can be noted that
the state equation as a function of the state the transformed state vector v (t).Thus, the
state equation as a function of v(t) can be expressed in the standard format for a
multivariable system as

(t)=Avv (t) + Bv u (t) …..(13)

y(t) =Cv v (t) + Dv u (t) ….. (14)

Where the subscribes indicates the transformed matrices equation for the transformed
matrices are

AV=p-1AP , BV=P-1 B Cv =CP and Dv=D …. (15)

This TRANSFORMATION alters the internal model of the system (state model) BUT does not
alter the input-output model of the system. This type of transformation is called the
SIMILARITY TRANSFORMATION as developed above.

EXAMPLE

Consider the mechanical system shown earlier. Obtain the transfer function of the system
from the state- space equations.

Solution

T.F= =G(s) ……. (1)

The system can be represented in a general used form as

(t)=A x (t) + Bu (t) …… (2)

y(t) = C x (t) + D u (t)

Taking the Laplace transform of the equation (2) results to

S x(s) – x (0) =A x(s) + Bu(s) …… (3)

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 Y (s) =C x(s) + Du(s)

Assume that x (0) is ZERO since it is also assumed that initial conditions of the system were
also ZERO.

s x (s) =Ax(s) + Bu(s)

sX (s) – Ax(s)=Bu(s)

OR

(S - A) x (s) =Bu(s) ……. (4)

By substituting equation (4) into the output equation of the system then

Y(s) = C (sI- A)-1 B + D U(s) …… (5)

Compare equation (5) with equation (1),

G(s) =C (s - A)-1 + D ……. (6)

This is the transfer function expression in terms of A, B, C and D.

Note that the right side of equation (6) involves (s - A)-1 .Hence G(s) can be re-written as

G(s) = …. (7)

Where Q(s) is a polynomial in s sI –A is equal to the characteristic polynomial of G(s).In

other words, the eigenvalues of A are identical to the pole of G(s).Now substituting A, B, C
and D into equation (6) results to

G(s) = C (s -A)-1B + D

= ( - +0

12
Since -1 =

Then G(s) = ….. (8)

= ⇒ T.F

TIME SOLUTION OF STATE EQUATION

Consider a matrix differential equation =Ax ……. (9)

Where x=n- vector, A=n × n constant matrix

Assume that the solution is in the form of a vector power series in t (or infinite series
solution)

x (t) =b0+b1t+b2t2+… …. (10)

Taking derivative of x (t) results to

(t)=b1+2b2t+3b3t2+kbktk-1 …… (11)

Equation (11) above is true for any t. Thus re-organizing equation (11) yields to;

b1 = Ab0

b2 = Ab1 = A2b0

b3 = Ab2 = A3 b
0

bk = Akb0

Let t=0 in equation (10) results to x (0) =b0

Thus, solution of x(t) can be written as;

13
X (t)=(1+At + A2t2 + ……… AKtk) x (0)

In terms of matrix exponential, the solution of equation (9) can be rewritten as; x (t) = x
(0) .… (12)

Since equation (12) is very important in the state-space analysis of linear systems, its
properties needs to be examined.

Consider now the state vector differential equation =Ax + Bu …. (13)

Taking Laplace transform of equation (13)

S x(s) – x (0) = Ax(s) + Bu(s) .…(14)

(s - A) x(s) = x (0) + Bu(s) …. (15)

Pre-multiplying by (s - A)-1 (equation 15) results to

x(s) =(s - A)-1x (0) + (s - A)-1Bu(s) ….. (16)

Taking inverse transform of equation (16)

x(t) = x (0) + B u( )d .... (17)

If the initial time is t0, then

x (t)= x(0) + Bu( )d …. (18)

Exponential matrix in equation (17) is called the STATE-TRANSITION matrix (t) and
represents the natural response of the system.

Thus, (s) = (s - A)-1 .… (18a)

= -1(s - A)-1 = ….. (19)

Hence equation (19) can be re-written as

14
 (t) = + At + + ….. ….. (20)

Hence equation (19) can be written as

x (t) = (t) x (0) + B u ( )d ....(21)

Equation (21) has the first term representing the system response to a set of initial condition
whilst the integral term represents the response to a forcing function.

NB Using a state variable representation of a system, the CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION (C.E)

is given by

S –A =0 .… (22)

EXAMPLE

For the system shown below, deduce the state equation and given m= 1kg, c=3N/M,
K=2N/M, u=0, evaluate;

(1) The characteristic equation, its roots and damping factor ( )

(2) Transition matrices and

(3) Transition response of the state variables from the set of initial condition, y (0) =1.0

& =0.

P(t) ⧘ K

Solution

It had been shown earlier that the state equations are

= + u ….. (23) Since x1=y

and x2 = , then x1(0)=1.0 and x2(0)=0.

Inserting values of the system parameters into equation (23)

15
 =

(s - A) = - = …. (24)

From equation (22), (s - A) = s(s+3)-(-2)=s2+3s+2=0 …..(25)

s1,2=-1, 2. …… (26)
Compare equation (25) with standard 2nd order-denominator
2
n =2 thus n=1.414 rad/sec

n=3 thus ᵹ=1.061

(2) Inverse of any matrix A i.e. A-1=

From equation (18a) and (19) respectively

(s)= …… (27)

(t) = …… (28)

(3)From equation (28) the transient response is given by

x (t)= (t)x(0) …..(29)

Hence =

x1 (t)= …….(30)

X2
The time response of the state variables (i.e. position and velocity) together the state
trajectory is shown below.

16
Task:
Evaluate the transient response of the state variables to a unit step input for the
example shown above using
(a) The convolution integral
(b) Inverse Laplace transforms
Solution
Assuming zero initial conditions are from equation (18)

x (t) = (t) + u( ) d ……(31)

Given that u (t) =1 and =1, equation (3) reduces to

x (t)= d
Inserting values from equation (28)

X (t) = d …..(32)

Integrating t

x (t) = .… (33)

Inserting integration limits =t and =0 then,

= …. (34)

Alternative method is to inverse transform from s-domain expression i.e.

17
 x(s) = (s)x(0) + (s)Bu(s) …..(35)
Hence,

x(s) = s + …… (35)

Simplifying

x(s)= …..(36)

Inverse transform of equation (36)

x (t)= ….. (36)

Which gives,

= …. (37)

Now equation (38) = equation (37)

LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Consider scalar case

Let = ax …. (1)

Of equation (1)
S x(s) – x (0) = a x(s) …. (2)

Where x(s) = [x], solving equation (2) for x(s)

X(s) = =(s-a)-1x (0) …. (3)

-1 of equation (3)

X (t) = x (0)

This approach to the solution of the homogenous scalar differential equation can be
extended to the homogenous state equation

(t) = A x (t) …. (4)

18
Taking of equation (4)

S x(s) – x (0) = A x(s)

Re-arranging above equation

(S - A) x(s) = x (0) .… (5)

x(s) = (S - A)X (0) .…(6)

Taking -1 of equation (6)

x (t) = (S - A)-1 x (0) ....(7)

NB (S - A)-1 = + + ……………n

Hence the -1 of (S - A)-1

-1 = + At + + +…….. …. (8)

From equation (7) and (8) the solution of equation (4) is obtained as

x (t) = x (0)

STATE TRANSITION MATRIC

Consider homogenous state equation =Ax …… (9)

As x (t) = (t) x (0) ……. (10)

Where is an n×n matrix and is the unique solution of

(t) = A (t) (0) =

To verify this note that;

19
x (0) = (0) x (0) …… (11)

(t) = (t) x(0) = A (t) x (0) = A x(t).

From equation (18), equation (8) and equation (10) above

(t) = = -1 (s - A)-1 …… (12)

Note

-1(t) = = (-t) …. (13)

The UNIQUE MATRIX (t) is called the STATE-TRANSITION MATRIX.

Problem; obtain the state-transition matrix (t) of the following system,

Obtain the inverse of the state matrix -1 (t) Consider non

homogenous state equation

(1) Scalar case

= ax + b u .… (14)

Multiply equation (14) by both sides and re-arranging yields to

= = b u (t)

Integrating this equation between 0 to t gives

x (t) = x (0) + b u( ) d ……(15)

NB ;( 1) first term on the right hand side is the response to the initial condition and

(2) Second term is the response to the input u (t)

Now consider = Ax + Bu ….. (16)

20
 Where x = n-vector, A = n × n constant matrix, u = r-vector, B = r × r constant
matrix
Equation (16) re-written

(t) – Ax (t) = B u (t) …… (17)

Multiplying equation (17) by both sides obtains

(t) – A x (t) = x (t) = B u (t) ….. (18)

Integrating equation (18) between 0 to t gives

x(t) = x (0) + B u( ) d ….(19)

Or x (t) = x (0) + Bu … (19)

Equation (19) can also be written as

X (t) = (t) x (0) + Bu( )d …..(20)

Where (t) = eqn (19) and (20) is the solution of eqn (16).

Laplace Transform

= Ax + B U ….. (21)

Taking equation (21)

S x(s) – x (0) = Ax (s) + Bu (s) …. (22)

Multiplying equation (22) by (S -1 and re-arranging yields to

x (s) =(S -1 x (0) + (S -1 Bu (s) ….(23)

Thus, x (s) = x (0) + Bu (s)

The inverse Laplace transform of the last equation can be obtained by the use of the
condition integral as

21
x (t) = x (0) + Bu ( ) d

Problem: Obtain the time response of the following system

= + u

Where u (t) is the UNIT STEP Input occurring at t= 0.

CONTROLLABILITY & OBSERVABILITY

Introduction: These tells us

whether it is at all possible to canticle all the states of the system completely by notable
choice of an input and when it is possible to reconstruct the states of a system from its input
all output.

CONTROLLABLE: the linear-time invariant system

Ẋ (t) = Ax (t) + B u (t) …. (1)

y (t) =C x

This system is said to be controllable if it is possible to find some input u (t) that will transfer
the initial state of the system x (0) to the origin of the state space, x (t 0)=0, with t0 finite.

Solution of the state equation (1) is

x (t) = (t) x(0) + Bu ( ) d .…(2)

For the system of the equation (1) to be controllable of a function u (t) must exists that
satisfies the equation.

0= (t0) x (0) + (t0 - ) B u = d .... (3)

With t0 finite.

A linear time-invariant contains time system is completely controllable if and only if the
rank of the controllability matrix defined as u ᶺ B, AB A2B …An-1 B is EQUAL to n.

If the system is not completely it implies that it has one or more natural modes that cannot
be affected by the input directly or indirectly. Example:

22
 = + u

The controllability matrix for the system is

U= =

Which is seen to be singular. Hence the system is uncontrollable. This is more obvious if we
write the two differential equations separately i.e.

ẋ1= 0.5x1

ẋ2= -2x2 + u (t)

It is evident that whereas x2 can be changed by u (t), the state of x is unaffected by our
choice of input, since it is not coupled either directly to the input or to the state x2 hence

this state (or the mode x1(0) ) is UNCONTROLLABLE .On the other hand if we had
=0.5x1 + x2 , new matrix would be as

A= B=

u= ⇒ giving us a CONTROLLABE system since we can now control x1 indirectly

through x2

OBSERVEBLE-the linear time-invariant system is said to be observable if the initial conditions

x (0) can be determined from the output function y (t), 0 t1, where t1 is finite. From
equations (1) & (2)

Y (t) = C x (t) = C (t) x (0) + C (t- ) B U ( ) D …… (4)

Thus gives u (t) and y (t), 0 t t1 with t1some finite values, the system is observable if this
equation can be solved for x (0).It can be shown that the system is OBSERVABLE if the matrix

V= is

23
 Linear system is completely OBSERUABLE if and only if the rank of the above matrix V
is equal to n, where V is called the observability matrix. Consider

= + u (t) ….. (5)

y(t)= …. (6)

NB Equation (5) same as equation (1).It was seen that this system was UNCONTROLLABLE,
since the state x1 is not affected by either u (t) or x2 (t).Now, from the observability matrix

V= = ⇒seen to be singular

The reason why this system is OBSERVABLE is that the state x1 does not affect the output,
nor does it affect the state x2 (which is coupled to the output). Consider

= + u (t) …. (6)

y(t)= …. (7)

Controllability matrix for this system is given by

U= =

Seen that u is non-singular (its determinant is -1) the system is controllable.

Also the OBSERVABILITY matrix is given by

V= …… (8)

This is also singular and the system is UNOBSERVABLE.

Explain easily by examining the T.F.

= = =

24
NB; since the factor (s+1) is cancelled from the numerator the mode at s=-1, giving rise to a

term of the form k does not appear in the output, although it is present at one of the state
with the system.

Tutorial Consider the

circuit show below and state whether the system is uncontrollable, unobservable or both (use
initial d.e.).Determinant of equation (6) is ZERO, hence the system is
UNCONTROLLABLE. Since the C matrix is ZERO, the system is UNOBSERVABLE

SOLUTION Loop equations

Ri1+L + R1 (i1+i2) = e .... (1)

Ri2+L + R1 (i1+i2) = e .… (2)

Equation (1) and (2) in standard form

=- i1 – + e …. (3)

i1 - i2 + e …. (4)

A= ,B=

25
Thus, AB= …. (5)

Controllability matrix

= …. (6) See page

(32a)

Use of eigenvectors – controllability

Consider the system defined by

=Ax + Bu …. (1)

If the eigenvector of A all distinct, then the eigenvectors of A are distinct, then it is possible
to find transformation matrix P.

𝜆i 0 P-1AP=D=
𝜆i

0 𝜆i

NB; if eigenvalues of A are distinct, then the eigenvectors of A are distinct; however the
converse is NOT TRUE. For example an n ×n real symmetric matrix having multiple
eigenvalues has n distinct eigenvalues. Note that each column of the P matrix is an
eigenvector of A associated with 𝜆i (i=1,2…n).

Define x=PZ

= P-1APZ+P-1Bu ……………… (2)

Defining P-1B= F = (f ij)

Then ż1= 𝜆1z1 + f11u1 +f12u2 + …..f1rur

Ż2= 𝜆2z2 + f21u1 +f22u2 + …..f2rur

Żn= 𝜆nzn + fn1u1 +fn2u2 + …..fnrur

26
If elements of any one row of the n × r matrix F are all ZERO, then the corresponding state
variable cannot be controlled by any of the ui. Eigenvalues of A are distinct – then the system
is completely state controllable if and only is number of row of P-1B has all ZERO elements.

NB For complete state controllability put the matrix P-1AP in equation (2) in a diagonal form.
If the A matrix in equation (1) does not pose distinct eigenvectors then diagonalization is
impossible. Transform A into the Jordan canonical form in such case i.e. A has the
eigenvalues 𝜆1 𝜆1 𝜆1,4 𝜆4 𝜆6 …….. 𝜆n and has n – 3 distinct eigenvectors, then the Jordan
canonical form of A is

𝜆1 0 1 0

0 𝜆1 1

J= 0 0 𝜆1

𝜆4 1

0 𝜆4

𝜆6

𝜆n

Square sub-matrices as (as shown above) on the main diagonal are called Jordan blocks.
Introducing transformation matrix S, then S- AS=J Let new state vector be Z be defined
as

X=Sz ….. (3)

Putting equation (3) into equation (1) yields to

= S-1ASz + S-1Bu

=JZ + S-1Bu

Now, the condition for complete state controllability of the system of equation (1) may
then be stated as follows; the system is completely state controllable if and only:

(a)No two Jordan block in J of equation (3) are associated with eigenvalues

(b) The elements of any row of s-1B that correspond to the last row of each
Jordan block are all Zero.

27
(c)The elements of each row of s-1B that correspond to distinct eigenvalues are not all
Zero.

ALTERNATIVE CONDITION – COMPLETE OBSERVABILITY

Given = Ax …… (5)

Y= C x …… (6)

Introduce transformation matrix P- transforming A into diagonal matrix as

P-1AP=D where D-diagonal matrix

Defining x = P z

Equation (5) and (6) re-written as

=P-1A P z=D z ….. (8)

Y= CPz ….. (9)

Thus, y (t) = CP Z (0) ….. (10)

Equation (10) in matrix form.

e𝜆1t 0 e𝜆1t z1(0)

y (t)= e𝜆2t z (0)=CP e𝜆1t z2(0) …… (11)

e𝜆3t
0 e𝜆nt e𝜆nt z n(0)

System is completely observable if none of the columns of the n × m matrix CP consists

of all zero elements. If the matrix A cannot
be transformed into a diagonal matrix, then by use of suitable transformation matrix S,
transform A into the Jordan canonical form or

S-1AS = J where J is in Jordan canonical form.

Defining x=S z …… (12)

Then equation (5) and (6) can be written as

= S-1ASZ = J …. (13)

28
Y=C S z ….. (14)

Equation (14) in time domain

Y (t) = C S Z(0) …. (15)

From equation (15) it can be said that the system is completely observable if: (a) no two
Jordan block in J are associated with the same eigenvalues

(b) no columns of CS that correspond to the first row of each Jordan block consists of
zero elements.

(c) no columns of CS that correspond to distinct eigenvalues consist of zero elements.

CONICAL FORMS

Consider yn + a1y(n-1) +….an-1y + any=b0un + b1un+1 + bn-1 + bnu …. (16)

When u is the input and y is the output.

Equation (16) in 𝓛 and as a T.F.

The state-space representation of equation (17) can be presented in 3 canonical forms;

(a) Direct programming method for obtaining controllable canonical form.

(b) Nested programming method for obtaining observable canonical form.

(c) Partial-fraction expansion programming method for obtaining diagonal or Jordan

canonical form.

DIRECT PROGRAMMING

Using equation (17)

= b0 + ……. (18)

Equation (18) can be re-written as

Y (t) = b0 u (s) + yᶺ(s) ……. (19)

29
Where yᶺ (s)= u(s) …. (20)

Re-arranging equation (20) yields to

Q (s) = ….. (21)

Re-arranging equation (21) and substituting to equation (20) results to

yᶺ (s) = (b1-d1b0) sn-1Q(s) + … (bn-1-an-1b0) Q (s)+(bn-anb0)Q (s) ……… (22)

Defines state variable as

X1 (s) = Q(s)

X2 (s) = S Q (s)

…… (22)

Xn-1 (s) = Sn-2 Q (s)

Xn (s) =Sn-1Q (s)

From equation (22) see clearly that

S x1(s) = x2 (s)

S x2(s) = x3 (s)

…. (23)

Sxn-1(s) = xn (s)

Thus, equation (23) can be written as follows

= x2 .... (24)

X2=x3

Xn-1=xn

From equations (19) and (22) ⇒obtain y (s) and then taking the 𝓛 results to

Y = (bn-anb0) x1

= (bn-anb0)x1 +(bn-1-an-1b0)x2 +..(b1-a1b0)xn +b0u …… (25)

30
 State equation and output equation can be given by

Ẋ1 0 1 0…. 0 x1 0.

Ẋ2 0 0 1… 0 x2 0

= + u …. (26)

Ẋn-1 0 0 0 ...1 x1-n 0

Ẋn - an -an-1 -an-2.–a1 xn 1

x1

Y= bn – an-1b0 bn-1 –an-1b0 ..... b1-a1b0 x2 + b0u …… (27)

xn

State space representation given by equation (20) and (27) is said to be in the
CONTROLLABLE CANONICAL FORM. The controllable canonical form is important in
discussing the pole placement approach to the control system design

POLE-PLACEMENT DESIGN

Pole-placement design is based on the state model of the system. Consider the system
shown in the figure below that is referred to as regulator control system shows that input R
(t)=0

31
State modal equation:

ẋ (t) = A x (t) + B u (t)

y (t) = C x (t) …..(1)

in modern control system the plant input u (t) is made a function of the states, of the form;

u (t) = f x (t) ….(2)

Equation (2) is called the control rule or the CONTROL LAW. In pole-placement design, the
control law is specified as a linear function of the states, in the form;

u (t) = K x (t) …. (3)

Where this control law allows all pole of the closed-loop system to be placed in only
desirable locations and this is expressed as

u (t) = -K1 x1 (t) – K2 x2 (t) - … Kn xn (t) …. (4)

The singular fed back to the plant input in a weighted sum of all of the state of the system.
The design problem is the specification of the desired roof location of the system c.e. and
the calculation of the gain; ki to yield these desired root location .Consider the system
shown in figure 13:

State equations are

ẋ (t)= x (t) + u (t) …. (5)

From equation (4) and figure 13, the plant input-signal is chosen to be;

u (t)=-k1x1(t) – k2x2(t)= -k1 – k2 x(t)=-k x(t) …. (6)

State equations for the closed-loop system then become;

32
ẋ= A x(t) + B u(t) = A x(t) – Bk x(t) (since u(t)=-kx)

= x (t) - [k1 k2] x(t) …. (7)

= x (t) x (t) = x (t)

In general, the state equation for the closed loop system can be expressed as;

ẋ (t) = x (t) = Af x (t) …. (8)

Where Af – system matrix of the closed-loop. c.e of CL matrix is given as;

|sI - Af | = = S2 + sk2 + k1 = 0 …. (9)

Suppose that design specification are that the two roots of the c.e. be placed at –𝜆1 and –𝜆2,
then let 𝓛c(s) be the desired c.e. and expressed as;

𝓛c(s) = ( s + 𝜆1)(s + 𝜆2)= s2(𝜆1 + 𝜆2)s + 𝜆1 𝜆2=0 …. (10)

Completion of design is when k1 & k2 are chosen such that the coefficient of equation (9) are
equal to those of equation (10).

K1= 𝜆1 𝜆2 …. (11)

K2= 𝜆1 + 𝜆1

Now, it can be seen from the above analysis that the proper choice of the fb gains allows the
roots of the c.e. (poles of the CL T.F ) for the system model to be placed anywhere in the s-
plane. Note also that if 𝜆1 and 𝜆2 are complex, 𝜆2 must be the complex conjugate of 𝜆1. Thus
the gains K1 and K2 are always REAL.
Consider a general development of a linear time-invariant system i.e.

ẋ(t)= A x(t) + B u (t) …. (12)

Control law chosen to be;

u (t)= -K x (t) …. (13)

With K= K1 K2…Kn

And n is the order of the plant.

Equation (12) and (13) yields to

33
ẋ (t) = A x (t) – BK x(t)=(A - BK) x(t)=Afx(t) …. (14)

Where Af = (A - BK) is the system matrix for the closed loop system. The c.e. is then

| SI – Af | = | S I – A + BK| = 0 …. (15)

Suppose that the design specification is square that the zeros of the c.e. be -𝜆1, 𝜆2 ....-𝜆n. The
desired c.e. for the system, which is denoted 𝓛c (c) is

𝓛c (s) = sn + 𝓛n-1sn-1 + …+𝓛1s + 𝓛0 =

= (s +𝜆1)(s +𝜆2) …(s +𝜆n) =0 …. (16)

The pole-placement design procedure results in a gain vector K such that equation (15)
is equal to equation (16), that is;

| Si – A +BK | = 𝓛c (s) = sn + 𝓛n-1sn-1 + …. + 𝓛1s +𝓛0 .…. (17)

Equation (17) shows clearly that there are n unknowns (k1 k2 … kn).

Equating coefficients in this equation yields n equations in the n-unknowns.

Problem

For the system defined by the following equations, show that it has three linear
simultaneous equations arranged in the matrix

Also obtain a0, b0, b1

The transfer function is given as

G p(s) =

And CL T.F

T (s) =

34
 DISCRETE SYSTEM

Consider (1) continuous time

(2) Analogue systems

Assumption – set of modeling equation are linear.

Now, discrete-time systems (D.T.S) (mostly referred to as discrete system) are systems that
can be modeled by d.e.

OBSERVATIONS: That transforms use:

(i) In the analysis of linear time-invariant analogue system (A.S.)

is then Laplace Transform.
(ii) For linear time-invariant discrete system, Z-transform.

Block diagram of a DTS is shown below.

For this system, allows the computer to perform only linear time variant operations (don`t
consider nonlinear or time varying controllers).

ANALYSIS: Assume that the values from A/D are spaced every T seconds i.e. at t=0, so,
input t0 is e (0), e (T), e (2T) ….hence expression e (KT).

Let the computer input at t = 0, be e (0) and the o/p be m (0).Since the computer operation –
linear and time-invariant, m (0) is expressed as

m (0)=b0e(0) …. (1)

Since using the computer capable of storage then, m (T) can be a function of e (0), m (0)
and e (T) resulting to m (T) expressed as

m (T)=b0 e(T) + b1 e(0) – a1 m(0) …. (2)

35
In a similar manner

m(2T)= b0 e(2T) + b1 e(T) +b2 e(0)– a1 m(T) ….(3)

Above equation referred to as differential equation resulting into a general form of an

nth…order linear time-invariant differential equation

m(k)=b0 (k)+b1 e(k+1)+….bn e(k-n)-a1 m(k-1)….an m(k-n) ….(4)

now compare equation (4) with that of a linear differential equation describing an nth-
ordered analog system with input e(t) and output y(t) shown in equation (5)

y(t) = ʒ0 e(t) +ʒ1 +… n – 1 -….. n ….. (5)

Z-Transform:

The Z-transform of a number sequence {e(k)} is defined as a power series in Z-1 with
coefficient equal to values e(k) is shown below.

E(z)=z[{k}]=e(0) + e(1) Z-1+e(2)Z-2 + ….(6)

In general equation (6) can be written as

E (z) = z [e {k}] = ….(7)

Task: Study the theorems of the Z-transform.

SAMPLE DATA EXTRAPOLATORS AND SPECTRAL CHARACTERISTICS.

A data extrapolator is a device that reconstructs a sampled function into a continuous-time

signal based on knowledge of the past sample. Data extrapolators are classified according to
the number of prior samples utilized for predicting the sampled function during waiting
intervals .Consider a “Zero order holder ” in which the value of the reconstructed function
during any waiting period is simply equal to the value of the sampled function at the
beginning of the interval as shown below.

36
Analysis of a zero-order hold. Consider an impulse response which is rectangular pulse as
shown below

Fig 26
– Impulse response of a zero-order hold.

In can be expressed as

G (s) = (1 - eST) …. (8)

And in Z -transform

Gz = (1 – Z-1)

37
Problem

Find the Z transform function of the system shown in fig 27 and hence determine the output
square of the input is a unit-stip.

Fig 27. Block diagram

Solution GH G(s) = + = + (1-e-sT)

Taking the z-transform

GH G(z) = (1 – z-1 )=

The z-transform of the output can be written as

Y(x)=GHG(z).X(z)= = -

Taking the inverse z-transform, obtain

y (nT)=1-

Task: An error-sampled closed loop system is show in fig 28.Determine the output sequence
for a unit step input

38
Fig 28 Block diagram of a closed-loop sampled data system.

Assumed that the student have learned the z-theorem.

Z-Transform Inversion

Consider the following techniques

(i)power series method:

Consider, E(z)=e(0)+e(1)Z-1+e(2)Z-2+ …(10)

The values of sequence {e(k)} are seen to be the coefficients in the power series from the
definition of the z-transform.

Problem: find the values of {e(k)} for E(z) given by

E (z) =

Solution

Z-1 +3Z-2 +7Z-3

Z2 + 3Z +2 Z

Z – 3 +2Z-1

3 – 2Z-1

3 – 9Z-1 + 6Z-2

7Z-1 – 6Z-2

7Z-1 – 21Z + 14Z-3

15Z-2 – 14Z-3

Thus, e(0)=0 e (4) =15

e(1)=1

e(2)=2

e(3)=3 e(k)=2k-1

(iii) Partial Fraction Expansion Method. The function E(z) may be

expanded into partial fraction in the same manner as used as with Laplace
Transform .example; consider the E(z) as given above.

39
E (z) = =

Expand E(z)/z into a partial fractions

= =

Thus,

ʒ-1 -1 +ʒ-1

Use z-Transform tables to obtain the solution. i.e.

{e(k)} E (z)

{1}

{k}

{k2}

{ak}

NB: The partial fraction procedure is to expand E(z)into the form of the terms that appear in
the z-transform tables.

STABILITY OF C/L DTS

The necessary and sufficient condition for the stability of a d.s.t. is that all the poles of its Z
transfer finitive lie inside the unit circle of the Z-plane. This fact follows from the

transformation z= which maps the left ½ of the s-plane inside the unit circle .

40
 There basic techniques studied for continuous time system i.e.

(i)Routt-Hurwitz criteria

(ii)Nyquist can be used with slight modification

(iii)Routt hocus

(i)The Routt-Hurwitz criterion

It is possible to use the Routt-Hurwitz criterion to determine if a polynomial Q(z) has roots
has roots outside the unit circle by using the bilinear transformation.

Fig 29- Mapping in bilinear transformation.

e.g. The characteristic polynomial of d.t.s is given by

Q (z)=z3-2z2+1.5z-0.4=0

Solution

Q (w) = ( – 2( + 1.5( – 0.4 = 0

0R (w +1)3 – 2(w + 1)2(w - 1) + 1.5(w + 1)(w - 1)2 – 0.4(w - 1)3 = 0 … (42)

Further simplification

41
0.1 3+0.7 2+2.3 +4.9=0

Routt table is shown below

w3 0.1 2.3
w2 0.7 4.9
w1 1.6
w0 4.9

OBSERVATION

No change in sign in the first column of the Routt table indicates that all roots of Q(w) are in

the left ½ - of the plane, and correspondingly, all roots of Q(z) are inside the unit circle.
Hence, Q(z) is the characteristic polynomial of a stable system.

Problem

Determine the maximum value of k for which a unity feedback system with the following
forward path transfer function will be stable

a(z)=

Solution The c.e. for the C/L systems given by

Q(z)=Z2 + (0.368k-1.368)z + (0.264k+0.368)

0.632k 2 +2(0.632-0.264k) -(2.736-0.104k)=0

Every term in the corresponding Routt table will be positive if and only if the gain k is
positive and less than 2.394.

Root-Locus Method

The dL system will be unstable when the roots locus enters the region outside the unit
circle of the z-plane whereas for the Colinas time-case, instability occurs when the locus
crosses the jw axis to enter the night half of the s-plane.

Example: the forward transfer function of a unity feedback sampled-data system is

42
G (z)=

Determine the value of K so that all the poles of the C/L system inside a circle of radius
0.7071.

Solution.

A sketch of root-locus is shown below. The largest value of K that will satisfy the above
condition is 1.5 with poles at -0.15 ± j0.691

Fig 30. Root locus in the Z-plane. Repeat

G (z)= Answer K=0.66 give poles at0.32 ±j0.629

NYQUIST criteria [frequency response] of D.T.S

This is obtained by replacing Z by in the T.F and evaluating the resulting expression
for different values of w. Evaluate G(s) along the unit circle of the Z-plane, whereas for
continuous-time systems, the function G(s) is evaluated along the jw-axis of the s-plane. This
follows due to the transformation between the two planes according to the relationship

Z= …. (15) and the corresponding mapping is shown below

43
 Fi
g 30.Mapping between the s-plane and the Z-plane. Equation (5) also implies that for d.t.s

the frequency response repeat itself as the value of w increases beyond 2 /T, since

G( )=G[ ] …. (6)

Where n is any integer. NB: The

frequency response can be given a graphical interpretation as

G(s) = ….. (7)

Then, for Z= this results to

G( )=

= K.

Graphical interpretation of equation (7) is shown below for a triangle function with two real
poles and a real zero.

44
Fig 31 Graphical interpretation of frequency response.

From the symmetry of fig 31 about the real axis, it follows that

G( ) = G* ( ) = G* ( )

Where G* is the complex conjugate of G|| …(9)

Consequently one needs to calculate the frequency response only within the range w

varying from 0 to /T, instead of from 0 to , as required for continuous time systems.

Example: consider the second order- t.f given by

G(z)= =

Replacing Z by - obtain

G( )=

Equation (10) results to the following table (wT ranging 0 and )

45
wT M Φ(0) wT M Φ.0
0 24 0 1.0 3.02 -145.75
0.1 21.68 -33.74 1.5 1.54 -164.64
0.2 17.18 -60.74 2.0 0.94 -175.06
0.3 13.14 -80.51 2.5 0.69 -179.67
0.4 10.15 -96.7 3.0 0.597 -179.81
0.5 7.96 -108.2 7 0.593 -180.00

BILINEAR TRANSFORMATION Previously we

had discussed a bilinear transformation which maps the interior of the unit circle of the Z-
plane into the half of the w-plane. In this section we present bilinear transformation that
was proposed by Tustin and is expressed

W= OR Z= …. (11)

The unit circle of the Z-plane maps into imaginary axis of the w-plane through the following
developments,

Z=

w= but since Z=

w= =

Employing Euler’s identify

46
W= j tan ( ) …. (12)

Euler’s Theorem; power series expansion of

=1 - + - +…

= +…

The mappings of the primary strip of the s-plane into both the z-plane and the w-plane are
shown below and WE NOTE THAT THE STABLE REGION of the w-plane is the left half-plane.

47
The bilinear transformation may be used in generating the Nyquist diagram. Since stability
regions are the same in the s-plane and the w-plane, the Nyquist path in the w-plane is then
the same as that in the s-plane.

TRY: Consider the system shown below

Given G(s) =

Sketch the Nyquist diagram of the system

DESIGN OF DISCRETE SYSTEMS The design of

control system involves the changing of system parameters and/or the addition of digital
subsystems (called compensators, controllers or private filters) to achieve certain desired

48
system characteristics. The desired characteristics, or performance specification generally
relate to steady state accuracy transient response relative stability, sensitivity to changes in
system parameters, and disturbance rejections.

Assume that the system to be designed is as shown below

For the system, close-loop transfer function is

= …. (13)

c.e. is 1+ D(z) GH (z)=0 …. (14) The above

compensation is required to as a cascade, or series component. To do compensation
for the system shown, place a compensator as shown below (this is one of the many
methods or techniques)

G (z) = …. (15)

49
C.E. of equation (15) is 1 +D (z) =0

This type of compensation is called a termed feedback parallel, or minor-loop

compensation.

Let the compensator t.f. be

D (z) = ….. (17)

For frequency-response design plane is not the z-plane, but the w-plane hence must express
the compensator transfer function as a function of w.

D(s)=D(z) = …. (18)

Thus, D(s) is first order, and therefore initially assume it to be of the form

D (w) = …. (19)

Where - ww0 is the zero location and wwp is the pole location in the w-plane.

The frequency-response design procedures presented here are identical to those presented
as analog controllers.

PHASE-LAG DESIGN

For phase-lag compensators, ww0 > wwp in the compensator transfer function

D (w)= ….. (20)

Bode diagram for the above T.F is as shown below

50
The ds gain is UNITY and the high-frequency gain is given by

(High frequency gain) dB=20log …. (21)

The magnitude of equation 21 is less than UNITY. Hence the phase-lag compensator is
employed to reduce high-frequency gain relative to low-frequency gain and increases
stability margins without degrading the low –frequency response.

From fig 32, system characteristic equation is given as

1 +D (z) G(z) =0 …. (22)

G(s) = ʒ Gp(s) …. (23)

PHASE-LEAD DESIGN

For a phase-lead compensator, ww0<wwp and the compensator frequency response is shown
below

51
From the figure above, it can be seen that the phase-lead compensator will increase the
high frequency gain, and hence the band width of the closed loop system which leads to a
faster system response. Design procedure is given below. Let ww1 be the w-planefrequency
at which the phase margin occurs . At this frequency, for the system shown in fig 32

D(jww1) (Gjww1) = 1 | -180 +Φm …. (24)

Where D(w) = ….. (25)

NB: The assumed form of the compensation is now of the general form of the phase-lag
compensator given as

D(w)= …. (26)

Even though the notation is different. Thus compensator of equation (26) has a dc gain of a0
. Design equations used are

….. (27)

52
Where from equation (24);

…. (28)

And |D ( )| = …. (29)

If the compensator coefficients satisfy the preceding equations, the Nyquist diagram will
pass through the point 1 |-1800 + Φm

If the designed system is stable, thus system has the required phase margin. Thus, once the
coefficients are calculated, the Bode diagram (or Nyquist diagram) must be calculated to
determine if the closed loop system is stable.

This design procedure requires that the dc gain a0 and the phase margin frequency ww1 be
chosen. Then equation (27) determines the compensator coefficients a1 and b2. The dc gain
of the compensator is determined by the steady-state specifications of the control systems.

DIGITAL PDI controllers

In general this is expressed as

m (t)=Kp e(t) +Ki + KD …. (30)

Need to determine:

(i) Gain Kp (ii) gain KI and (iii) gain KD.

Digital PDI controllers satisfy equation (30) except the application integration and
differentiation are performed numerically in a digital computer. Consider Euler method of
numerical integration

53
 Many methods for the numerical integration of a signal but presents the easier one – Euler
method where area under each segment of the curve is approximated by the area of the
rectangle shown. If m (t) is to be the integral of e (t), the value of the integral at t=(k+1)TL is
equal to the value at t=KT plus the area under the curve for e(t) between KT and (k+1). Thus
by Euler`s rule

m[(k+1)T]=m(KT)+Te[(k+1)T] …. (31)

Taking z-transform of equation (31) results to

Z[M(z)-m(0)]=M(z)+Tz[E(z)-e(0)] …. (32)

Assume the initial conditions to ZERO, the T.F of this integrator:

M (z)= E(z) …. (33)

Now, consider figure below for numerical differentiation. Assumed that that the slope of
e(t) at t=(k+1)T is equal to the slope of the straight line that connects e(KT) with e[(k+1)T].

If m (t) is to be derivative of e(t) thus numerical differentiation procedure is described by

M [(k+1)T]= ….(34)

Z-transform of equation (34)

M(z)= E(z) …. (35)

NB: compare equation (34) and (35)

From the comparison, it can be shown that the reciprocal of the T.Fs of certain other
numerical integrators give the T.Fs of numerical differentiators.

Now, equation (30) can be re-written in Z-transform as

M (z) D(z) E(z)= Kp + + E(z) …. (36)

Equation (36) results to the following PDI controller

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Digital PID filter

H/W
For the system shown in figure, below obtain its Z-transform transfer function

Gp(s) =

Let T=0.5s

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