Linear

Algebra II
Review lesson Linear Algebra I:
1. Vector spaces
∙ Independent linearly vectors.
∙ Generators, span.
2. Let ⊂ V .Vector { x1,..., x2 } is called a generator of W if:
∀ xϵ W . x= a1x1 +...+ amxm , ai ϵ K
Denote W = ¿ x1,..., xn¿

3. Bases:
{e1, ..., en } is called a basis of W if :
. it is dependent
. W = ¿ e1, ..., en ¿
Note that: dim W = n
4. Sum and direct sum
a) Sum: Let V 1, V 2 ⊂ V be vector subspace.
V 1 + V 2 = {x1 + x2 | xi ϵ V i}.

b) Direct sum:
V 1 + V 2 is called direct if V 1 ∩ V 2 = {0}

Thm: If dim V i < +∞ then

dim (V 1 + V 2 ) = dim V 1 + dim V 2 – dim (V 1 ∩ V 2 )
II. Matrixes and determinants
1. Matrixes:
Mat ( m* n , k )= Mat min ( K ) the space of matrixes of the side.
a11 a12 ... a1n
A ϵ Mat min ( K ) ¿>¿ A=[ aij ]m*n = a21 a22 ... a2n
............ .............
.am1 am2 ... amn
Thm: dim Matm*n ( K ) = m.n
 2. Determinants of square matrix
. Calculator of det:
A ϵ Matn ( K ) → det A= ?

. Example:
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12
A= a21 a22 a23 a21 a22
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32

det A = a11a22a33 + a12a23a31 + a1 a21a32 – a13 a22 a31 – a11 a23a32 – a12a21a33

......................................................................................................................

Chapter 1 Linear Maps

1.1. Definitions and examples:

Let V , W be a K vector spaces, K is a field. Denote by Ov the zero vector of V

O w the zero vector ofW
a) Definition: A map T: V →W is called linear if
x → T(x)
i) T(x+ y) = T(x) + T(y), ∀ x, y ∈ V .
ii) T (ax) = a. T(x)
Note that: T is called a linear map.
Examples:
1. V = R 2, W =R2, R 2 = {x= (a, b)| a, b∈ R }
{e 1= (1, 0), e2= (0, 1)} standard basis.

Consider: T: R 2→ R 2.
x= (x1, x2) → (x1, 0)

∙ T(x+ y) = (x1+ y1, 0)

= (x1, 0) + (y1, 0) = T(x) + T(y) ∀ x, y ∈ V .

∙ T (ax) = T (ax1, ax2) = (ax1, 0)

= a. T(x)
⟹ T is a linear map.
2. V = R 2, W =R3 and T: R 2→ R 3, x= (x1, x2) → (x1 – x2, x2, x2+ x1)
Consider: T: R 2→ R 3
x= (x1, x2) → (x1 – x2, x2, x2+ x1)
∙ T(x+ y) = (x1 – x2 + y1 - y2, x2+ y2, y2+ y1 + x2+ x1)
= (x1 – x2, x2, x2+ x1) + (y1 - y2, y2, y2+ y1) = T(x) +T(y)
∙ T (ax) = T (ax1, ax2) = (a(x1 – x2), ax2, a(x2+ x1))
= a. T(x)
⟹ T is a linear map.
3. T: R 3→ R , x= (x1, x2, x3)→ T(x) = x12
Consider: x= (1, 0, 0); a=2. We have:
∙ T (2x) = T (2, 0, 0) = 4 T (2x) ≠ 2T(x)

∙ 2 T(x) = 2 T (1, 0, 0) = 2.1= 2

⟹ T isn’t a linear map.
4. T: R 2→ R 2, x= (x1, x2) → T(x) = (2x1 +1, x2)
T(2x)= T(2, 0)= (5,0 )
Consider: x = (1, 0), a= 2 ⟹ 2T(x) = 2. T (1, 0) = 2. (3, 0)
1.2. Properties:
Let T: V →W be a linear map.
a) Prop1: T (0v) = T (0w)
Proof: Write 0v = 0.x, x∈ V , 0∈ K .
⟹ T(0v)= T( 0.x )= 0. T(x) = (0w)
b) Prop2: T (-x) = -T(x)
Proof: Using: -x = -1. (x) We have: T (-x) = T (-1.x) = -T(x)
c) Prop3: ∀ a1, ..., am ∈ K , ∀ x1, ..., x m ∈ V then:
T (a1 x1+... + am x m) = a T(x1) +a2 T(x2) +...+am T(x m)
Proof: T (ax1) + T (a2x2) + ... + T (amxm) = T (a1 x1+... + am x m)
.T (ax1) + T (a2x2) + ... + T (amxm) = T (a.x1) + T (a2. x2) + ... + T (am.xm)
= a T(x 1) +a2 T(x2) +...+am T(x m)
⟹ what has to be proved
1.3. Notations
 . Hom (V , W ) the set of linear maps from V to W .
. α (V , W ).
In particular, if V =¿ W then Hom¿ W ) is denoted by End (V ¿
1.4. Matrixes of a linear map
a) Assume that { e1, ..., en} and {ε 1, ...., ε m} are basis of V ∧¿ W
Note that: dim V =¿ n, dim W = m
Let T: V → W be a linear map
x→ T(x)
We have T (e1) = a11 ε 1 + a21ε 2 +...+ am1ε m
.................

T (en) = a1n ε 1 + a2nε 2 +...+ amnε m

Hence, ∀ x∈ V . T(x) = T (x1e1 +... + xnen), xi∈ K .
(x= x1e1 +... + xnen) = x1 Te1 +... + xn Ten
= (a11 x1+a21 x 2+...+an1 x n)ε 1 +.....+ (a1n x 1+a2n x 2 +...+amnxn)ε m
 n n n

⇒ T(x) = ( ∑ a1j xj )ε 1 + ( ∑ a2j xj )ε 2 + ... + ( ∑ amj xj )ε m

j=1 j=1 j=1

x’ 1 x ’2 x ’m
Note that: x1
xn = x2 the column of x
....
xn
x’1
x’ 2
x’ = .... the column of T(x)
x’ n

⇒ x’1 a11x1 +a12x1 +... + a1nxn

x’2 = a21x1 +a22x1 +... + a2nxn
..... .............................................
x’n am1x1 +am2x1 +... + anmxn

a 11 a12 .... a1n x1

= a 21 a22 .... a2n x2 (1)

...... ....... ........ .....

am1 am2 amn xn

⇒ x’ = A. x (2)

In particular, the coordinate of T(x) can be written as

T(x) = A. x

Is called the matrix of T w.r.t (e) and (ε ).

Question: is the coefficients of T (e1) in A?

The ith column of A.
Note that:
A= [Te1 Te2 ...... Ten ] (3)
b) Remark:
. If V =¿ W and (e) is a basis ofV . Then the matrix A called the matrix of T
w.r.t (e).

. Denoted by: [ Mat (e) (T)

Mat (T), (e)

Ex: T: R 3 → R 3
x= (x1, x2, x3) → T(x) = (x1-x2, x2-x3, x3 + 2x1)
Assume ( e)= { e1 (1,0,0) ; e2 =(0,1,0) ; e3= ( 0,0,1) }
Te1 = (1, 0, 2) 1 -1 0
Te2 = (-1, 1, 0) → the matrix of T is: A= 0 1 -1
Te3 = (0, 1, -1) 2 0 1

§2
2.1. Kernel and image (range) of a linear maps.
New words: - kernel : hạt nhân
- Image : ảnh
- injection : đơn cấu
- surjection : toàn cấu
- isomorphism : đẳng cấu
- bijection : song ánh
- rank : hạng
- nullity : số hạch

Def:
Let T: V →W be a linear map K
The kernel of T is: {x ∈ V = Tx =0 } ⊂ V
Denote by: ker T.

Ex : T: R 2 → R 2
(x1, x2) → (2x1− x2, 0)
→ Ker T= {x= (x1, x2) | (2x1 − x2 = 0)}
= {( a, 2a)| a ∈ R } = < ( 1, 2) > R
T: R 2 → R 3
(x1, x2) → ( x1- x2 , x1+ 2x2, x1+ 3x2)
T= {x= ( x1, x2) ∈ R 2 : Tx= 0}
x1= x2
= {x= (x1, x2) ∈ R 2 : x1+ 2x2= 0
x1+ 3x2= 0
 = {0, 0}
Remark:
If T: V →W is given Tx= Ax
Then ker T= { x ∈ V : Ax= 0}

b) Def:
The image (range) of T is { y ∈ W : ∃x ∈ V , T(x)= y} ⊂ W
Dark by: ImT or Range T.

Remark:
ImT= T(V )

Ex: T: R 2 → R 2
(x1, x2) → (2x1− x2, 0)
→ ImT= {y= (2x1− x2, 0)| x1, x2 ∈ R }
= {(2a- b, 0)| a, b ∈ R }
= {(c, 0)| c∈ R }
= < (1, 0)>R the span generated by (1, 0)
Note that:
i) 0v ∈ker T
T(0)= 0
ii) 0w ∈ ImT
iii) ker T ⊂ V , ImT ⊂ W are subspaces

Ex: T: R 3 → R 3 which is given is by:

1 0 -2
A= 0 1 1 with respect to the standard basis of R 3
0 0 0

Solution: Tx= Ax= (x1- 2x3, x2+ x3, 0)

 Ker T={x= (x1, x2, x3)| x1- 2x3 = x2+ x3 =0}
= {x= (2x3, -x3, x3)| x3∈ R }
= {x= 0 (2, -1, 1)| a∈ R }
= < 2, -1, 1 >
b) ImT: y= (y1, y2, y3) ∈ImT
⟺ ∃x = (a, b, c): Tx = y

a - 2c= y1
⟺ ∃(a, b, c): b+ c= y2
0= y3
a - 2c= y1
⟺ ∃a, b, c:⇒ b+ c= y2
0= y3
Ax= b has a root:
⟺ rank A= rank [ Ab]

1 0 -2 1 0 -2 y1
⟺ Rank 0 1 1 = rank 0 1 1 y2
0 0 0 0 0 0 y3
⟺ y1, y2 ∈ R
y3= 0
⟺ y= (y1, y2, 0)| y1, y2 ∈ R

→ ImT= < (1,0,0) ; (0, 1, 0) > R

2.2 Rank and nullity of linear map:

Definition: 1) The number dimR ImT is called the rank of T:
Denote by: rank (T)
2) The number dim kerT is called the nullity of T:
Denote by: null (T)
Ex: T: R 3 → R 3
(x1, x2, x3) → (x1- 2x3, x2+ x3, 0)
→ dim ker T= 1 → null (T) = 1

dim ImT= 2→ rank (T) = 2

Remark:
If A is the matrix of T then rank T= rank a

2.3: Homomorphism : Đồng cấu

a)Definition: Let T: V →W be a linear map over K

Then: i) T is called injective if ∀ x, y∈V , such that:

Tx= Ty then x= y < T is a injective >
ii) T is called surjective if ∀ y ∈W then there exists a vector x∈V
s.t Tx= y < T is a surjective >
iii) T is called isomorphism if it is both injective and surjective

Ex: T: R 2 → R 3
1 0 1 1
A= 1 1 0 1 → i) Find a basis of ker T

0 1 1 1 ii) ImT
Solution:
i) Ker 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
 1 1 0 1 0 → 0 1 -1 0 0 → 0 1 -1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 02 1 0
x1 + x 3+ x 4= 0 x1- x3= 0 x 1 = x3
⇒ x 2 - x3 =0 ⇔ x2= x3 ⇔ x2= x3
2x 3 + x4= 0 x4= -2x3 x4= -2x3
⇒ x3( 1, 1,1, -2) → <1, 1, 1,-2> → dim ker A= 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 10 1 0
ii) ImT= 1 1 0 1 → 1 1 -1 1 → 1 1 -1 0 → 1 10 0

0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 01 1 0
a+b =0 (1) has a root ⇔ rank A= rank [ Ab] = 3
→ b+ c =0 (1) → basis of ImA {<(1,1,0); ( 0,1 ,1 ); ( 1,0, 1) >}
a+ c =0 ⇒ dim ImA= 3

b) Properties:
Let T: V →W be a linear map over K
1. T is injective ⇒ ker T= {0}
prop1 2. T is surjective ⇒ ImT=
3. T is isomorphism ker T= {0}
ImT =

Proof: T is injective , x ∈ ker T.

⇒ Tx= 0 = T0 → x=0
. kerT = 0; x, y ∈W .Tx= Ty
→ T (x. y) = 0
⇒ x- y∈ ker T
⇒ x- y = 0
⇒x=y
 → T is injective

Let T be injective and let { x1, ..., xm} be linearly

prop2
independent. Then the sections { Tx...Txm} are
linearly independent in

Proof: Assume that = a1Tx1+ a2Tx2+ ... + amTxm= 0 (1)

→ T (a1x1+ a2x2+ ... + amxm) = 0 T is an injective
→ a1x1+ a2x2+ ... + amxm = 0 since {x} is a independent
→ a1= a2= ..... = am = 0
Hence, since (1) we have { Txi} i=1 , m is linearly independent.

Let T be surjective and let { x1, ..., xm} be span

prop3
(generator ) of . Then { Tx...Txm} are generator of

Proof: We have V = < x1, ..., xm > → we have to prove that W = < Tx1, ..., Txm >
Indeed, ∀ y∈W = ImT (since T injective)
→∃x ∈ V : y= Tx
since V = < x1, ..., xm >
→∃x= a1x1+... + amxm
T (a1x1+... + amxm)= y , ai∈ K
→ y= a1Tx1+ a2Tx2+ ... + amTxm
Hence, W = < Tx1, ..., Txm >

2.4. Fundamental theorem ( Định lý cơ bản )

Let is finite dimensional and T: be a linear map |

Thrm1
Then: dim ker T+ dim ImT= dim()
< rank (T) + rank T= n >
 Remark:
dim ImT= dim V - dim ker T

In this section, we assume that:

dim k V = n ¿+ ∞
dim k W = m ¿+ ∞
Let T: V →W be a linear map | K

Thrm 2
If dim = dim k then:
2
T is injective T is surjective

Proof:
(⇒ ) we have ker T= 0 (⟸) we have: ImT= W
→ dim kerT = 0 → dim ImT= W
. By using find theorem, By using find theorem,
dim ImT= dim V - dim ker T dim ker T= dimV - dim ImT
= dim V
= dim W
but ImT ⊂ W
Hence, ImT= W
→ T is surjective

Thrm 3 Let dim = dim = n. Then:

T is injective T is surjective T is isomorphism
2

Let T: V →W be a linear map over K

Assume that dimV , dim W are finite
Existence theorem:
Let { x1, ..., xm}be a basis of and {y1,...,
ym} . Then there exists a unique linearly A linear map T is complex
map. defined by the image of a
T: basis of .
such that: Tx= y, i=
 x1 y1
a basis of V linearly map
..... .....
xm ym
xx xx

Definition:
Assume that T is an isomorphism.
Then V ∧W are called isomorphic to each other.
Denote by:V ≃W .
V ≃W ⇔ ∃T: V →W is isomorphic

Thrm 4 dim= dim

classing of vector spaces is given the natural number
2

Remark: If dimV = dim W then V ≃ W

Chapter2 Structure Of A Linear Endomorphism

Vocabulary :
structure : cấu trúc
endomorphism : tự đồng cấu
eigenvalue : giá trị riêng
eigenvector : vector riêng
characteristic polynomial : đa thức đặc trưng
diagolization : chéo hóa

I. Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

Let us fix V : k a vector space with dimV = n
Def: Let T: V →V : linear map ( an endomorphism of V ), λ ϵ k
λ is an eigenvalue of T ⇔ ∃x≠ 0, x ϵ V

Tx= λ x
Then x is called an eigenvector of T w.r.t λ Tx= Ax
x
Remark: . An eigenvector is nonzero.
. However, zero vector satisfies Tx= λ x

Ex: T: R 2 → R 2
(x1 , x2) → (2x1, 3x2)
. T (1, 0) = (2, 0) = 2.(1, 0)
. T (0, 1) = (0, 3) = 3. (0, 1)
Hence: λ = 2 is an eigenvalue of T
λ = 3 ...............................T

then x= (1,0) is an eigenvector of T w.r.t λ =2

 x= (0,1) ........................................... λ = 3

II. Characteristic polynomial of T: V →V .

Assume that: A is the matrix of T w.r.t the basis {e}
⇒ Tx= Ax
We have: k → λ : an eigenvalue of T ⇔ Tx= λ x
Recall ⇔ Ax= λ x
Ax= 0 has a nonzero root ⇔ ¿ A- λ In).x = 0 (x≠ 0)
⇔ detA= 0 ⇔ det ( A- λ In).x = 0 (1)

We write:
a11 a12 ... a1n
A= a21 a22 ... a2n
.... .... .... , then
an1 an2 ann a11−λ a12 ... a1n
a21 a22−λ ... a2n =0
λ is an eigenvalue of T ⇔ .... .... ....
an1 an2 ann−λ

Ex: T: R 2→ R 2
(x1, x2) →(2x1, 3x2)
Consider a basis {e} = {e1(1, 0), e2( 0, 1) } for R 2
The matrix of T is A: 2 0
0 3
⇒ 2 −λ 0 λ= 2

0 3−λ ⇔ (2−λ ) (3 – λ )−0 = 0 ⇒ λ= 3

Def: The polynomial PT(λ) or PA ( λ ¿. In Which:

 PT(λ)= det ( A- λ In ), is called the characteristic polynomial of T

Thm: λ ∈ K is an eigenvalue of T ⇔ PT ( λ )= 0
1 -2 1
Ex: T: R 3→ R 3 is given by A: 0 0 0
Find eigenvalues of T 0 1 1
Solution: 1– λ -2 1
The characteristic of T PT ( λ ¿: 0 –λ 0
0 1 1– λ
⇒ (1 – λ) ( – λ ) (1 – λ ) = 0
⇒ λ = 1 or λ = 0

III. Eigenvector subspaces

1. dimV = n, T: V → V , Mat (T; (e) )= A
V → x≠ 0 is an eigenvector of T: ⇔ T(x) = λ x

⇔ (T- λ )x= 0 ⇔ x≠ 0 (1)

x∈ ker ( T- x)
Def: The set ker (T−λ )⊂ V is called the eigenvector subspace of T w.r.t λ .
Denote by: Vect( T, λ ) or Vect (A, λ ).

2. Finding eigenvalues and eigenvectors:

Step1: Find det ( A- λ In)= 0
Step2: Find eigenvalues λ 1, ..., λ m ; PT( λ )= 0
Step 3: Find eigenvectors:
. xi: x is an eigenvector of T ⇔ ( A- λ In).x= 0
i= 1 , m
Then Vect( T, λ i)= { x∈ V : (A- λ iIn). x= 0
Ex: T: R 3→ R 3
(x1, x2, x3) → (x1- 2x2+ x3, 0, x2+ x3)
In the standard basis of R3, the matrix {e1= (1, 0, 0) ;e2= ( 0, 1, 0); e3= (0, 0, 1)}
of T is .
1 -2 1
A= 0 0 0
0 1 1 1– λ -2 1
Characteristic polynomial: PT ( λ ) = 0 –λ 0 =0
0 1 1– λ
⇒ λ 1= 0, λ 2= 1
(*) Eigenvector w.r.t λ = 0
x1- 2x2 + x3= 0
(A- 0.I3).x = 0 ⇔ 0=0
x2 + x3 = 0
x1= -3x3
⇒ x2= -x3 ⇒ x= (-3a, -a, a) ; a∈ R , a≠ 0
Then vect( T, 0)= {(-3a, -a, a)| a∈ R , a≠ 0}
= <(3, 1, -1)> R
(*) Eigenvector w.r.t λ = 1
-2x2+ x3= 0
(A- 1.I3).x = 0 ⇔ x2 =0 ⇔ x2= 0
x2 =0 x3= 0
⇒ x= (a, 0, 0) a∈ R , a≠ 0
Then Vect (T,1)= {(a, 0, 0)| a∈ R
= <(1, 0, 0)> R

Ex
Recall: T: T →T , dimV= n and A the matrix of T.
 Find eigenvalues and eigenvectors of T ( or A).
Step1: PA(t) the characteristic polynomial of T
Step 2: Eigenvalues of T : PA(t) = 0
λ 1, ...., λ m

Step3: x is an eigenvector of T w.r.t λ i

⇔ x.( A- λ In ) = 0

Ex: 1) T: R3→ R 3, ( x1, x2, x3) → ( x1+ 3x2, 3x1+ x2, -2x3)
Matrix of T is
1 3 0 1−t 3 0
A=3 1 0 ⇒ the char polynomial of T: PT(t) = 3 1−t 0 =0
0 0 −2 0 0 −2−t

⇒ [ (1-t)2 – 9] . (2-t)= 0 ⇒ t1= -2

t 2= 4
+) t= -2: ( A+ 2I3)x= 0 ⇒ 3x1+ 3x2 = 0 ⇒ x= (a, a, b); a, b
3x 1+ 3x2 = 0