DETERMINANTS

 THEORY:
 Definition 1:
If A = (aij) is a square matrix, then the determinant of A is a number. We denote it
by det(A) or |A|.
 Determinant of matrix order 2×2:

( a 11 a 12
)
Let A= a21 a 22 , then |A|=det(A) = a11 a22 − a12 a21.

 Definition 2:
If A = (aij)n×n is a square matrix, then the minor of entry aij is denoted by Mij and is
defined to be the determinant of the submatrix of order (n −1) that remains after
the i−th row and j−column are deleted from A.
 Definition 3:
If A = (aij)n×n is a square matrix, then the number Cij = (−1)i+j Mij is called the
cofactor of entry aij .
 Definition 4:
Determinant of a square matrix can be computed by a cofactor expansion along
any row or column. That is,
n

det(A) = ∑ aijCij= ai1Ci1 + ai2Ci2 +...+ ainCin

j=1

n
det(A) = ∑ aijCij= a1jC1j + a2jC2j +...+ anjCnj
j=1

 Elementary row (or column) operation effects on determinant:

1. If A ri ↔ r j(ci
→
↔c j) B then detB = −det A.

2. If A ri → λri(ci→
→
λci) B then detB = λdet A where λ ≠ 0.

3. If A ri → ri+ λ . r j(ci
→
→ci+ λc j) B then detB = det A, ∀λ ∈ K.

 Steps to evaluate determinant:

 - Select one element (1 or −1 is the best choice), using elementary row
operation to eliminate all the entries in the same column of the selected
one.
- Using cofactor expansion along the above column.
 Determinant of a matrix product:
If A, B are square matrices of the same size, then det(AB) = det(A).det(B).
 Corollary:
If A, B are square matrices of the same size:
1. Det (Ak) = (detA)k.
2. Det (αA) = αn.detA.
1
3. Det (A−1) = det (A ) .

 APPLICATIONS:
 Area of a Triangle in the xy-Plane:
The area of a triangle with vertices (x1,y1), (x2,y2) and (x3,y3) is:
x1 y1 1
1
Area =± 2
det( x 2 y 2 1)
x3 y3 1

where the sign (±) is chosen to give a positive area.

Proof:
Prove the case for yi >0. Assume that x1≤ x3 ≤x2 and that (x3,y3) lies above the line
segment connecting (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) as shown in Figure 3.1. Consider the three
trapezoids whose vertices are:
Trapezoid 1: (x1,0), (x1,y1), (x3,y3), (x3,0).
Trapezoid 2: (x3,0), (x3,y3), (x2,y2), (x2,0).
Trapezoid 3: (x1,0), (x1,y1), (x2,y2), (x2,0).
The area of the triangle is equal to the sum of the areas of the first two trapezoids
minus the area of the third trapezoid. So,
1 1 1
Area= 2 (y1 + y3)(x3 – x1) +¿ 2 (y3 + y2)(x2 – x3) −¿ 2 (y1 + y2)(x2 – x1)

1
= 2 (x1y2 + x2y3 + x3y1 - x1y3 – x2y1 – x3y2)

x1 y1 1
1
= 2 l x2 y 2 1l
x3 y3 1

If the vertices do not occur in the order x1≤ x3 ≤x2 or if the vertex (x3,y3) is not
above the line segment connecting the other two vertices, then the formula
above may yield the negative of the area. So, use ± and choose the correct sign to
give a positive area.
 Volume of a Tetrahedron:
The volume of a tetrahedron with vertices (x1,y1,z1), (x2,y2,z2), (x3,y3,z3) and
(x4,y4,z4) is:

where the sign (±) is chosen to give a positive area.

Example: Find the volume of the tetrahedron whose vertices are (0,4,1), (4,0,0),
(3,5,2) and (2,2,5), as shown in Figure 3.3.

The volume of the tetrahedron is:

So, the volume of the tetrahedron is: 12 cubic units.

 Equations of Planes:
According to Kepler’s First Law of Planetary Motion, the orbits of the planets are
ellipses, with the sun at one focus of the ellipse. The general equation of a conic
section (such as an ellipse) is:
 ax2 + bxy + cy2 + dx + ey + f = 0
To determine the equation of the orbit of a planet, an astronomer can find the
coordinates of the planet along its orbit at five different points (x i,yi), where i= 2,
3, 4, and 5, and then use the determinant: