Special Relativity: From Einstein to Strings

Solutions for Chapter 1

1. The rotation matrix R(θ) transforms the coordinates (x, y) as

x̃ = x cos θ + y sin θ
ỹ = −x sin θ + y cos θ

Assuming that the angle θ of the rotation is constant in Euclidean space, that
is, not a function of x or y, the differential of this equation is

dx̃ = dx cos θ + dy sin θ

dỹ = −dx sin θ + dy cos θ

The line element d˜l2 is

d˜l2 = dx̃2 + dỹ 2

= (dx cos θ + dy sin θ)2 + (−dx sin θ + dy cos θ)2
= (cos2 θ + sin2 θ) (dx2 + dy 2 ) + 2(cos θ sin θ − sin θ cos θ) dx dy
= dx2 + dy 2 = dl2

The rotation R(θ) leaves the Euclidean line element in two dimensions un-
changed. This is because Euclidean space is the same in every direction.

2. (a) The hypotenuse C of the triangle in question is given by the distance C =

L12 on the sphere between the points ~x1 = (R sin θ0 , 0, R cos θ0 ) and ~x2 =
(0, R sin θ0 , R cos θ0 ). Since we want the distance on the sphere, we can’t get
C by the Euclidean formula L12 = |~x1 − ~x2 |. Instead we have to use the
distance along the surface of the sphere, which for an arc of a great circle is
C = R θ12 , where θ12 is the angle subtended by the two endpoints of the arc,
computed through the relation ~x1 · ~x2 = |~x1 ||~x2 | cos θ12 . Substitution yields

~x1 · ~x2 = |~x1 ||~x2 | cos θ12

R2 cos2 θ0 = R2 cos (C/R)

Solving for C(θ0 ) gives C = R cos−1 (cos2 θ0 ).

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 (b) In the limit of small θ0 , the square of the cosine function can be approximated
by cos2 θ0 ∼ 1 − θ02 . In the limit θ0 → 0, x = cos2 θ0 → 1, and so we have to
evaluate the inverse cosine in the limit x → 1. In this limit we can write the
√ √
inverse cosine as cos−1 (x) ∼ 2 1 − x. Substituting x = cos2 θ0 ∼ 1 − θ02
√
yields C ∼ 2 R θ0 . Notice that in this limit, C obeys the relation C 2 =
A2 +B 2 , the usual Pythagorean rule that works in two dimensional flat space.
This is what it means to say that the sphere is locally flat. The hypotenuse
of a right triangle drawn on the surface begins to obey the Pythagorean rule
as the triangle gets smaller. Small patches of a large sphere behave pretty
much like a flat plane. This is why it took humans such a long time to realize
that the surface of the earth is curved and not flat.

3. Consider the vector V~ expanded in (x, y) coordinates and (x̃, ỹ) coordinates as
shown in (1.17), related by a rotation R(θ). The same vector will have different
components in the two bases

V~ = V x êx + V y êy
= Ṽ x êx̃ + Ṽ y êỹ

Given the components (V x , V y ) in the (x, y) coordinate basis, how do we find

the components (Ṽ x , Ṽ y ) in the transformed (x̃, ỹ) basis? The transformed basis
vectors (êx̃ , êỹ ) are related to (êx , êy ) by

êx̃ = êx cos θ + êy sin θ

êỹ = −êx sin θ + êy cos θ

Substitution yields

V~ = Ṽ x (êx cos θ + êy sin θ) + Ṽ y (−êx sin θ + êy cos θ)

= (Ṽ x cos θ − Ṽ y sin θ) êx + (Ṽ x sin θ + Ṽ y cos θ) êy
= V x êx + V y êy

From this we can arrive at the relations

V x = Ṽ x cos θ − Ṽ y sin θ
V y = Ṽ x sin θ + Ṽ y cos θ

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 and its inverse

Ṽ x = V x cos θ + V y sin θ
Ṽ y = −V x sin θ + V y cos θ

4. The relation between coordinates (x̃, ỹ) and (x, y) is

x̃ = x cos θ + y sin θ
ỹ = −x sin θ + y cos θ

In the usual convention for Euclidean coordinates, the x axis is the line y = 0,
and the y axis is given by the line x = 0. The ỹ axis x̃ = 0 is the solution to the
equation y = −x cot θ in the (x, y) coordinate system. The x̃ axis ỹ = 0 is the
solution to the equation y = x tan θ in the (x, y) coordinate system. See Fig.1
below.
Now look for the x and y axes in the (x̃, ỹ) coordinate system. The relation
above can be written

x = x̃ cos θ − ỹ sin θ
y = x̃ sin θ + ỹ cos θ

The y axis x = 0 is the solution to the equation ỹ = x̃ cot θ in the (x̃, ỹ) coordinate
system. The x axis y = 0 is the solution to the equation ỹ = −x̃ tan θ in the
(x̃, ỹ) coordinate system. See Fig.2 below.

5. For the given values of ξ = (1/3, 1/2, 1, 2), the values of β and γ are

β = tanh ξ = (.32, .46, .76, .96)

γ = cosh ξ = (1.05, 1.13, 1.54, 3.76)

The relation between coordinates (τ̃ , x̃) and (τ, x) is

τ̃ = τ cosh ξ − x sinh ξ
x̃ = −τ sinh ξ + x cosh ξ

In the usual convention for Minkowski coordinates, the τ axis is the line x = 0,
and the x axis is given by the line τ = 0. The x̃ axis τ̃ = 0 is the solution to the

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 equation τ = x tanh ξ in the (τ, x) coordinate system. The τ̃ axis x̃ = 0 is the
solution to the equation τ = x coth ξ in the (τ, x) coordinate system. See Fig.3
below.
Now look for the τ and x axes in the (τ̃ , x̃) coordinate system. The relation
above can be written

τ = τ̃ cosh ξ + x̃ sinh ξ
x = τ̃ sinh ξ + x̃ cosh ξ

The x axis τ = 0 is the solution to the equation τ̃ = −x̃ tanh ξ in the (τ̃ , x̃)
coordinate system. The τ axis x = 0 is the solution to the equation τ̃ = −x̃ coth ξ
in the (τ̃ , x̃) coordinate system. See Fig.4 below.

6. The exponential function can be represented as the infinite series

∞
X Xn 1 1 1
eX = = 1 + X + X2 + X3 + X4 + . . . (1)
n=0 n! 2 6 24

If the argument X is a matrix, then the function eX will also be a matrix, because
any power of a matrix, that is, a matrix multiplied with itself any number of
times, is still a matrix.
In the exercise, the argument X = θA, where A is the antisymmetric matrix
à !
0 1
A= (2)
−1 0

Notice that A has some special properties. The determinant det A = 1, and A
squares to minus the identity matrix
à !à ! à !
2 0 1 0 1 −1 0
A = = = −I (3)
−1 0 −1 0 0 −1

Since A2 = −I, it’s easy to see that A3 = −A and A4 = I. The same pattern re-
peats for all powers of A. We can write this pattern out as A2n = (−1)n I, A2n+1 =
(−1)n A.

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 Now we can write out the first four terms in the exponential and see what they
look like.
∞
X (θA)n 1 2 1
eθA = θ I − θ3 A + . . .
= I + θA −
n=0 n! 2 6
1 1
= (1 − θ2 + . . .) I + (θ − θ3 + . . .) A
̰ 2 ! ̰6 !
X 2n X 2n+1
θ θ
= (−1)n I+ (−1)n A
n=0 (2n)! n=0 (2n + 1)!

The sum over even powers of θ is a series representation of the cosine function,
and the sum over odd powers of θ is a series representation of the sine function.
Substituting the functions for the sums gives us

eθA = I cos θ + A sin θ (4)

Putting the terms together into one matrix gives

à !
θA cos θ sin θ
e = R(θ) = (5)
− sin θ cos θ

On the basis of this, we say that the matrix A generates an infinitesimal rotation
in two space dimensions. By exponentiating the generator, we obtain a finite
rotation given by R(θ).

7. In this exercise, we do the same thing as in the previous exercise, but instead of
the antisymmetric matrix A, we use a symmetric matrix
à !
0 −1
S= , (6)
−1 0

Notice that
à !à ! à !
2 0 −1 0 −1 1 0
S = = =I (7)
−1 0 −1 0 0 1

Since S 2 = I, then S 3 = S. Every even power S 2n = I and every odd power

S 2n+1 = S. This is the same pattern we saw with A in the previous exercise, but
without the minus signs. The first four terms in the exponential expansion are
∞
X (ξS)n 1 2 1
eξS = = I + ξS + ξ I + ξ3S + . . .
n=0 n! 2 6

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 1 2 1
= (1 + ξ + . . .) I + (ξ + ξ 3 + . . .) S
̰ 2 ! ̰ 6 !
X ξ 2n X ξ 2n+1
= I+ S
n=0 (2n)! n=0 (2n + 1)!

The sum over even powers of ξ is a series representation of the hyperbolic cosine
function, and the sum over odd powers of ξ is a series representation of the
hyperbolic sine function. Substituting the functions for the sums gives us

eξS = I cosh ξ + S sinh ξ (8)

Putting the terms together into one matrix gives

à !
ξS cosh ξ − sinh ξ
e = L(ξ) = (9)
− sinh ξ cosh ξ

On the basis of this, we say that the matrix S generates an infinitesimal Lorentz
transformation in two spacetime dimensions. By exponentiating the generator,
we obtain a finite Lorentz transformation given by L(ξ).

8. Let R1 = R(θ1 ) and R2 = R(θ2 ). Matrix multiplication gives

à !
cos θ2 sin θ2
R1 R2 =
− sin θ2 cos θ2
à !
cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 cos θ1 sin θ2 + cos θ2 sin θ1
=
− cos θ1 sin θ2 − cos θ2 sin θ1 cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2
à !
cos(θ1 + θ2 ) sin(θ1 + θ2 )
=
− sin(θ1 + θ2 ) cos(θ1 + θ2 )

Therefore R(θ1 )R(θ2 ) = R(θ1 + θ2 ). If you make two successive rotations at

angles θ1 and θ2 , that is equivalent to making a single rotation at angle θ1 + θ2 .

9. Let L1 = L(ξ1 ) and L2 = L(ξ2 ). Matrix multiplication gives

à !à !
cosh ξ1 − sinh ξ1 cosh ξ2 − sinh ξ2
L1 L2 =
− sinh ξ1 cosh ξ1 − sinh ξ2 cosh ξ2
à !
cosh ξ1 cosh ξ2 + sinh ξ1 sinh ξ2 − cosh ξ1 sinh ξ2 − sinh ξ1 cosh ξ2
=
− cosh ξ1 sinh ξ2 − sinh ξ1 cosh ξ2 cosh ξ1 cosh ξ2 + sinh ξ1 sinh ξ2
à !
cosh(ξ1 + ξ2 ) − sinh(ξ1 + ξ2 )
=
− sinh(ξ1 + ξ2 ) cosh(ξ1 + ξ2 )

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Therefore L(ξ1 )L(ξ2 ) = L(ξ1 + ξ2 ). If you make two successive Lorentz boosts
at parameters ξ1 and ξ2 , that is equivalent to making a single Lorentz boost at
angle ξ1 + ξ2 .

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 ~y y ~x ~x y

x ~y x

q=p/4 q=p/2

~x y y

x x
~x

~y
~y
q=3p/4 q=p
Figure 1: The (x̃, ỹ) axes are the red dashed lines on the figures above.

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 ~y ~y
y

~x ~x
y

x
x
q=p/4 q=p/2
~y ~y

~x ~x
x

x y y
q=3p/4 q=p
Figure 2: The (x, y) axes are the red dashed lines on the figures above.

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 t ~t t ~t
~x
~x
x x

x=1/3 x=1/2
t ~t t ~t
~x
~x

x x

x=1 x=2
Figure 3: The (τ̃ , x̃) axes are the red dashed lines on the figures above.

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 t ~t t ~t

~x ~x
x
x

x=1/3 x=1/2
t ~t t ~t

~x ~x

x
x

x=1 x=2
Figure 4: The (τ, x) axes are the red dashed lines on the figures above.

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