Table of contents Pp.

Section A 1

Section B 6

References 10
Section A

Descriptive translation studies encompass three main kinds of research, as suggested by

Holmes. Product-oriented DTS focuses on the description of individual translations, the
comparative descriptions of several translations of the same source text (either in the same
language or in different languages) and the description of larger corpuses of translation.
Process-oriented DTS aims at a systematic description of what goes on in the translator‟s
mind while translating, which results in translation psychology*, but may also comprehend
the study of more conscious decision-making processes, the selection of global strategies or
the organization of translation services. Function-oriented DTS researches contexts rather
than translated texts, considering the study of the function, influence and value of translation
in the target context, the mapping of translations and the analysis of the effects of translation
upon the context (Holmes, 1988/2000).

The translation process involves the changing of the original text, the source text (ST) in
the source language (SL) into the target text (TT) in the receiving, or target, language (TL)
(Munday 2001:5). A methodology for descriptive translation studies has been developed by
Toury (1995). For Toury, the employment of translation strategies is determined by the
position occupied by translations in the social and literary systems of a target culture.

Literary translation is so complicated in contrast with different areas of translation. Part of

these difficulties is associated to the nature of literary work and the function it has in its own
language. Newmark (1988) distinguished between literary and non-literary works in a way
that the first one is “symbolical or allegorical” whilst translating a literary piece of work the
most interest is paid to connotation and emotion in innovative literature. The same is true for
poetry, as a primary type in literary genres. The second one is “representational in its
intention” that literary work belongs to the expressive set of language functions, with
aesthetic value, which put an obstacle in the way of its translation. He believed that in amount
of personal components, collocations, neologism, metaphors, strange word, and in general,
untranslatable words (Newmark, 1988).

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One way of translating poetry is by using the model proposed by Dr. Vahid Dastjerdi (2000).
In his model he analyzes poetry translation according to textual and extra-textual factors. At
the textual level he examines forms, sound, words, images, tone and content of a piece of
poetry. At the extra-textual level, coherence and implicature are the elements to be discussed,
here the main focus is the knowledge presented in the source text as well as the TT reader‟s
knowledge of the world; that is to say the cultural aspects of the text. This model works by,
firstly, reading the original poem carefully and then the definitions and implications of each
word are examined. Secondly, the translation of the poem is studied and compared with the
original one. Then each factor of the model that is proposed by Dr.Vahid is extracted from
the original poem and compared with their correspondents in the translated one.

Textual analysis of poetry is to examine first the general form of a poem, which itself is
divided into several parts: rhyme which is two words that sound alike. Structural patterns,
punctuations, and kind of a poem are the other items. Second is to examine the sound of a
poem: alliteration that occurs when the initial sounds of a word, beginning either with a
consonant or a vowel, are repeated in close succession, stress patterns, the speed of the poem.
Third is to examine the words used in the poem: if they are simple or complex, given or new,
concrete or abstract and the meaning suggested by them. Forth examine the images existed in
a poem by which we mean figures of the text such as implicatures, similes, metaphors, and
other tropes. Fifth examine the tone of the poem (Nobar & Navidpoor, 2010).

Extra textual analysis of poetry is to examine the pragmatics of the source and target texts,
with especial focus on the cultural aspects of the text. According to Newmark (1988)
transference in translation, preserves the local color of the SL. Since we can not separate
translation and culture from each other, procedures to preserve the locality of the SL, should
be involved through the process of translation. But transference is not applicable in all cases,
because just by transferring, the TT reader will not understand parts of the intended meaning
and cultural concepts of the ST writer.

During this study I also looked at micro- and macro-level descriptive analysis. Micro-level
which is linguistic-oriented often requires formal equivalence between source and the target
text.

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On the other hand, macro-level which is functionalist sees translation as an act of
communication that includes not only linguistic factors but also cultural, social, and historical
factors (Palumbo, 2009). On micro-level, translation is seen as a mere act of linguistic
decoding and encoding regardless of the specific socio-cultural context of the target texts. In
other words, its emphasis was merely on the linguistic dimension of translation and
establishing a formal equivalence (syntactic, lexical and stylistic) between source and target
texts. On the other hand, the macro-level approach emphasizes the communicative dimension
of translation in a bid to release the translation from the formalist approach.

Extralinguistics also plays a role in this study. When analyzing a text and its translation extra
linguistically, Extralinguistic knowledge, which is divided to textual knowledge and extra
textual knowledge, should be taken into account. On the importance of extra linguistic
knowledge in the process of translation, Kim (2006) states, “[g]iven the fact that most
translation work involves more or less specialized texts, it is likely that extra linguistic
knowledge, rather than linguistic competence itself, plays a major role in the success of
translation”. When analyzing a text extra-textually, the following factors such as the sender,
his/her intention, the audience , the medium, the place, the time , the motive, text function,
should be taken into account. To him, all the mentioned factors are interdependent.

Jan Pedersen has introduced the term Extralinguistic Culture-bound Reference, or ECR
(2005:). Extralinguistic Culture-bound Reference is defined as:

“Reference that is attempted by means of any culture-bound linguistic

expression, which refers to an extralinguistic entity or process, and which is
assumed to have a discourse referent that is identifiable to a relevant
audience as this referent is within the encyclopaedic knowledge of this
audience.” (Pedersen 2005:2).

This study will mainly take on the form of a comparative study/analysis. Comparative study
is used to determine and quantify relationships between two or more variables by observing
different groups that either by choice or circumstances is exposed to different treatments.
Comparative study looks at two or more similar groups, individuals, or conditions by
comparing them (Pickvance, 2005).
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 “The primary reason for comparative analysis is the explanatory interest
of gaining a better understanding of the causal processes involved in the
production of an event, feature or relationship. Typically it achieves this
by introducing (or increasing) variation in the explanatory variable or
variables.” (Pickvance, 2005)

Comparative literature – as well as translation studies – are disciplines that were inevitably
based on hybridity and the crossing-over of networks. In that sense, both of them are seen
through the prism of cultural and linguistic interactions, or through the lenses of a “theory of
mobility” (Samoyault: 2011). More specifically, the relationship between translation studies
and comparative literature reveals the complexity and risks of such hybrid disciplines while
emphasizing the importance of rethinking their identity and their specific features.

Tilly (1984) distinguishes between four types of comparative analysis which include:
 Individualizing comparison which contrasts “a small number of cases in order to
grasp the peculiarities of each case”
 Universalizing comparison which “aims to establish that every instance of a
phenomenon follows essentially the same rule”
 Variation-finding comparison which seeks to “establish a principle of variation in
the character or intensity of a phenomenon by examining systematic differences
between instances”
 Encompassing comparison which “places different instances at various locations
within the same system, on the way to explaining their characteristics as a
function of their varying relationships to the system as a whole”

The strength of comparative analysis as a research design is its ability to introduce

additional explanatory variables (or to allow variation in variables which take a fixed
value in the initial case of interest), and to show that relations are more or less general
than had been initially thought. Its weaknesses are that it requires the commensurability of
concepts across cases (e.g. terms like „environmental regulation‟ must have consistent
meanings so we are not comparing apples and oranges), the introduction of new variables

4
brings with it the introduction of unknown variation too, and that like all nonexperimental
research it has to rely on „naturally occurring variation‟ which rules out
many combinations of values of interest to the researcher.

The two conventional types of comparative analysis focus on the explanation of

differences, and the explanation of similarities. This is difficult, because what counts as a
similarity or a difference depends not only on the observed values but also on the analyst and
should therefore be regarded as a social construct rather than as an objective reality.

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Section B
Descriptive studies came into practice when Toury proposed his DTS model in 1995 and
revolutionized the dominant prescriptive studies of the time. DTS approach attempts to
identify universals, laws and norms of translation and generally a theory of translation
through corpus analysis and comparative study of parallel texts.

In his 1995‟s work Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond, Toury introduced translation
as a norm-governed activity which [could be] applied to translation of all kinds, not only
literary, philosophical or biblical translation in which the most norm-oriented studies of the
time have been conducted so far. Toury (1995) believes that norms are at the heart of
decision-making, equivalence, skopos, translation laws, criticism, universals, systematic
translator training and teaching.

A translation from one language into another can be seen as the product of the translator‟s
decisions. These decisions are directed by certain norms of translation, as defined by Toury
(1995). He (Toury, 1995) considers three kinds of norms:
 Initial norms: they refer to a general choice made by translators and can be realized in
ST or TT. If it is toward the ST, then the TT will be adequate; and if the TT norms
prevail, then the TT will be acceptable.
 Preliminary norms: they are split into translation policy which refers to factors
determining the selection of texts for translation in a specific language, culture or time
and directness of translation which relates to whether translation occurs through an
intermediate language.
 Operational norms: they describe the presentation and linguistic matter of the TT and
fall into matricial norms which relate to the completeness of the TT and textual-
linguistic norms which govern the selection of TT linguistic material. (Sanatifar, 2015)

Mainly, there are two standard ways to conduct research: qualitative and quantitative. The
difference between qualitative and quantitative research is that the former describes the
quality of the research object to facilitate its understanding, while the latter provides data for

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statistical analysis in order to explore, describe and explain translation phenomena or even
predict the possibility of phenomena occurring. Qualitative research is a method of inquiry
that develops understanding on human and social sciences, to find the way people think and
feel. Quantitative research is a research method that is used to generate numerical data and
hard facts, by employing statistical, logical and mathematical technique.

This study is a qualitative analysis of translated poems following the models of descriptive
translation studies (DTS), with the purpose of investigating the norms that the translators
adhere to, i.e. to investigate what decisions are made during the translation, and what is
directing those decisions. A thorough analysis of selected poems will connect the differences
in translational behaviour to the norms that govern this behaviour.

The study also includes descriptive research, which goal is to describe a phenomenon and its
characteristics. Descriptive research is more concerned about what happened rather that why
it happened. In some cases of descriptive research, data may be collected qualitatively but are
analysed quantitatively. Qualitative research is more holistic and often involves a rich
collection of data from various sources to gain a deeper understanding of individual
participants, including their opinions, perspectives, and attitudes- which is why it is more
purposeful to this study.

Empirically, this study will determine what the differences are between English and Afrikaans
cultures. What type of metaphors and messages can be found in English 17th century poetry
and to what standards it needs to be translated in order for another culture to understand
without changing the message or intention of the poet/writer. Theoretically, the study will
attempt so answer the research questions proposed, with relevant and clear reasons as to why
or why not. Why poetry is translatable or why not. Why metaphors and fixed expressions in
17th century poetry poses a translation problem etc.

As for the “who” of the study, we can thank authors such as Jane Austen, Charles Dickens,
Emily Bronte and Paradise Lost author, John Milton, for brilliant literary works that makes
English literature so incredibly sought after and cherished by readers of all cultures. The
history of England (Britain) and as represented by literature, the turbulence in society,
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religion, and the monarchy of this period – is a vocal point that many cultures are interested
in. English translations of Afrikaans literary works are more likely available than Afrikaans
translation of English literary works. Maybe because Afrikaans is such a complex and rare
language, mainly spoken in South-Africa and the demand for English translations is bigger
than the demand for Afrikaans translations. However, the demand is there. The intention and
message of these authors and poets, would be better understandable in their own language if
accomplished through translation.

Data will be collected by studying translated versions of the selected poems and comparing
them with the original poems. The analysis follows Toury‟s methodology for descriptive
translation studies (DTS) by comparing the ST and TT for shifts, by discussing the
acceptability of the TT, and by making generalizations about the underlying norms that
govern the behaviour.

Poetry translation can be referred to as second-order creation which may cause some ethical
issues. If second-order creation is by definition variation, an interpretive act that submits the
source material to degrees of loss and gain, then the poet‟s version cannot be evaluated simply
on the basis of a comparison to its source text. Attention must rather be given to the impact of
the version on the receiving culture, a relation that can be construed as properly ethical. The
ethics of a version hinges on whether it points to a lack or plenitude in the translating
language and culture, challenging or confirming institutionalized knowledge (Venuti, 2011).

According to Jakobson (1959) translation of poetry is hard and maintains that poem is not
translatable since the forms of words shape meaning of the text. So, from such statement the
distinction between content and style and form and sense arose. Senses are translatable from
SL to TL but form cannot often be translated. The difference between form and content can be
related to the one between literal and free translation.

Preliminarily it was found that translating a poem theoretically perfectly, i.e. rewriting it in a
different language causes a change that forces a person to speak of two different poems that at
best have certain elements in common, but are different in many other respects. Thus, in that
sense we can argue that poetry is untranslatable.

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In a poem a poet expresses something by means of a complex of elements that combine arid
interrelate in a manner that is so unique that changing one word, or even changing the position
of one word, causes a change in the total effect. The cultural context in which a given word,
sentence, book or poem is placed can influence its “sense,” making it very difficult to
translate.

In conclusion, translating poetry can be easily redefined as “expressing the sense of a poem in
another language”. The stated research topic, can be seen as a research problem because to
translate a word seems, generally speaking, a relatively easy task - as long as the word does
not appear in a literary context. Placed in literary context, even the simplest looking word can
become a big problem for a translator. Over the years a lot of research has been done on
translation overall, but never a lot on translation to or from Afrikaans. There is an enormous
cultural gap between 17th century England and 17th century Africa; the cultural differences
between the two are undeniable up until the present. Following the correct research design
and methodology, collecting, analysing and comparing the data correctly, it will become
apparent whether poetry is translatable, to Afrikaans and overall.

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References

Holmes, J. S. (1988/2000). "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies". In L. Venuti

(ed.), The Translation Studies Reader (2nd ed.) (172-185). USA and Canada:
Routledge.

Jakobson, R. (1959/2000) „On Linguistic Aspects of Translation‟, in R. Brower (ed.) (1959)

On Translation, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 232–9, reprinted in L. Venuti
(ed.), (2000), 113–18.

Kim, R. (2006). Use of Extralinguistic Knowledge in Translation, Retrieved October 1st,

2019 from http://www.erudit.org/revue/META/2006/v51/n2/013257ar.html

Munday, Jeremy. 2001. Introducing Translation Studies; Theories and Applications. London:
Routledge.

Nassaji, H. (2016). Qualitative and descriptive research: Data type versus data analysis.
Language Teaching Research 2015, Vol. 19(2) 129– 132.

Newmark, P. (1988). A text book of translation. London: Prentice Hall.

Nobar, N. & Navidpoor, P. (2010). Translating poetry: based on textual and extra textual
analysis. Retrieved September 22nd, 2019
https://www.translationdirectory.com/articles/article2125.php

Nord, C. (2005). Text analysis in translation: theory, methodology, and didactic application of
a model for translation-oriented text analysis, Amsterdam: Rodopi. Retrieved, October 1st,
2019 from http://books.google.com/books?id=HaHTZ2IxIX4C&printsec

Palumbo, G. (2009). Key terms in translation studies. London / New York: Continuum.

Pedersen, Jan. 2005. “How is Culture Rendered in Subtitles?” EU-High-Level Scientific

Conference Series.
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Pickavance, C. (2005). The four varieties of comparative analysis: the case of environmental
regulation. Paper for Conference on Small and large-N comparative solutions, University of
Sussex, 22-23 September 2005.

Sanatifar, M. (2015). Norms in Quality Improvement and Teaching of Specialized

Translation: A DTS Approach. Translation Studies, Vol. 10, No. 37, Spring 2012.

Tilly, C. (1984). Big Structures, Large Processes, Huge Comparisons, Russell Sage
Foundation, New York.

Toury, Gideon. 1995. Descriptive Translation Studies – And Beyond. Amsterdam &
Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

Venuti, L. (2011). The poet's version; or, An ethics of translation. Retrieved October 1st, 2019
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ss=true

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