Professional Documents
Culture Documents
use practice experience and theory to inform scientific inquiry and research;
apply critical thinking to engage in analysis of quantitative and qualitative research methods and
research findings; and
use and translate research evidence to inform and improve practice, policy, and service delivery.
8
Competency 5: Engage in Policy Practice
Social workers
identify social policy at the local, state, and federal level that impacts well-being, service delivery, and
access to social services;
assess how social welfare and economic policies impact the delivery of and access to social services; and
apply critical thinking to analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that advance human rights and
social, economic, and environmental justice.
9
Competency 6: Engage With Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations,
and Communities
Social workers
apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other
multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and constituencies; and
use empathy, reflection, and interpersonal skills to effectively engage diverse clients and constituencies.
10
Competency 7: Assess Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and
Communities
Social workers
collect and organize data and apply critical thinking to interpret information from clients and
constituencies;
apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other
multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from clients and
constituencies;
develop mutually agreed-on intervention goals and objectives based on the critical assessment of
strengths, needs, and challenges within clients and constituencies; and
select appropriate intervention strategies based on the assessment, research knowledge, and values and
preferences of clients and constituencies.
11
Competency 8: Intervene With Individuals, Families, Groups,
Organizations, and Communities
Social workers
critically choose and implement interventions to achieve practice goals and enhance capacities of clients
and constituencies;
apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other
multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies;
use interprofessional collaboration as appropriate to achieve beneficial practice outcomes;
negotiate, mediate, and advocate with and on behalf of diverse clients and constituencies; and
facilitate effective transitions and endings that advance mutually agreed-on goals.
12
Competency 9: Evaluate Practice With Individuals, Families, Groups,
Organizations, and Communities
Social workers
13
14
Essentials of Human Behavior
Integrating Person, Environment, and the Life Course
Second Edition
Elizabeth D. Hutchison
Professor Emeritus
Virginia Commonwealth University
and Contributing Authors
15
FOR INFORMATION:
E-mail: order@sagepub.com
1 Oliver’s Yard
55 City Road
United Kingdom
India
3 Church Street
Singapore 049483
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Printed in the United States of America
Title: Essentials of human behavior : integrating person, environment, and the life course / Elizabeth D. Hutchison, Virginia Commonwealth
University.
Description: Second edition. | Los Angeles : SAGE, [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Classification: LCC HM1033 .H87 2017 | DDC 302—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016023305
16
Editorial Assistant: Heidi Dreiling
17
Brief Contents
1. Case Studies
2. Preface
3. Acknowledgments
4. About the Author
5. Part I. A Multidimensional, Multitheoretical Approach for Multifaceted Social Work
1. 1 Human Behavior: A Multidimensional Approach
2. 2 Theoretical Perspectives on Human Behavior
6. Part II. The Multiple Dimensions of the Person
1. 3 The Biological Person
2. 4 The Psychological Person
3. 5 The Spiritual Person
7. Part III. The Multiple Dimensions of the Environment
1. 6 Culture and the Physical Environment
2. 7 Families
3. 8 Small Groups, Formal Organizations, and Communities
4. 9 Social Structure, Social Institutions, and Social Movements: Global and National
8. Part IV. The Changing Life Course
1. 10 The Human Life Journey: A Life Course Perspective
2. 11 The Journey Begins: Conception, Pregnancy, Childbirth, and Infancy
3. 12 Toddlerhood and Early Childhood
4. 13 Middle Childhood
5. 14 Adolescence
6. 15 Young and Middle Adulthood
7. 16 Late Adulthood
9. Glossary
10. References
11. Index
12. About the Contributors
18
Detailed Contents
Case Studies
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Author
Part I. A Multidimensional, Multitheoretical Approach for Multifaceted Social Work
1 Human Behavior: A Multidimensional Approach
Chapter Outline
Learning Objectives
Case Study: Manisha and Her Changing Environments
Human Behavior: Individual and Collective
A Multidimensional Approach
Personal Dimensions
Environmental Dimensions
Diversity, Inequality, and the Pursuit of Social Justice: A Global Perspective
Diversity
Inequality
The Pursuit of Social Justice
Knowing and Doing
Knowledge About the Case
Knowledge About the Self
Values and Ethics
Scientific Knowledge: Theory and Research
Theory
Empirical Research
Critical Use of Theory and Research
A Word of Caution
Implications for Social Work Practice
Key Terms
Active Learning
Web Resources
2 Theoretical Perspectives on Human Behavior
Chapter Outline
Learning Objectives
Case Study: Intergenerational Stresses in the McKinley Family
Multiple Perspectives for a Multidimensional Approach
Systems Perspective
Conflict Perspective
19
Exchange and Choice Perspective
Social Constructionist Perspective
Psychodynamic Perspective
Developmental Perspective
Social Behavioral Perspective
Humanistic Perspective
The Merits of Multiple Perspectives
Implications for Social Work Practice
Key Terms
Active Learning
Web Resources
Part II. The Multiple Dimensions of the Person
3 The Biological Person
Chapter Outline
Learning Objectives
Case Study 3.1: Cheryl’s Brain Injury
Case Study 3.2: A Diabetes Diagnosis for Bess
Case Study 3.3: Melissa’s HIV Diagnosis
Case Study 3.4: Lifestyle Changes for Thomas
Case Study 3.5: Mary and Her Diagnosis of Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
Case Study 3.6: Juan and Belinda’s Reproductive Health
An Integrative Approach for Understanding the Intersection of Interior Biological Health
and Illness and Exterior Environment Factors
A Look at Six Interior Environment Systems
Nervous System
Endocrine System
Immune System
Cardiovascular System
Musculoskeletal System
Reproductive System
Exterior Socioeconomic Environment and Interior Health Environment
Implications for Social Work Practice
Key Terms
Active Learning
Web Resources
4 The Psychological Person
Chapter Outline
Learning Objectives
Case Study: The Premed Student
Cognition and Emotion
20
Theories of Cognition
Cognitive Theory
Information Processing Theory
Social Learning Theory
Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Theories of Moral Reasoning
Theories of Cognition in Social Work Practice
Theories of Emotion
Physiological Theories of Emotion
Psychological Theories of Emotion
Psychoanalytic Theory
Ego Psychology
Attribution Theory: A Cognitive Perspective
Theory of Emotional Intelligence
Social Theories of Emotion
Theories of Emotion in Social Work Practice
Cognitive and Emotional “Disorders”
The Self
The Self in Relationships
Relational Theory
Attachment Theory
Impact of Early Nurturing on Development
Feminist Theories of Relationships
Social Identity Theory
The Concept of Stress
Three Categories of Psychological Stress
Stress and Crisis
Traumatic Stress
Vulnerability to Stress
Coping and Adaptation
Biological Coping
Psychological Coping
Coping Styles
Coping and Traumatic Stress
Social Support
Virtual Support
How Social Support Aids Coping
How Social Workers Evaluate Social Support
Normal and Abnormal Coping
The Medical (Psychiatric) Perspective
21
Psychological Perspectives
The Sociological Approach: Deviance
The Social Work Perspective: Social Functioning
Implications for Social Work Practice
Key Terms
Active Learning
Web Resources
5 The Spiritual Person
Chapter Outline
Learning Objectives
Case Study 5.1: Caroline’s Challenging Questions
Case Study 5.2: Naomi’s Health Crisis
Case Study 5.3: Matthew’s Faith Journey
Case Study 5.4: Trudy’s Search for the Sacred
Case Study 5.5: Leon’s Two Worlds
Case Study 5.6: Jean-Joseph’s Serving the Spirits
Case Study 5.7: Beth’s Framework for Living
The Spiritual Dimension
The Meaning of Spirituality
Spirituality in the United States and Globally
Transpersonal Theories of Human Development
Fowler’s Stages of Faith Development
Wilber’s Integral Theory of Consciousness
Summary and Critique of Fowler’s and Wilber’s Theories
The Role of Spirituality in Social Work
Spirituality and Human Diversity
Race and Ethnicity
Sex and Gender
Sexual Orientation
Other Aspects of Diversity
Spirituality and the Human Experience
Problems in Living
Individual and Collective Well-Being
Spiritual Assessment
Implications for Social Work Practice
Key Terms
Active Learning
Web Resources
Part III. The Multiple Dimensions of the Environment
6 Culture and the Physical Environment
22
Chapter Outline
Learning Objectives
Case Study 6.1: Stan and Tina at Community High School
Case Study 6.2: Ben Watson’s Changing Experience With the Physical Environment
The Challenge of Defining Culture
Changing Ideas About Culture and Human Behavior
Some Important Culture Concepts
A Postmodern View of Culture
Cultural Maintenance, Change, and Adaptation
Common Sense, Customs, and Traditions
Immigration
Processes of Cultural Change
The Relationship Between the Physical Environment and Human Behavior
Stimulation Theories
Control Theories
Privacy
Personal Space
Territoriality
Crowding
Behavior Settings Theories
Ecocritical Theories
The Natural Environment
Benefits and Costs of Human Interaction With the Natural Environment
Environmental Justice and Ecological Justice
The Built Environment
Technology
Healing Environments
Place Attachment
Homelessness
Accessible Environments for Persons With Disabilities
Implications for Social Work Practice
Key Terms
Active Learning
Web Resources
7 Families
Chapter Outline
Learning Objectives
Case Study: The Sharpe Family’s Postdeployment Adjustment
Family Defined
The Family in Historical Perspective
23
Theoretical Perspectives for Understanding Families
Psychodynamic Perspective and Families
Family Systems Perspective
Feminist Perspective and Families
Family Stress and Coping Perspective
Family Resilience Perspective
Diversity in Family Life
Diversity in Family Structures
Nuclear Families
Extended Families
Cohabiting Heterosexual Couples
Couples With No Children
Lone-Parent Families
Stepfamilies
Same-Sex Partner Families
Military Families
Economic and Cultural Diversity
Economic Diversity
Cultural Diversity
Immigrant Families
Challenges to Family Life
Family Violence
Divorce
Substance Abuse
Implications for Social Work Practice
Key Terms
Active Learning
Web Resources
8 Small Groups, Formal Organizations, and Communities
Chapter Outline
Learning Objectives
Case Study 8.1: The Sexuality and Gender Group at a Women’s Residential Substance
Abuse Treatment Facility
Case Study 8.2: Changing Leadership at Beacon Center
Case Study 8.3: Filipina Domestic Workers Creating Transnational Communities
Small Groups in Social Work
Virtual Groups
Small Group Structure, Composition, and Processes
Theories of Group Processes
Psychodynamic Theory
24
Symbolic Interaction Theory
Status Characteristics and Expectation States Theory
Exchange Theory
Self-Categorization Theory
Formal Organization Defined
Perspectives on Formal Organizations
Rational Perspective
The Ideal-Type Bureaucracy
Scientific Management
Human Relations Theory
Management by Objectives (MBO)
Decision-Making Theory
Systems Perspective
Political Economy Model
Learning Organization Theory
Interactional/Interpretive Perspective
Social Action Model
Organizational Culture Model
Managing Diversity Model
Critical Perspective
Organizations as Multiple Oppressions
Nonhierarchical Organizations
Technology and Social Service Organizations
Community: Territorial and Relational
Theoretical Approaches to Community
Contrasting Types Approach
Spatial Arrangements Approach
Social Systems Approach
Social Capital Approach
Conflict Approach
Implications for Social Work Practice
Key Terms
Active Learning
Web Resources
9 Social Structure, Social Institutions, and Social Movements: Global and National
Chapter Outline
Learning Objectives
Case Study 9.1: Leticia Renteria’s Struggle to Make It in the United States
Case Study 9.2: Fighting for a Living Wage
Patterns of Social Life
25
Contemporary Trends in Global and U.S. Social Institutions
Trends in the Government and Political Institution
Trends in the Economic Institution
Trends in the Educational Institution
Trends in the Health Care Institution
Trends in the Social Welfare Institution
Trends in the Religious Institution
Trends in the Mass Media Institution
Theories of Social Inequality
The Contemporary Debate
Structural Determinism Versus Human Agency
Social Movements: A Definition
Perspectives on Social Movements
Political Opportunities Perspective
Openness of the Political System
Stability of Political Alignments
Availability of Elite Allies
International Relations
Mobilizing Structures Perspective
Informal and Formal Structures
Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
The Life Course of Social Movements
Cultural Framing Perspective
Frames for Understanding That a Problem Exists
Frames for Recognizing a Window of Opportunity
Frames for Establishing Goals
Frames for Identifying Pathways for Action
Emerging Perspectives
Implications for Social Work Practice
Key Terms
Active Learning
Web Resources
Part IV. The Changing Life Course
10 The Human Life Journey: A Life Course Perspective
Chapter Outline
Learning Objectives
Case Study 10.1: David Sanchez’s Search for Connections
Case Study 10.2: Phoung Le, Serving Family and Community
Case Study 10.3: The Suarez Family After September 11, 2001
A Definition of the Life Course Perspective
26
Theoretical Roots of the Life Course Perspective
Basic Concepts of the Life Course Perspective
Cohorts
Transitions
Trajectories
Life Events
Turning Points
Major Themes of the Life Course Perspective
Interplay of Human Lives and Historical Time
Timing of Lives
Dimensions of Age
Standardization in the Timing of Lives
Linked or Interdependent Lives
Links Between Family Members
Links With the Wider World
Human Agency in Making Choices
Diversity in Life Course Trajectories
Developmental Risk and Protection
The Family Life Course
Strengths and Limitations of the Life Course Perspective
Integration With a Multidimensional, Multitheoretical Approach
Implications for Social Work Practice
Key Terms
Active Learning
Web Resources
11 The Journey Begins: Conception, Pregnancy, Childbirth, and Infancy
Chapter Outline
Learning Objectives
Case Study 11.1: Jennifer Bradshaw’s Experience With Infertility
Case Study 11.2: The Thompsons’ Premature Birth
Case Study 11.3: Sarah’s Teen Dad
Sociocultural Organization of Childbearing and Child-Rearing
Conception and Pregnancy in Context
Childbirth in Context
Childbirth Education
Place of Childbirth
Who Assists Childbirth
Developmental Niche of Child-Rearing
Control Over Conception and Pregnancy
Contraception
27
Induced Abortion
Infertility Treatment
Fetal Development
First Trimester
Fertilization and the Embryonic Period
The Fetal Period
Second Trimester
Third Trimester
Labor and Delivery of the Neonate
At-Risk Newborns
Prematurity and Low Birth Weight
Congenital Anomalies
Typical Infant Development
Physical Development
Self-Regulation
Sensory Abilities
Reflexes
Motor Skills
The Growing Brain
Cognitive Development
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Prelanguage Skills
Socioemotional Development
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Emotional Control
Temperament
Attachment
The Role of Play
Child Care Arrangements in Infancy
Family Leave
Paid Child Care
Infants in the Multigenerational Family
Breastfeeding Versus Bottle Feeding Decision
Postpartum Depression
Risk and Protective Factors in Conception, Pregnancy, Childbirth, and Infancy
Implications for Social Work Practice
Key Terms
Active Learning
Web Resources
12 Toddlerhood and Early Childhood
28
Chapter Outline
Learning Objectives
Case Study 12.1: Overprotecting Henry
Case Study 12.2: Terri’s Terrible Temper
Case Study 12.3: A New Role for Ron and Rosiland’s Grandmother
Typical Development in Toddlerhood and Early Childhood
Physical Development
Cognitive and Language Development
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Language Skills
Moral Development
Understanding Moral Development
Helping Young Children Develop Morally
Personality and Emotional Development
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Emotions
Aggression
Attachment
Social Development
Peer Relations
Self-Concept
Gender Identity and Sexual Interests
Racial and Ethnic Identity
The Role of Play
Developmental Disruptions
Early Childhood Education
Toddlerhood and Early Childhood in the Multigenerational Family
Risks to Healthy Development in Toddlerhood and Early Childhood
Poverty
Homelessness
Ineffective Discipline
Divorce
Violence
Community Violence
Domestic Violence
Child Maltreatment
Protective Factors in Toddlerhood and Early Childhood
Implications for Social Work Practice
Key Terms
Active Learning
29
Web Resources
13 Middle Childhood
Chapter Outline
Learning Objectives
Case Study 13.1: Anthony Bryant’s Impending Assessment
Case Study 13.2: Brianna Shaw’s New Self-Image
Case Study 13.3: Manuel Vega’s Difficult Transition
Historical Perspective on Middle Childhood
Middle Childhood in the Multigenerational Family
Development in Middle Childhood
Physical Development
Cognitive Development
Cultural Identity Development
Emotional Development
Social Development
The Peer Group
Friendship and Intimacy
Team Play
Gender Identity and Gender Roles
Technology and Social Development
Spiritual Development
Middle Childhood and Formal Schooling
Special Challenges in Middle Childhood
Poverty
Family and Community Violence
Mental and Physical Challenges
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Emotional/Behavioral Disorder
Family Disruption
Risk Factors and Protective Factors in Middle Childhood
Implications for Social Work Practice
Key Terms
Active Learning
Web Resources
14 Adolescence
Chapter Outline
Learning Objectives
Case Study 14.1: David’s Coming-Out Process
Case Study 14.2: Carl’s Struggle for Identity
30
Case Study 14.3: Monica’s Quest for Mastery
The Social Construction of Adolescence Across Time and Space
The Transition From Childhood to Adulthood
Biological Aspects of Adolescence
Puberty
The Adolescent Brain
Nutrition, Exercise, and Sleep
Psychological Aspects of Adolescence
Psychological Reactions to Biological Changes
Changes in Cognition
Identity Development
Theories of Self and Identity
Gender Identity
Cultural Identity
Social Aspects of Adolescence
Relationships With Family
Relationships With Peers
Romantic Relationships
Relationships With Organizations, Communities, and Institutions
School
The Broader Community
Work
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)
Adolescent Spirituality/Religiosity
Adolescent Sexuality
Sexual Decision Making
Sexual Orientation
Pregnancy and Childbearing
Sexually Transmitted Infections
Potential Challenges to Adolescent Development
Substance Use and Abuse
Juvenile Delinquency
Bullying
School-to-Prison Pipeline
Community Violence
Dating Violence and Statutory Rape
Poverty and Low Educational Attainment
Obesity and Eating Disorders
Depression and Suicide
Risk Factors and Protective Factors in Adolescence
31
Implications for Social Work Practice
Key Terms
Active Learning
Web Resources
15 Young and Middle Adulthood
Chapter Outline
Learning Objectives
Case Study 15.1: Sheila Henderson, Coming Home at 25
Case Study 15.2: Viktor Spiro, Finding Stability at 44
Case Study 15.3: Michael Bowling, Swallowing His Pride at 57
The Meaning of Adulthood
Theoretical Approaches to Adulthood
Jung’s Analytic Psychology
Erikson’s Psychosocial Life Span Theory
Levinson’s Theory of Seasons of Adulthood
Arnett’s “Emerging” Adulthood
Variations in the Transition to Adulthood
Biological Functioning in Young and Middle Adulthood
Health Maintenance in Young and Middle Adulthood
Physical and Mental Health in Young and Middle Adulthood
Cognition in Young and Middle Adulthood
Personality and Identity in Young and Middle Adulthood
Trait Approach
Human Agency Approach
Life Narrative Approach
Young- and Middle-Adult Spirituality
Relationships in Young and Middle Adulthood
Romantic Relationships
Relationships With Children
Relationships With Parents
Other Family Relationships
Relationships With Friends
Work in Young and Middle Adulthood
Risk Factors and Protective Factors in Young and Middle Adulthood
Implications for Social Work Practice
Key Terms
Active Learning
Web Resources
16 Late Adulthood
Chapter Outline
32
Learning Objectives
Case Study 16.1: Ms. Ruby Johnson Is Providing Care for Three Generations
Case Study 16.2: Margaret Davis Stays at Home
Case Study 16.3: Bina Patel Outlives Her Son
Demographics of the Older-Adult Population
Cultural Construction of Late Adulthood
Psychosocial Theoretical Perspectives on Social Gerontology
Biological Changes in Late Adulthood
Health and Longevity
Age-Related Changes in Physiology
Functional Capacity in Very Late Adulthood
The Aging Brain and Neurodegenerative Diseases
Dementia
Parkinson’s Disease
Psychological Changes in Late Adulthood
Personality Changes
Intellectual Changes, Learning, and Memory
Mental Health and Mental Disorders
Social Role Transitions and Life Events of Late Adulthood
Families in Later Life
Grandparenthood
Work and Retirement
Caregiving and Care Receiving
Institutionalization
The Search for Personal Meaning
Resources for Meeting the Needs of Elderly Persons
The Dying Process
Advance Directives
Care of People Who Are Dying
End-of-Life Signs and Symptoms
Loss, Grief, and Bereavement
Theories and Models of Loss and Grief
Culture and Bereavement
Risk Factors and Protective Factors in Late Adulthood
The Life Course Completed
Implications for Social Work Practice
Key Terms
Active Learning
Web Resources
Glossary
33
References
Index
About the Contributors
34
35
Another random document with
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.