Part I

1. Describe the difference between descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

Descriptive statistics is a data analysis method that provides summary information about a
sample, such as mean, standard deviation, and range of values. This type of statistics does not
draw conclusions about the population, but simply describes the data that has been collected.

Inference statistics, on the other hand, uses statistical methods to formulate and test hypotheses
about a population. It allows us to draw conclusions about the characteristics of the population
based on the analysis of sample data.

2. How do you report the mean of a sample? And how do you report the standard deviation?
And how do you report these for the population?

The mean of the sample can be represented as a number, as a result of calculating the sum of all
sample values divided by the number of observations in the sample.

The standard deviation of the sample is a measure of the spread of data in the sample. It is
usually represented by a number and indicates how much the sample values differ from the
average value.

When the mean and standard deviation are reported to the population, this can be done by
presenting this data as a confidence interval. The confidence interval indicates the range of
values within which the mean and standard deviation of the population can be expected to be.
For example, the average value of the population is 5.4 with a confidence interval from 4.7 to
6.1.

3. Do we need descriptive or inferential statistics when we want to know what the mean
value of a given score is in the population?
To determine the mean of this indicator in the population, we need statistics of logical
conclusions. Descriptive statistics can give us an idea of the average value in the sample, but
they do not give us information about how accurately this value reflects the average value in the
population. The logical conclusion allows us to make generalizations about the population based
on sample data and statistical tests.

Part II
1. What is the difference between the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis?
The null hypothesis is a hypothesis that formulates the absence of a relationship or differences
between variables in a population. It serves as a test hypothesis, which can be accepted or
rejected based on the analysis of sample data.

An alternative hypothesis, on the other hand, formulates our assumption about the presence of a
connection or differences in the population. Rejection of the null hypothesis may lead to
acceptance of an alternative hypothesis.

2. When we reject the null hypothesis, does that mean we adopt the alternative hypothesis?

When we reject the null hypothesis, it means that we have significant statistical evidence in favor
of the alternative hypothesis. However, this does not mean that we accept the alternative
hypothesis absolutely. We simply have grounds to reject the null hypothesis and make an
assumption about the existence of a connection or differences in the population.

3. Transform the following theoretical hypothesis into null and alternative hypotheses. Indicate
whether the alternative hypothesis is one-tailed or two-tailed.

"Individuals who have experienced a natural disaster more often share their opinions on climate
change on social media than individuals who haven’t experienced a natural disaster."

Null Hypothesis (H0): Individuals who have experienced a natural disaster do not share
their opinions on climate change on social media more often than individuals who haven't
experienced a natural disaster.

Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Individuals who have experienced a natural disaster share
their opinions on climate change on social media more often than individuals who haven't
experienced a natural disaster.
The alternative hypothesis is one-tailed because it specifies the direction of the expected
difference, suggesting that individuals who have experienced a natural disaster will share
their opinions more often.

4. Do the same for the following hypothesis.

“MCRS students have on average a higher IQ than people in the general population have.”
Null Hypothesis (H0): MCRS students do not have a higher average IQ than people in the
general population.

Alternative Hypothesis (H1): MCRS students have on average a higher IQ than people in the
general population.
The alternative hypothesis is also one-tailed because it specifies the direction of the expected
difference, suggesting that MCRS students have a higher IQ.

5. In order to find support for our theoretical hypothesis, we test our data. Or, more specifically,
we use our data to test the null hypothesis. That means that we (or rather, SPSS) calculate the
probability that our data (or more extreme data) come from a population in which the null
hypothesis would be true.

A. What is the correct designation for this probability?

p-value.

B. How large or small must this probability be?

The significance level, often denoted as α, determines how large or small the p-value must be for
a result to be considered statistically significant. Common significance levels include 0.05 or
0.01. A smaller p-value, less than the chosen significance level (e.g., p < 0.05), is typically
required to reject the null hypothesis.

6. How does statistical hypothesis testing relate to falsification (discussed in the first part of the
course)?

In statistical hypothesis testing, the null hypothesis is often based on the assumption of no effect
or no difference between groups, and researchers seek to determine if the data provides evidence
to reject this null hypothesis. If the null hypothesis is rejected, it suggests that the observed data
contradicts the null hypothesis and supports the alternative hypothesis. This process aligns with
the idea of falsification because it allows scientific hypotheses to be tested rigorously and
potentially refuted based on empirical data.
Part III
A study commissioned by a record company boss examines the advertising investment in 200
albums, the sales of these albums, the number of times they were played on the radio, and how
attractive consumers found the album.
Open the file album.sav
Download album.sav

1. The record company is interested in its average advertising expenditure (variable:

'adverts'). Test the null hypothesis that the average expenditure is £600 per day in the
population. Perform the most appropriate test in SPSS for this purpose. What is the value
of the significance? p = 0.675

2. Provide an interpretation of the 95% confidence interval.

Because of our p-value>significance level, it means that we do not have enough evidence to
reject the null hypothesis. So the average expenditure is £600 per day in the population.

3. Calculate and interpret the effect size.

Cohen’s d = 0.3
There is a small, but noticeable effect and because it is positive we assume that sample mean is
greater than population mean.

4. The record company is interested in the average number of times its albums are played
on the radio (variable: 'airplay'). Test the null hypothesis that the average number of times
played on the radio in the population is 25 times per week. Perform the most appropriate
test for this purpose in SPSS. What is the value of the significance? p = 0.004
5. Provide an interpretation of the 95% confidence interval.

Our p-value(0.004) < 0.05-palue, which means that we have enough evidence to reject null
hypothesis in favor of alternative hypothesis. So the average number of times played on the radio
in the population is not 25 times per week. It is either smaller or greater.

6. Calculate and interpret the effect size.

Cohen’s d = 0.20
We can interpret the results as there is a very small, but noticeable effect and we can assume
that the sample mean is greater than the population mean (because it is positive).