o

types Degree of agglomeration b w the

occupants units
Emi nucleated

Ied
clustered
Hamlet IDispersedT

pattern Geometrical arrangement of the

settlement

Into Rural settlement are

broadly classified
into a types

HFI TD
The tyre of rural settlement developed are

function of relation b w centripetal and

centrifugal forces
CF 3 compact settlement
Cp
CE semi compact
Cp
Cp c CE Dispersed
These Cp CF forces originate as
result of serve several physical e and
human factors
site original piece of land
situation

I Compactseltee
ment formed when Cp Ce
physical weiraudibily Strong Cp
wd settlement oasis
settlement of desert
tendattributed Vidal
detablach
that whichtound
flat
areas are

fo attracted nucleated settlement

to ensure that majority of Land
used for cultivation
shelter Factor
climate coastal climate
Flood point settlement
Hazard Dry
Indo gangetic plain river bluffs
Dhanger
cultural Factors
D necessity of cooperation control
regulation of water
digging of wells
preparation of field
2
Vidal France t n of
landholding and only place where
they can gather with village folk
was the village itself

Tye otagericulture Rice dominant

Swbs w So require labour
seasonal employment
A Socio economic institution
Local money lender exert
Cp pull
Jajmani System Religious centre
D Historical
le aefence
Naga tribes
Hums a tribe of N Nigeria

G plannedseltlement
cooperative village Ching
Indira Gandhi canal
 dispersed settlement Cp 3 CF

physical factors
h weater availability aw table high
water available everywhere
L ndA bytes agree of Ruggedness

directly related to degree of dispersal

Malwa plateau
L shelter Factor
Climate Harsh
climate Cf
cold upper scope of Himalayas
Herard Flood hazard Khadar
fertile temporary huts in field
but permanent house in main
village

cultural Factors
Change in Land
tenure System
India zamindari abolished Surplus
land distributed so house in the
fields
 L
Type of agriculture extens ve

farming ranching
L Religious 2 other cultural factors
L Religious persecution minority
flee western UP
caste rigidity
4 new transport arteries

fit
Ce balance
3 Semi Iom pact Cp
b N
physical water Difficult fnne
Terrace
Shelter y change remain
semi

culture compa t
Transient feature
represent a
stage in development
of rural settlement
 Enu
tob.by
P

Natural Anthropogenic
natural Hansard Agriculture related
disaster 4 land
Flood landslide
water
chemical weatering
Atmosphere
Indo gangetic
Arsenic
vegetation
monoculture
coastal erosion other socio
economic
mining villages
open defecation

Spill over effect

of pollution
from cities

PAT
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Session 5A: Settlement Geography

Q1. Bring out the development of different types of rural
settlements.
Types of rural settlements imply the degree of dispersion or nucleation of the dwellings whereas the
patterns refer to geometrical shapes formed by the arrangement of dwellings.

Various authors have suggested different schemes of discussing settlement types. Finch and
Trewartha et al. refers to two primary types of settlements, (i) the isolated or dispersed and (ii) the
nucleated. These are two extreme types of groupings, wherein isolated settlements refer to a single
family residence and the nucleated settlements refer to a group of dwellings clustered almost in the
centre of the village lands.

R.L. Singh discerns four main types: (i) compact settlements, (ii) semi-compact or hemleted cluster,
(iii) semi-sprinkled or fragmented or hamleted settlements and (iv) sprinkled or dispersed type. On
the basis of number of villages, hamlets and number of occupance units, R.B. Singh identified four
settlements. They are (i) compact, (ii) semi-compact, (iii) hamleted and (iv) dispersed or scattered
type.

(i) Compact settlements:

If the number of villages equals the number of hamlets in an area unit, the settlement is designated
as compact. Such settlements are found throughout the plateau region of Malwa, in the Narmada
Valley, Nimar upland, large parts of Rajasthan, paddy lands in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Vindhyan Plateau
and several other cultivated parts of India.

In such villages all the dwellings are concentrated in one central site. The inhabitants of the village live
together and enjoy the benefits of community life. Such settlements range from a cluster of about
thirty to hundreds of dwellings of different forms, sizes and functions. Their size varies from 500 to
2,500 persons in sparsely populated parts like Rajasthan to more than 10,000 in the Ganga plain.

(ii) Semi-compact settlements:

If the number of villages equals more than half of the hamlets, it is semi-compact settlement. These
are found both in plains and plateaus depending upon the environmental conditions prevailing there.
The dwellings in such settlements are not very closely knitted and are huddled together at one
common site. It covers more area than the compact settlements; the hamlets occupy new sites near
the periphery of the village boundary.

(iii) Hamleted settlements:

If the number of villages is equal to half of hamlet number, it is a hamlet settlement. The hamlets are
spread over the area with intervening fields and the main or central settlement is either absent or has
feeble influence upon others. Often the original site is not easily distinguishable and the morphological
diversity is rarely noticed. Such settlements are found in West Bengal, eastern Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh and coastal plains.

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(iv) Dispersed settlements:

If the number of villages is less than half the number of hamlets, the settlement is regarded as
dispersed. The inhabitants of dispersed settlements live in isolated dwellings scattered in the
cultivated fields. Individualism, sentiments of living freely, custom of .marriage relations are conducive
to such settlements.

However, these dwellings are deprived of neighbourhood, communal interdependence and social
interaction. Dispersed settlements are found in tribal areas covering central part of India, eastern and
southern Rajasthan, Himalayan slopes and land with dissected and uneven topography. Homesteads
or farmsteads of wheat producing areas in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh also belong to
this category.

Development of different types of settlements: Discussed in the class.

Q2. Examine the major environmental problems faced by

rural settlements in India.
In rural settlements near the urban areas, changes are taking place at an enormous pace. Even in
settlements far from urban areas, population increases have caused great pressure on land resources,
and environment issues of degradation, pollution and sustainability are raising their heads.

Environmental Problems by Virtue of Site

Rural settlements on the banks of rivers face the threat of flooding with its ill consequences of disease
and loss of life, livelihood and goods. Similarly, rural settlements on sea coasts face the environmental
threat of cyclones and hurricanes. The threat of such disasters is greater to rural settlements compared
to urban because of the former’s lower level of infrastructure. Rural settlements in mountainous areas
could be cut off for long from other settlements if rains/snowfall is heavy and continuous. They also
are more vulnerable than cities and towns to the hazards of landslides and avalanches because of the
type of buildings they have. Being less connected by communication systems, they also face delay—
and thus more destruction—in getting help.

Environmental Degradation and Rural Settlements

Environmental issues of rural settlements go beyond matters of water supply and sanitation, as
pointed out by the India Infrastructure Report 2007, and include matters such as (a) acquisition,
protection, and maintenance of open spaces, (b) clean up and restoration of degraded lands, (c)
integration of existing wildlife or habitat resources, (d) sustainable approaches to controlling flooding
and drainage, (e) developing river corridors and coastal areas, and (f) forest management.

Agricultural Activity and Degradation of Environment

Agricultural activities that cause land degradation include shifting cultivation without adequate fallow
periods, absence of soil conservation measures, cultivation of fragile lands, unbalanced fertiliser use,
and faulty planning or management of irrigation.

Intensive agriculture demands controlled irrigation. Seepage of water from canal systems is waste of
a precious resource. Also a problem is excessive irrigation, which causes salinity of the soil and water
logging, reducing aeration and percolation of fertilisers below the root system.

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Unscientific and unregulated development of groundwater also results in waste. The over- exploitation
of the resource leads to a fall in water levels. A lower water table causes failure of wells/ tubewells in
turn leading to deepening of the structure with consequences of higher cost of pumping (and use of
energy) as well as the problem of seepage from sewer system.

There are other problems associated with over exploitation of groundwater: land subsidence,
deterioration of water quality in aquifers, and ingress of saline water in coastal aquifers. Salinity is
likely to render more land unfit for biomass production, especially in the semi-arid and arid regions.

Widespread overgrazing upsets water cycles, reducing replenishment of water resources (both surface
and ground). There is also a significant amount of water used up for production of the feed.

Agriculture as it is practised today, including in some developing countries, has led to soil degradation.
Excessive use of fertilisers has lead to deficiency of micronutrients in soil, and depletion in the level of
organic matter.

Soil erosion is a major concern, with more and more trees being felled and forest land being converted
into cultivated land. Incorrect methods of cultivation aggravate the problem. Acidification of soil due
to excessive use of fertilisers also increases surface run-off

Livestock is a source of renewable energy and organic fertiliser in most countries, and is especially
useful to poor farmers. However, herds cause wide scale land degradation if they are not well looked
after. Pastures are overgrazed and this causes hardening of soil. Inadequate livestock management
contributes to desertification of once fertile land. Presence of livestock in vast tracts of land and its
demand for feed crops contribute to loss of biodiversity.

Pollution Problems

Major culprits in polluting the land and water are the chemical fertilisers and pesticides, especially
when used in excess of their requirement. The applied fertilisers, which are not used by crop plants
and percolate down, reach groundwater aquifers, increasing concentrates of nitrates in drinking water.

Fertilisers and pesticides cause acidification and eutrophication of water. Leaching of chemicals
(particularly nitrates) from fertilisers results in eutrophication precipitating excessive algal growth,
which kills fish.

Pesticides, insecticides, fungicides, herbicides and rodenticides (collectively known as biocides) remain
active in the soil long after they have destroyed their targets. Their concentration leads to “biological
magnification’, i.e., their presence gets intensified at each trophic level. This endangers the species
that eat the final food crop products. These biocides also contaminate water.

Rural settlements also face the problem of spillovers from urban and industrial pollution. Due to
unplanned urban growth and laxly regulated industries, there are heavy discharges of toxic chemical
effluents and untreated municipal wastes into water systems. These water systems serve rural
settlements near urban areas, spreading the contamination and all-effects of bad water quality. This,
in turn, affects soil quality and has serious impact on crop yield as well as human health.

Rural settlements in many areas of the world, but more so in developing countries, lack running water
supply and sewered sanitation. In many developing countries people use open fields for defecation;
may be a few use septic tanks and pit latrines. Much of the bathing and washing of clothes/utensils

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are near or in the water bodies, obviously leading to in-situ diffuse pollution. Wastewater soaks into
the nearby land. Pollutants including salts, nutrients, organic and microorganisms from such rural
settlement areas reach ground or surface water bodies through leaching and as washings in storm run-
offs.

Air pollution too is not found lacking in rural settlements as population increases and pressure on
natural resources grows. Paddy fields release a lot of methane (a greenhouse gas). Airborne pesticides
are a cause for concern. Other agricultural facilities and operations that can result in emissions of air
contaminants such as odours and particulate matter include cotton gins, cottonseed oil mills, sugar
mills, feed mills, hide tanning, seed cleaning, sugarcane and crop-residue burning, and confined animal
feeding operations (CAFOs). CAFOs are facilities in which animals such as poultry, hogs, or cows are
concentrated in a relatively small area for egg-laying, stabling, sleeping, milking, or feeding purposes.
Sometimes, animal waste from these operations is collected in ponds, which can release both odours
and methane gas (one of the greenhouse gases). Other animal waste is placed in manure mounds or
applied as fertiliser to the land, which also can lead to odour nuisances.

Combustion of traditional fuels (biomass, usually) for cooking and heating leads to indoor pollution in
rural settlements.

Depleting Common Property Areas

Tribal all over the world generally have been deprived of their traditional rights over forestlands or
their traditional rights have been limited. This has in fact led to a deterioration of forestland. Also,
heavy population pressure causes overexploitation of common property regimes leading to
degradation of these areas, ultimately rendering them unfit for use.

The Issue of Poverty

As the poor are dependent on nature for their livelihood, they are very vulnerable to natural calamities,
environmental degradation and ecological disasters (which are often man-made). There are cases of
destructive development which aggravate poverty and contribute to environmental degradation at the
same time.

Impact of Unplanned Development

Unplanned development projects which include construction of dams, taking over of huge tracts of
land for mining, or converting natural forests to forest farms for wood pulp generation, have an
environmental impact. Some of these projects result in millions of people being ousted from their
land, violent disturbance of pristine areas, submergence of land including forest land, besides an
adverse impact on the biotic resources of the land and water bodies. Building dams, in particular,
results in drastic changes in the downstream river regime, including reduced flows affecting aquatic
life and riparian communities, reduced capacity for self-regeneration, increased pollution levels,
reduced recharge of groundwater aquifers, and adverse impact on estuarine conditions.

Q3. “Urban Geography is nothing but city “in” area and city
“as” area.” Elaborate.
Discussed in the class.

4
Intro
Urban geography was born in
early
20th
century as a separate branch
of geography in the developed world
Since its
my.aidy origin the
urban study of
geography focused on

study d
Icier
anania study of
internal structure Urban areas
of the city
city as an area its surrounding
ais
aiscriptive pattern
Early zoth century Evolutionary
model
Taylor momford

E ies.me II.animseueeIEzt
Functional classification
Interpretive concern Interpritive
Concern
ways in which people
understand Sphere of
react influence
to these patterns
urban
processes planning
city planning
 study of aesthetics explanatory
Architectural concerts
causing humanism u primate

4 Rank size
city
Explanatory concern
rule
explain the origin
cpt
of these patterns
Urban morphology
Chicago School
Marxist

Berkley School

city

city as an
area
city in
an area

Pattern and city as a sub

processes System which is
city are as part of sub
a
spatial System
System
Raverstein stepped

nut sometimes L.me frff

of
migration by passed and
migration to class 1

city primary
primacy metropolitanisation
bcc Intervening
opportunity missing
Both are inter connected
 i 15
Intro
4 urban
geography as a
separate
branch of study developed in
zoth
early
Century
Revolution Difference blew various
approaches Andy in urban geography
in chronological manner

BeforewwI_ urban
geography studies
were in their infancy
2 Approaches

siteesituationApp2
How physical
area determine
characteristics of an
of cities developmentorigin
with change of tin
technology
sole of site 2
situation decline
so
study lost relevance
Urbanmorphology
Initial phase urban
was
geography
discipline of individual
E so development of
laws difficult
 Burgess concentric ring only
for Chicago

The real development of urban

geography occurred from 19505 QR
two breath app
urban
ecologyapp
Chicago Sdn school Development of
urban places follow
principles of
ecology
Burgess with time Specialisation
similar to ecological niche

Neo classical App

4 Human behaviour is motivated
by economic factors predictable
eg CPT

both produced models Theories

b when applied in real world
many shortcomings blo
did not consider human
phenomena
Thus emergence of
 Humanistic App Urban patterns
cannot be understood w o
normative
concern of humans
David Ley

later on in igoros it converted

New cultural Geography
Rappaport 19 So

when we study urban

phenomena
focus should be on
meaning
that people attach to built area
Types of meaning
e High level of meaning
cosmological view
middle lebel ima
meaning
L class culture
Low level meaning
Every day use of spaces within
the city Park rich recreation
Pc poor home
 2 Structural approaches
MarxistapD
David Harvey book Social Justice
city
explain How city and its patterns
are related with use of capital
in capitalist society
Primary
jute investment in production
capital L law of
L dimishing
return profit
decline
Excess
secondary'scapital Investment
route in real estate
so township multiple
nuclei leap fogging
satellite town

so pattern based on contradiction

of capital
welfare Approache Urban
sociology
study
John Rex Robert Moore

bootees Race community conflict

 study of sparkbrooke
A study
British city

found are development of space

determined by class race ethnicity etc
poor near
garbage dump

In Britain cities are organised in

East west Sprawl E poor
Rich w rich
17
poor hlc pollution E W ble westerlies

lggos Post modern app

study of cities taken as unique places
here particular history 2
geography
determine individual pattern
Berkley School
Dynamic cities
urban geography becoming more applied
Solving problems Solutions of a
particular city
Despite the obvious differences in these
approaches there were similarities
All tried to examine ways in which
urban patterns processes are

outcome of combination of
choices of Social constrains
humans put on them
All tried to explore
1 consider ways in which human made
variety of choices
2 All explored the constrained put on
these choices C Social constraints
and how
they affect urbanisation
All outcome of relationship b w
choices constraints
only cliff Some more furs on
choices Some on constraints
 a 18

How the impact of ath century Bubonic

Covid 1g greater plague Renaissance
4 enlargement of city
on mega cities
with larger open
Impact Density spaces
17th Century Plague
of masaille
How to manage
water ways
rather 19th century
Sanimm
management

And Historically pendamic greater

impact on cities and lead to
change in urban planning
Suggestion Eco centric school

Gandhian model of self sustainable

model but unrealistic bcc paradigm
of economy strongly dominated by
industrialisation based upon
concentration of people in space

So question arises related to optimum

population its density and distribution
in the cities
Normally as we threshold of
cross

million plus diseconomies of scale

set in and no of urban problems
magnify
Two models

metropolitanisation RSI
primacy balanced urban
hierarchy
Always long term
goal
But covid ly persuethe
goal fast
Sustainable planning of
city in an area

Fortunately we are already in

information age time space
 Compression
L phenomena of disruptive innovation
Together can pave the way to move

from growth pole model of Perroux

to Growth focii model of R P
Mishra
Growth probe
Growth Centre
Growth point
service centre

central village

g city as an area
sustainable a.nd smart cities

Fatty
covid Lgput
Decentralise
model

question mark
aaled community
 Issues

optimum size of city mnt

morphology of city Efficient hub

e Spoke model
urban amenities with well placed
4 water food well connect
Housing satellite towns
PublicTransport
Health infra

m orphology efei.ly
environment friendly Sustainable
vertical growth
Better urban culture hygeine and
social distancing
Open and natural Spaces Parks
and other green areas

defraud these areas in future cities

Ecosystem services
L Roads and
pathways
principle of workability
 Urban amenities
Housing India reverse migration bk
Ties unable to provide affordable
housing
Slums_ S Aro America Brazil
slums Favelas
Affordablehousing fen of
L morphology
L site
Schemesof govt
1 Rent regulation

water water availability

4 Essential for
hygein
L water harvesting
Recycling
Food
Tsystems broken 2
Lacking
Transportation
L present
mass rapid Transportation
Redefine sufficient space for practicing
social distancing
Energy peg Petroleum to green energy
Health Policy public vs private
India median age a 22 yrs
Germany 25 yrs
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Q4. “The development of urban geography has been

characterised more by revolution than evolution.” Discuss.
Discussed in the class.

Q5. “COVID 19 offers chance to pursue an alternative model

of urbanisation.” Comment.
Between the year 1 CE and the start of the Industrial Revolution (around the early 1800s), the decadal
growth of the global population was around 0.8 per cent. With the advent of concentrated production
centres, improved medicine and the era of fossil fuels, the global population has shot up by seven
times in the last 180 years, clocking a decadal growth rate of over 11 per cent.

This population growth rate has been largely urban and metro-centred. Today, cities consume two-
thirds of the global energy consumption and account for more than 70 per cent of greenhouse gas
emissions. London became the first modern city to cross the one million population mark around 1800.
By 1960, our planet had 111 cities with over a million inhabitants. In China and India, the number rose
from 371 in 2000 to 548 in 2018, with 61 of these cities in India. Recently, the UN projected that by
2030, 28 per cent of the world population will live in dense, congested spaces, jostling for ever-
dwindling space and choked infrastructure. Population densities have increased enormously, with the
Dharavi slum in Mumbai registering a mind-boggling density of 3.75 lakh persons per sq km.

But COVID-19 has raised the question: Will concentrated, high-investment, high-density cities have a
prominent place in the new, emerging world? Are they successful at providing an adequate return on
investment? And, above all, do they provide a quality of life and happiness to all their inhabitants? An
average Mumbaikar daily spends 95 minutes commuting between office and home, wasting nearly 10
per cent of his time awake everyday. Eight people die every day in Mumbai in local train-related
accidents, and in Delhi, five people lose their lives in road accidents.

Going by present trends, India will build a new Chicago every year to accommodate new urban
dwellers. This will require about $2.5 trillion of investment until 2030 — to create more congested
urban spaces. Should we not look at alternative models of habitations, which are more frugal, more
sustainable and offer more satisfying lifestyles and higher welfare levels?

Once cities expand beyond one million, they start to experience dis-economies of scale with pressure
on every urban amenity increasing exponentially — more people means more vehicles, more vehicles
mean need for more roads and increased pollution, which mean more hospitals, more energy and
more waste. Even the most robust megacities can easily witness the “domino” effect where a minor
and local failure is compounded into a catastrophe. In China in 2010, due to some broken cars and
road repair work, a minor traffic snarl expanded quickly into a massive jam of 120 kilometres on the
highway connecting Inner Mongolia and Beijing. Drivers were left with nowhere to go for a punishing
12 days. Even in India, we have witnessed smaller but painful versions of the same phenomenon. The
truth is that overpopulated cities strain their resources inordinately and leave little room to
successfully tackle every contingency.

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Thus, cities are the most affected by natural and man-made disasters. Nearly every hot-spot of the
COVID-19 outbreak is a congested urban centre. The low-income areas of cities, where anything from
drinking water to sanitation can be a shared facility, are the most vulnerable to any disease outbreak.
Congested low-income urban spaces not only bear an inordinately high disease burden, they also bear
the brunt of air pollution, water contamination and crime infestation. In the face of any disaster like a
flood, earthquake or, worse still, a pandemic, migrant workers, who throng these megacities, rush to
go back to their villages. India, with its approximately 72 million migrant workers (including their
families), is vulnerable to such disruptions as amply demonstrated in recent weeks.

Some of the principal and strong advantages claimed for megacities with their sky scrapers are the
economies of agglomeration and the generation of new ideas and innovations through multi-
disciplinary interactions. These advantages have been largely nullified with advances in digital
technologies that have made online interactions numerous, equally rich in content and covering a
wider range of disciplines. The “cloud” is the new interaction space, which can be accessed by
innovators from widely-spread geographies. Digitisation has apparently resulted in the loss of cities’
innovative mojo.

With this major transformation and with the onset of COVID-19, it is surely the time to reconsider our
habitation model. Gandhiji’s model of gram swaraj, APJ Abdul Kalam’s vision of providing urban
amenities in rural areas and Nanaji Deshmukh’s idea of self-reliant village development clearly deserve
of fresh and focused attention. We have vast swathes of land, people and resources located in our
over 6,00,000 villages. These offer another chance for us to pursue an alternative model of
development where agriculture, industry and service sectors move in sync for sustainable
development, which is in harmony with nature. This will minimise our carbon footprint. At the same
time, it will also minimise social disruption with jobs coming to people rather than the other way
round. New technology, the carbon constraint and diseconomies of congestion and density must force
us to review our urbanisation landscape.

Q6. Examine the concepts of urban order and urban

hierarchy citing suitable examples.
Discussed in the class.

Q7. “There is emergence of a global urban hierarchy.”

Comment.

The urban system has been profoundly affected by the increasing globalization of the world and
the informationalization of the economy — the shift of advanced economies from primarily goods
production to predominantly information handling. Manuel Castells in The Information Age has
described this as the transition to the informational mode of production: a shift as momentous, in his
view, as the shift from an agrarian to an industrial economy in the 18th and 19th centuries. In typical
developed countries, already by 1991 between three-fifths and three-quarters of all employment was
in services, while between one-third and one-half was in information handling; generally these
proportions have doubled since the 1920s.

6
 2 To

order concept
Urban order
Subjective ambiguous
can have variety of
hi h
interpretation
2 main
17 Trying to convert an unorderly city to
orderly city
city management
D urban order classification
ordering or

of eife cities hand certain basis

Basis of
Age
Pre modern pre industrial pre Fordist
ci
st
modern
cits ricf Industrial least cost app

post modern
piii.mn os.oas
Revenue maximise
city
F Fo Recocalisation of industries
and deindustrialisation
Revenue maximisation

Uzba also include urban

hierarchy
4 classification ordering based on
their relative size or importance
most common
E India class 1 to 6

primate city classification

b
mark Jeferson
h incomplete ble
only about
upper hierarchy ist
city
pop ulations.int Functionality
explicit implicit
Ramle size rule
1st running in
more tertiary
activity
CPT
threshold Popn t Central GIS range
of h S centrality
 Ls alobalhierarchy
How all there are incomplete highly
subjective
ima incomplete primate city 1st sanh
only
CPT_ Function General L
Losch specialised
c
Ln

worldcities Focus on top of

hierarchy which are

doing particular functions

Population size is also always

related to importance
Functional classification
Lcity in an area X
city as an area
ble what happening within
a city
 3.02
world city Global city
L Large in size Lo mu
L perform some specialised Fcn
It
L Financial
L HQ of major moves other global
institutions un

complementary area Sphere of

influence
not limited to
domestic but
territory
it has become international
centre of information gathering
diffusion

Is
tether a world city Yes
No
population
specialised service X
complementary area X
Ans which meant for domesti
The traditional principles of i 9
CPT
Into
are
found to be wanting in their
application as there Seems to be an
emergence of a global urban
hierarchy
Due to greater inter action global
urban hierarchy
main world city
4 Geographers

why emergence
examples of world city
hierarchy
shortcoming
 Factors for emergence
Globalisation
market based economy has spread
to rest of world
Global mobility of resources
High interrelations btw the cities
of the world
2
Structural Ierazges In
Ineffonond
Developed world age of high
mass consumption
is service dependent
economy
push delocalisation
L zeindustoalisation of manufacfarin

Developing world
in Take off or Drive to maturity
so industralisation going on
manufacturing industries move to
these countries
Alo still HQ remain in developed
world
 Fordism Post Fordism

world uboundary or maximise profit

National boundary not only try

city boundary reducing cost

Am but also by
D manufacturing
plant increasing revenue

3 Emergence of multinational corporations

Igbo s
Walmart
operate in whole world ble

they have risk taking behaviour

ability

Emergence of information age

IT technology
Shortcoming Tetro't
studies

b
indie
n

Donot take all the

µu
tis

cities of the world into the

major
hierarchy Despite the fact that
L Globalisation has affected almost
all parts of the world

Eritesia Highly subjective

Shanghai manufacturing capital of
world
Beijing
same city different level of
hierarchy
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These processes have increased the importance of cities at the very top of the hierarchy, the so-called
world cities or global cities. This is not a new phenomenon. Patrick Geddes recognized ‘world cities’
and defined them, as long ago as 1915, in Cities in Evolution. In 1966 I published a book entitled The
World Cities, defining them as cities that performed multiple roles: as centers of political power, both
national and international, and of the organizations related to government; as centers of national and
international trade, acting as trading ports for their countries and sometimes for neighboring
countries also; as centers of banking, insurance, and related financial services; as centers of advanced
professional activity of all kinds, in medicine, in law, in higher education, and the application of
scientific knowledge to technology; as centers of information-gathering and diffusion, through
publishing and the mass media; as centers of conspicuous consumption, both of luxury goods for the
minority and mass-produced goods for the multitude; and as centers of arts, culture, and
entertainment, along with a wide range of ancillary activities.

In the 1980s John Friedmann deepened this analysis, by suggesting that processes of globalization
were resulting in a new urban hierarchy, in which London, New York, and Tokyo were "global financial
articulations", while Miami, Los Angeles, Frankfurt, Amsterdam, and Singapore were "multinational
articulations", and Paris, Zurich, Madrid, Mexico City, Sao Paulo, Seoul, and Sydney were "important
national articulations", all forming a "network". Saskia Sassen, in The Global City, developed the point
that the locus of the production of advanced business or producer services has become increasingly
disarticulated from the production of tangible goods:

 The spatial dispersion of production, including its internationalization, has contributed to the
growth of centralized service nodes for the management and regulation of the new space
economy ... To a considerable extent, the weight of economic activity over the last fifteen
years has shifted from production places such as Detroit and Manchester, to centers of finance
and highly specialized services.

Thus there are contradictory trends: as production disperses worldwide, services increasingly
concentrate into a relatively few trading cities, both the well-known "global cities" and a second rung
of about 20 immediately below these, which we can distinguish as "sub-global". These cities are
centers for financial services (banking, insurance) and headquarters of major production companies;
most are also seats of the major world-power governments. A recent study of world cities
distinguished four key groups of advanced service activity:

1. Finance and Business Services: including banking and insurance, commercial business services
such as law, accounting, advertising, and public relations, and design services including
architecture, civil engineering, industrial design, and fashion;
2. "Power and Influence" (or "Command and Control"): national government, supranational
organizations like the UN and OECD, and headquarters of major organizations including
transnational corporations;
3. Creative and Cultural Industries: including live performing arts (theatre, opera, ballet,
concerts), museums, galleries, exhibitions, print and electronic media;
4. Tourism: both business and leisure tourism, including hotels, restaurants, bars,
entertainment, and transportation services.

All these are service industries. The process differs somewhat from sector to sector, but it all involves
generating, communicating, and consuming information, often with a high degree of immediacy.
Whether one considers the investment analyst trading shares, or the lawyer offering advice, or the
board of a major corporation in a meeting, or the television producer at work on a show, or the tour

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guide taking a group sightseeing, specialized information is being processed and transmitted by highly-
qualified people in real time. Further, much of this activity involves face-to-face exchange of
information, either as a central feature or as an essential ancillary activity (as when the stock analyst
has lunch and picks up important market information).

These categories tend to be highly synergistic with each other, and many activities fit effectively into
the interstices between them: thus hotels and conference centers and exhibition centers are
simultaneously business services and part of tourism; museums and galleries are creative/cultural but
also parts of tourism; and advertising is both creative and a business service. Therefore, an extremely
strong force of agglomeration operates within and across these sectors.

Work by the GaWC (Global Analysis of World Cities) group at the University of Loughborough in the
UK goes a long way to recognizing these trends and developing a new urban hierarchy: it identifies a
"global hierarchy" of cities, based essentially on the relationships between different units engaged in
delivering advanced services like law and accounting. In it, European cities are prominently
represented and, of the top six cities, four are in the so-called North West Metropolitan Area of
Europe, with London at the top. This is further supported by recent work on the global urban hierarchy
based on airport connectivity.

Table 1
Cities are ordered in terms of world city-ness values ranging from 1- 12.
European cities are underlined

A. ALPHA WORLD CITIES

12: London, Paris, New York, Tokyo

10: Chicago, Frankfurt, Hong Kong, Los Angeles, Milan, Singapore

B. BETA WORLD CITIES

9: San Francisco, Sydney, Toronto, Zurich

8: Brussels, Madrid, Mexico City, Sao Paulo
7: Moscow, Seoul

C. GAMMA WORLD CITIES

6: Amsterdam, Boston, Caracas, Dallas, Dusseldorf, Geneva, Houston, Jakarta, Johannesburg,

Melbourne, Osaka, Prague, Santiago, Taipei, Washington
5: Bangkok, Beijing, Rome, Stockholm, Warsaw
4: Atlanta, Barcelona, Berlin, Buenos Aires, Budapest, Copenhagen, Hamburg, Istanbul, Kuala
Lumpur, Manila, Miami, Minneapolis, Montreal, Munich, Shanghai

D. EVIDENCE OF WORLD CITY FORMATION

Di Relatively strong evidence

3: Auckland, Dublin, Helsinki, Luxembourg, Lyon, Mumbai, New Delhi, Philadelphia, Rio de Janeiro,
Tel Aviv, Vienna

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Dii Some evidence

2: Abu Dhabi, Almaty, Athens, Birmingham, Bogota, Bratislava, Brisbane, Bucharest, Cairo,
Cleveland, Cologne, Detroit, Dubai, Ho Chi Minh City, Kiev, Lima, Lisbon, Manchester,
Montevideo, Oslo, Rotterdam, Riyadh, Seattle, Stuttgart, The Hague, Vancouver

Diii Minimal evidence

1: Adelaide, Antwerp, Arhus, Athens, Baltimore, Bangalore, Bologna, Brasilia, Calgary, Cape Town,
Colombo, Columbus, Dresden, Edinburgh, Genoa, Glasgow, Gothenburg, Guangzhou, Hanoi, Kansas
City, Leeds, Lille, Marseille, Richmond, Saint Petersburg, Tashkent, Tehran, Tijuana, Turin, Utrecht,
Wellington

Q8. Analyse the application of primate city concept in India.

There is no primate city in India at present. There is no city in India that exercises dominance over the
entire nation. Throughout much of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, Kolkata was
India's leading metropolis. Till 1981, Kolkata maintained its position followed by Mumbai and Delhi.
However, Delhi has been growing rapidly since 1947 and in all probability it may have outstripped
Kolkata and Mumbai from its position.

The absence of primate cities in India is partly explained by its long history, large size of the country,
its colonial heritage and weaknesses in the forces of nationalism in the country.

Historically, India had never been a politically unified nation. During the Mughal period, Delhi and Agra
functioned alternately as the capital of the empire. During the British period, Calcutta was the capital
of India throughout 19th century and up to 1911. When the capital was shifted to Delhi in 1911,
Calcutta lost its importance, but since, Delhi's rise as a premier city is not yet complete.

In terms of size, India has continental dimensions with dense clusters of population here and there.
One single city cannot provide services to the entire nation, and therefore, has not developed.

Primate city, at the national level, is indicative of a unitary state with strong central governments.
India has had a strong central government in the post-independence period and its manifestation is
seen in the enhanced status of Delhi.

However, India is neither a unitary State, nor is it a full fledged federal State. It is a quasi-federal State
with a sharing of power between the Union and the states. This has led to the development of
national, as well as state level primate cities.

Primacy at the state level

India, with such a large—of almost continental dimension, is bound to have a considerable degree of
diversity in terms of language and culture. The federal framework of the Indian Union and states has
emerged within this background of cultural diversity. The cultural diversity has reflected itself in the
linguistic reorganisation of states and their division. Each state is a unilingual entity with distinctive
cultural roots. The existence of cultural and political unity within the states has been responsible for
the existence of primate city at the state level.

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15 states out of 28 states have primate cities. Some large states, such as West Bengal, Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat have primate cities three times the population of the
second largest city. Among the smaller states, Sikkim, Manipur, Tripura, . Meghalaya and Mizoram
have a distinct primate city in them. Nagaland is the sole exception to this general tendency in this
region.
Kolkata Lex Asansol
In West Bengal, Kolkata accounts for almost one-sixth of population of West Bengal and is almost 12
times the size of the second largest city—Asansol. Kolkata represents West Bengal culturally and
economically and will continue to be so in the near future. Chennai and Mumbai, similarly dominate
the urban landscape of their respective states. For the above mentioned cities, Kolkata, Mumbai and
Chennai, primacy has been the product of its colonial heritage. The primate cities of Andhra Pradesh,
Gujarat and Karnataka are of medieval origin while the primacy of Tripura, Manipur and Sikkim has
developed in recent years due to influx of migrants.

North Indian states, in general, do not show a trend towards primacy as in Bihar, Jharkhand and Orissa.
This has been ascribed to the shadow effect of Delhi and Kolkata. Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan are
devoid of primate cities because of different reasons. Before independence, these states comprised a
number of Princely states, each having a leading private city. Since the formation of these states, the
new state capitals, like Bhopal and Jaipur, have grown rapidly, but have not yet assumed a dominant
position. In southern India, Kerala is the only state, which does not have a primate city. Rather it has
three major half-million cities, each of which exercises regional dominance. There has been a distinct
tendency, in the post-independence era, for primacy to increase. This has been because of growing
imbalances and increasing concentration of developmental activities in (State capitals because of
increased availability of opportunities. Thus', the state capitals and the national capital have received
greater attention in relation to other cities.

Q9. “Rank size rule is a desirable phenomenon.” Discuss.

Discussed in the class.

Q10. Give an account of the functional bases of central

place hierarchy.
The hexagonal pattern of market areas of central places generated by the single function model
provides a starting point for a more complex multiple function hierarchical system of central places. A
key concept underlying the multiple function framework is that of the order of a place which is derived
from the orders of goods (and services) that are available in it. Some goods have a low threshold and
a correspondingly low range (low order goods), whereas others need a much higher level of demand
for their existence and are characterized by a more extensive range (high order goods). Since threshold
demand and market range vary enormously for different goods and services it is impossible for all the
central place functions to be carried on in all central places. Lowest order goods and services are
available at a large number of locations, highest order goods at only a small number of locations.

Accordingly, Christaller’s urban system is arranged in a nested hierarchy of central places and market
areas with lower order market areas completely contained within higher order areas.

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 primate city is ist anwing city which
has grown at the
disproportionately
expense of other cities
A Lisky criteria
Toadying

national level
zonal level

Regional level

Lis Linsky identified criteria for

applicability
D small territorial extent
High population growth
A
Low capita income
per
s High degree of dependence on
agri culture export
G lack of economic deve
emplo ment
7 Former colonial States
 Nationally
As Indra doesn't adhere to 1St
criteria so primacy to be and
missing India quasi federal sub continental

Zord However all other criteria

mentioned by Linsky are more or
less met
U as soon as we relax 1St
criteria
primacy becomes a rule in India
at both zonal 2 regional level
out of A zones poimoney in 2 zones

son.ci 1
tEinf
wg

Kolkata
mumbai
ininiina
ran
X
 Regional
is States have primacy
L Linsky met

Exception
Cultrauhand Punjab Haryana
Up no primacy
treason urban shadow effect of
Delhi
not in Bihar Jharkhand Kolkata
causing urban shadow
N cultural heterogeneity

mp Rajastna past they were

divided into numerous princely state

each having their Ha

However Since independence primary

tendency growing fast
karat many post cities more
than one
growth pole gateway cities
Conclusion
Conclusion
Indicative of unequal development
Regional Imbalances
Under development
Unwanted phenomena So multi ple
growth centre

conflict for k Hyderabad

earlier Chennai
Intro TheoryofRSR
RSI stepped migration is active
bee presence of intervening
opportunities at all levels of
A
hierarchy
All the sectors experiencing
development
Balanced sectoral development
primary secondary Tertiary
0
less unemployment low poverty

Growth focii are present at all

levels of hierarchy
Balanced regional development

RSR Applicable in industrialised

countries So high level of
industrialisation
So RSR desirable phenomena